Machine design january 2015

Forecast
2O15
machinedesign.com
JANUARY 2015
THE RISE OF THE
EXOSKELETONS p. 30
QUANTUM
COMPUTING 101 p. 36
PROGRAMMING
A QUANTUM
COMPUTER p. 42
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NEWS
17 ORION MOCKUP WIRED
FOR DATA DURING
SPLASHDOWN TESTS
DEPARTMENTS
4 ON MACHINEDESIGN.COM
10 LETTERS
12 WHAT’S INSIDE
Helical Gearboxes Handle
Higher Torque with Less Noise
DISTRIBUTION RESOURCE
53 DISTRIBUTORS TO HIRE,
EXPAND MORE IN 2015
Bearings
built for
wind
turbines
FEATURES
30 THE RISE OF THE EXOSKELETONS
Trends in sensors, power supplies, batteries,
and other technologies are bringing even more
potential to the ﬁeld of developing exoskeletons.
36 QUANTUM COMPUTING 101
Here’s a look at the ﬁrst
commercial quantum computer.
42 PROGRAMMING A
QUANTUM COMPUTER
Walking through the steps for
programming a quantum computer
illustrates how they solve problems.
COLUMNS
6 EDITORIAL
Nominate a STEM Starter to
Our March Bracket Madness
26 INTERVIEW
Chuck Dolezalek — Banner
Engineering Corp.
64 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Bradford L. Goldense — Do
Your New Products Sell Like
Hockey Sticks?
PRODUCTS
59 NEW PRODUCTS
62 CLASSIFIEDS
62 AD INDEX
63 DATA FILES
ON THE COVER: Cover image courtesy
of Thinkstock.
30
36
42
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2 JANUARY 2015 MACHINE DESIGN
InThis Issue
JANUARY 2015 | VOLUME 87, ISSUE 1

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GALLERY:
THE FIRST EIGHT
X AIRPLANES
http://machinedesign.com/technologies/first-eight-x-airplanes-
mach-1-almost-7#slide-0-field_images-38141
X (experimental) airplanes were built by aviation companies
but were flown and maintained by NASA (or its predecessor,
NACA), and the military. These planes, most of which
were one-of-a-kind, were used to explore high-speed, high-
altitude flight, as well as vertical takeoffs and launchings,
new materials such as titanium, and variable-geometry wings.
Here’s a look at the first 13 years of X airplanes, going from
1946 through 1959.
VIDEO:
ROBOT RECREATES
“THE KARATE KID”
http://machinedesign.com/humanoid-atlas-robot-recreates-
scene-karate-kid
Boston Dynamics and IHMC engineers showcased some
impressive control algorithms and had some fun programming
their humanoid ATLAS robot to recreate various poses whilst
balanced on a stack of cinder blocks, including the crane kick
stance made famous in “The Karate Kid.”
WHATWASYOUR STEM STARTER?
http://machinedesign.com/blog/what-got-you-started-science-
technology-engineering-or-math
Maybe it was a microscope, Erector Set, crystal radio, or
even something as simple as clay or Play-Doh. But it got
your creative juices flowing and set you on a trajectory that
carried you through engineering school and to a career in
discovery, design, or testing. Machine Design is looking for
the most popular and treasured Stem Starter as determined by
you, our audience. Visit the blog to find out how to vote for
your favorite.
3 MYTHS SURROUNDING LEDs
http://machinedesign.com/blog/3-myths-surrounding-leds-0
Light emitting diodes (LEDs) are popping up in more and
more places as companies and individuals try to save money
and reduce energy consumption. But some people insist there
are problems with them. In the latest installment of A Skepti-
cal Engineer, Senior Staff Editor Steve Mraz shares three of
the myths that have arisen around LEDs.
join us onlinetwitter.com/machinedesign facebook.com/MachineDesignMagazine
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TECHNOLOGY EDITOR: JEFF KERNS jeff.kerns@penton.com
CONTENT PRODUCTION DIRECTOR: MICHAEL BROWNE michael.browne@penton.com
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PRODUCTION EDITOR: JEREMY COHEN jeremy.cohen@penton.com
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INDUSTRY COVERAGE:
AUTOMOTIVE, FASTENING & JOINING, PACKAGING, MEDICAL STEPHEN J. MRAZ
CAD/CAM, FLUID POWER, MANUFACTURING, MECHANICAL KENNETH J. KORANE, CARLOS GONZALEZ
3D PRINTING, MATERIALS, MECHANICAL, ELECTRICAL JEFF KERNS
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JANUARY 2015
JANUARY 2015 MACHINE DESIGN

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©2013

Editorial
STEPHEN MRAZ | Senior Staff Editor
to our March
Bracket Madness
W
hat got you started in engineering? In
many cases, it was a parent who worked
as an engineer that inspired your career
choice. But there’s often a kit, toy, model, or
tool that sparked a lifelong interest in cars and combustion engines,
radios and electronics, or fireworks and
rockets. Maybe it was a microscope
or a telescope, a chemical kit or rock-
polisher, or even something as simple
as Play-Doh. But it got your imagina-
tion working overtime and set you on a
trajectory that carried you through engi-
neering school and to a career in discov-
ery, design, and testing.
Let us know what so-called STEM
Starter got you interested in science, tech-
nology, engineering, or math so Machine
Design can host another March Bracket
Madness campaign, much like last year’s
popular World’s Greatest Engineering
Movie. This time we’re looking for the
most popular and treasured STEM Start-
er as determined by you, our audience.
The first step is for you to remember the
kit, toy, model, or tool you received for
Christmas or a birthday, or perhaps you
bought it with your own hard-earned money, that helped set you
on your course as an engineer, designer, or scientist. Then send it
to us via e-mail at smraz@penton.com. Be sure to put STEM in the
subject line, and perhaps add a short note as to what prompted your
nominating it as a STEM Starter.
By March we should have the brackets filled with a variety
of interesting and memorable STEM Starters and then we will
open the online voting.
So let us know what you got you started in engineering.
Nominate a
STEM Starter
‘‘
We’re looking
for the
most popular and
treasured STEM
Starter: a kit, toy,
model, or tool that
helped set you on
your course as an
engineer, designer,
or scientist.
’’

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COATEDBEARING
CONUNDRUM
I found Bob Budny’s article (“Fixing
wind-turbine gearbox problems,” Oct.
9) very interesting. He is a mechanical
designer and probably a good one,
but he ventured off into metallurgy
and that’s where he stubbed his toe a
few times.
First, at the beginning of the article
on p. 54 is a photomicrograph of a met-
allurgical phenomenon he calls “axial
cracking.” He says, “This problem’s ul-
timate source is a great modern puzzle
of engineering and generates debate in
the industry.” Actually, the defect is well
known and commonly called a “butter-
fly wing defect.” It is the result of plastic
deformation of material in the path of
the roller bearing in the presence of a
non-metallic inclusion. This causes a
crack and a localized recrystallization
phenomenon, resulting in creation of
nano-ferrite (the light etching material
seen in the photomicrograph).
Then on pages 60 and 62, he talks
about the desirability of having retained
austenite in the microstructure of the
bearing race material. Wrong. Although
he acknowledges the undesirability of
the volumetric increase that accompa-
nies the transformation of austenite to
martensite, he neglects to mention that
the freshly formed martensite is un-
tempered and brittle, unable to sustain
much strain without cracking.
Also on p. 62, he recommends apply-
ing a black oxide coating to the bearing
elements to extend its service life. The
black oxide commonly referred to is
the coating that results from immers-
ing parts in boiling solutions of alkaline
salts, such as those used on commercial
firearms and fastener industries. Those
oxide films have not been shown to
significantly improve the service life of
dynamic machinery parts.
A lesser-known black-oxide-coating
method called “steam tempering” does
have beneficial effects on break-in and
service life of such parts. However,
steam tempering is done at tempera-
tures that would overtemper and soften
rolling elements made of low alloy steel
such as those used in the wind-turbine
industry, and shorten their service
lives. Switching to components made
of tool steel (M50, T1) would allow
for steam tempering without hurting
mechanical properties.
— Irving W. Glater
From the author: The photomicrograph
illustrates what has become known as
an Irregular White Etching Area or
irWEA. Although structurally similar to
a classical butterfly wing defect in that it
is composed of nano-ferrite, it does not
have the regular butterfly wing shape,
hence the “irregular” in the name. The
presence of irWEAs has been associated
with bearing failures that most often
present themselves as axial cracks in the
inner ring. Such defects are not always,
or even usually, associated with the pres-
ence of non-metallic inclusions and have
been observed in bearings that have been
subjected to contact stress much below
that known to form butterflies.
The discussion of optimum retained
austenite levels in bearing inner rings
was in the context of case-carburized
inner rings. All case-carburized com-
ponents have some amount of retained
austenite, which is known to increase
fracture toughness. There has been an
ongoing debate about the optimum levels
of retained austenite. The recommenda-
tion made in the article was based on
research involving field-tested bearings
that proved adequate retained austenite
plus adequate residual stress can make
carburized bearings immune to irWEAs
and axial cracks.
And it is my experience that case-
carburized bearings better resist the
axial cracks discussed in the article than
black-oxide coated bearings. It has been
shown, however, that applying a black
oxide coating can extend the life of a
bearing against axial cracks. There are
many other benefits of black-oxide coat-
ings on bearings, such as improved run-
in behavior, better corrosion resistance,
improved resistance against scuffing, and
reduction of chemical attack from oil ad-
ditives. For these reasons, many bearing
manufacturers offer black-oxide coated
bearings as options. Such bearings are
often specified for applications known
to benefit from black-oxide coatings.
However, black-oxide coatings are
not enough to prevent axial cracks
in through-hardened bearings, either
martensitically hardened or bainitically
hardened. And it takes carburized bear-
ings to avoid irWEAs and axial cracks.
Letters
TO OXIDE OR
NOT TO OXIDE?
A reader believes he
uncovered some met-
allurgical problems
with an article on
black-oxide-coated
bearings. But the
author insists he is cor-
rect and dealing with
more up-to-date infor-
mation.Which side do
you come down on?
Let us know..

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THE NEW PE helical gearboxes from Stober Drives Inc. (www.stober.com),
Maysville, Ky., handle more torque, generate less noise, and provide smoother
motion than spur-gear units. The units come in four case sizes ranging from
PE2 to PE5, and can have single or double stages with ratios from 3:1 to
100:1. Output torques range up to 310 Nm and input speed can be as high as
8000 rpm. Backlash ratings are as low as 8 arc minutes.
The units can be ordered as in-line gear units with a motor adapter for
third-party motors, a large motor input shaft option, or an integrated housing
that mounts to the most popular motor dimensions. The gearboxes are said to
have low friction levels and high shaft-load capacities, making them well suited
for a variety of applications, including packaging and general automation.
Edited by Stephen J. Mraz
Helical gearboxes
handle higher torque
with less noise
What’sInside
Case-
hardened
gears
AccurateAdapt
couplings ensure precise
motor installation
Housing
rated IP64
Planet carriers made of high-tensile
material for higher torsional stiffness
and tensile strength
Motor can
use plate for
adaption or be
integrally cast in
the housing.
Accurate
and precise
running
Contactless sealing at
input lowers losses
Lubed for life
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Towering megawatt wind turbines need strong, large bearings to support their
long blades as they rotate. To meet that growing need, engineers at The Timken Co.
(www.timken.com), North Canton, Ohio, have designed UltraWind bearings, a line of
tapered roller bearings that range up to 9.6 ft in diameter. They are well suited for multi-
megawatt turbines both onshore and offshore.
The new bearings feature two rows of tapered roller bearings with seals, lubrication,
and condition monitoring. The unit’s pre-set internal clearance simplifies accurate
assembly. A lighter, less-costly cage is optimized for capacity and roller retention in
both steel and polymer versions. Raceway profiles control maximum stress levels and
boost durability. The bearings have the highest life ratings in the industry, according to
Germanischer Lloyd, a consulting firm that focuses on industry and energy. And the
pre-loaded bearing maintains its high level of stiffness to manage motions of the main
shaft and rotor.
The bearing can be customized to suit specific design arrangements including
variable bolt circles, shaft-mounted or shaft-less designs, and direct drive or geared
wind turbines.
Timken uses its proprietary Syber System Analysis to improve the main-shaft
design, predict potential damage, and identify ways to reduce friction for each
application. This can reduce the overall development time and capital equipment costs.
In addition, with the recent opening of its wind energy test center, the company can
now predict 20 years of field performance through a shortened five-month test cycle.
Edited by Stephen J. Mraz
What’s Inside
Bearings built for
wind turbines
Spacers preset
assembly position
for easier
installation
Case-hardened steel
inner ring improves
reliability
Steel or polymer
retainers guide
rollers
Unitized carrier with
seals is prelubed
Variable bolt-hole
arrangement

N
ASA’s first test flight and splashdown of an
Orion space capsule went well, thanks to
three years of testing and simulated splashdowns
of a realistic mockup in the agency’s Hydro Impact
Basin at its Langley Research Center. To collect
information from those preflight tests, NASA wired
up an 18,000-lb Orion mockup with 320 strain gaug-
es, pressure sensors, and accelerometers to capture
data on the capsule’s responses to landing in water
at up to 20 mph.
The data was recorded on 40 TDAS Pro Sims
from Diversified Technical Systems (www.dtsweb.
com), Seal Beach, Calif. Each of these modules col-
lected data from eight sensors or channels, storing
up to 100 sec at 10,000 samples per sec per chan-
nel on non-volatile flash memory. But the focus
was on getting data from the 20-sec. splashdowns.
The data recorders are small, measuring
5.4 × 4.8 × 1.4 inches and weighing 1.7 lb.
The rugged devices had shock ratings
up to 100 gs. All this let
them be mounted close
to the sensors they moni-
tored without significantly
changing the dynamics of
the test. The recorders got
the 12 to 15 V of power
they needed from Smart
Battery packs from DTS,
but each unit also had inter-
nal back-up batteries.
After each test, which took up
to eight hours of prep time, data
was downloaded via USB to a com-
puter. A computer was also used to set
up each recorder’s sample rate, trigger,
and record time. „
ORION MOCKUP
wired for data during
splashdown tests
A mockup of NASA’s Orion space capsule was drop tested from a vari-
ety of heights, speeds, and angles to determine the estimated vertical
and horizontal velocities it will be going when it parachutes into the
ocean. Data recorders monitored a wide variety of parameters to ensure
the spacecraft would withstand the stresses of impact with the water.
TDAS Pro Sim recorders from DTS were mounted onboard the
Orion capsule to record data from a variety of sensors while the
capsule was dropped in a pool of water. Each module in these racks
store up to 100 seconds of data at 10,000 samples/sec per channel.
Newer versions of the recorder, the Slice Pro, stores 400 times that
amount; up to 11.5 hr at 10,000 samples/sec per channel. The mod-
ules on the Orion were powered by a DTS Smart Battery.

17GO TO MACHINEDESIGN.COM
ELECTRONIC“SNIFFER”searches out nuclear devices
Sandia researchers pose with MINER, a portable device that can detect
and pinpoint the source of neutron emissions from nuclear weapons.
THE NIGHTMARE SCENARIO for the Dept. of Homeland Security is
a briefcase-sized nuclear weapon at loose in a major US city. To
counter this potential threat, engineers at Sandia National Laboratory
have built a mobile imager of neutrons for emergency responders
(MINER). It is a portable neutron scatter camera that detects fast
neutrons emanating from nuclear materials. It should let police forces
pinpoint the source of the neutrons at significant distances and
despite shielding.
MINER’s design is based on that of a larger scatter camera that
stands 5-ft tall and requires a special power source. In contrast,
MINER is about 3-ft tall and weighs 90 lbs. Inside, 16 proton-rich
liquid scintillator detector cells circle a large cylinder. Neutrons travel
through the cells, bouncing off protons like ping-pong balls. These
interactions among the detector cells let the device calculate what
direction those neutrons came from. Compared to other detec-
tors, this technology lets MINER pick out the target radiation from
background radiation and can measure the spectrum of neutrons
being emitted. This lets it tell the difference between neutrons from
plutonium, a threat, and americium-beryllium, a common commercial
source of neutrons and not a threat. MINER also searches a 360°
horizon. Other detectors have a narrow field of view and must be
pointing in the source’s direction to pick it up.
MINER can be set up and operating in 10 minutes and uses bat-
tery power, which makes it more portable.
In a field test set in downtown Chicago recently, MINER found a
sealed radiation source in 30 minutes. In fact, the device could scan
an entire side of a skyscraper at one time, quickly narrowing the
search down to a single room. When the source was shielded, the
search took a few hours. „
CLEANING UP coal emissions
with electron beams
SCIENTISTS AT THE Naval Research Laboratory are exploring the use of
electron beam to reduce the amount of nitric acid and nitrogen dioxide
(NOx) emitted by coal-burning power plants. They have already shown
that zapping NOx in the presence of nitrogen breaks apart the nitrogen
and oxygen of the NOx and it reforms into pure nitrogen and oxygen. It
takes about four electron volts (eV) to break the bonds in an NOx mol-
ecule. They are now testing the technique on actual flue gas using a KrF
laser fired at five pulses per second. Firing in pulses rather than a steady
beam lets the laser operate work continually without overheating.
This approach could prove useful and economical when the EPA
comes out with tighter NOx emission restrictions. Current regulations
restrict power-plant emissions to less than 100 ppm. New regulations are
expected to restrict it further to less than 30 ppm. The current method of
reducing NOx emissions, selective catalytic reduction, uses scrubbers, an
expensive solution. They also consume up to 15% of the plant’s gener-
ated electricity to run the scrubbers. And they create ammonium nitrate,
an explosive by-product that must be disposed of. The new approach of
firing lasers into the gas, on the other hand, uses only 10 to 20% of the
cost of scrubbers for the energy and there are no by-products. „
A chemist at the NRL checks the KrF laser being used to
clean up emissions from coal-burning power plants by
destroying NOx in the flue gas.

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News
OAK RIDGE LAB moves to acquire Summit,
a next-generation supercomputer
RESEARCHERS AT OAK RIDGE National Laboratory will have a new supercomputer to work
with in 2017 when IBM delivers Summit, a hybrid CPU/GPU computer. It will have at least
five times the performance of Titan, the largest supercomputer currently housed at ORNL.
Summit will use an open-architec-
ture technology called OpenPOWER
Foundation that is being developed
by the major vendor, IBM, and com-
ponent suppliers NVIDIA and Mella-
nox. Software the supercomputer will
run includes IBM XL, NVIDIA, and PGI
environments supporting OpenMP
and OpenACC programming, and
IBM HPC software including Linux,
Platform Computing LSF scheduler,
resource manager, system manage-
ment, and a GPFS parallel file system.
From a hardware perspective,
Summit builds on the hybrid multi-
core architecture the lab pioneered
with Titan. “The large, powerful nodes
allow applications to achieve very
high performance without having to
scale to hundreds of thousands of
Message Passing Interface tasks,”
says the director of the Summit project at the OLCF, Buddy Bland. “The combination of
very large memory per node and the powerful IBM POWER and NVIDIA processors pro-
vides an ideal platform for data analysis as well as computation.”
It will feature more than 3400 nodes, each with:
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The areas and problems that will be explored with Summit include:
COMBUSTION SCIENCE: Understanding combustion so that the efficiency of inter-
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advanced fuels and new, low-temperature combustion concepts.
CLIMATE CHANGE SCIENCE: Understanding the dynamic ecological and chemical evo-
lution of the climate system with uncertainty quantification of the effects on regional and
decadal scales.
ENERGY STORAGE: Exploring chemical reactions at the atomic and molecular level
required to design new materials for energy storage and engineer safe, large-format,
durable, rechargeable batteries.
NUCLEAR POWER: Simulating reactor-scale operations to determine safe, increased
nuclear fuel burn times, power upgrades, and reactor lifetime extensions, and thereby
reduce the volume of spent fuel. „
Supercomputers like Summit, the one ORNL will get in
2017, let researchers address challenging problems, such
as recreating shear-waves shear-wave perturbations
inside the Earth due to seismic activity

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News
HYBRIDIZED 3D-PRINTED PART
combines plastic and metal
WHEN A CLIENT quickly needed a working prototype of a rifle magazine, the designers and
technicians at Baklund RD (www.baklund.com), Hutchinson, Minn., knew they would
have to use hybridized 3D printing. It’s a manufacturing technique that combines parts
made of metal, wood, or molded plastic with printed thermoplastic parts or housings. In
this case, a high-wear component was machined out of aluminum and integrated into the
printed thermoplastic magazine.
Hybridized 3D printing was developed to overcome the structural and aesthetic short-
comings of printed thermoplastics. Printed plastics are weaker than molded plastic and
in most cases will not endure the abuse often required during testing. One option is to
strengthen components, but then they may need to be up to twice as thick as molded
plastic to withstand similar forces. Many times this is not an option due to the need to
maintain accuracy in parts size and operation.
Hybridization, on the other hand, creates accurate prototypes of final parts out of
plastic, wood, steel, aluminum or virtually any other type of material that is required. The
hybridized part can meet specifications for high-wear components, or the need to have
different types of materials and densities in specific areas of the prototype, or simply for
aesthetic reasons.
A great example of this can be seen in the assembly recently developed by Baklund
RD, which integrated an aluminum high wear section on a rifle magazine. Combined with
the ability to quickly 3D print the rest of the model, hybridization not only let Baklund build
a prototype that could withstand the required testing, but also let the company deliver the
project to the customer more quickly than other suppliers, who would have relied only on
additive 3D–printing processes.
As this hybridization technique becomes an accepted technique, engineers should be
able to create more functional prototypes, as well as more production-ready products.
The hybridization technique will translate to a reduction in time to market and reduced
development costs; it will also allow for designs to be optimized beyond their current limi-
tations, as designs that were not possible before can now be physically validated before
production even begins. „
A prototype of
a rifle magazine
made using
hybridized 3D
printing consists
of a thermoplas-
tic printed part
(above) combined
with a high-wear
component made
of aluminum.

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News
Designers at New Balance use 3D printing to
give elite runners customized spike plates,
the portion of the bottom of the shoe that
uses spike patterns to give them more trac-
tion as they run.
tern of spikes to give runners more
traction as they run. The machine
creates parts out of plastic that uti-
lize a proprietary nylon powder as
well as laser sintering.
The first step in the process is
to collect biomechanical data on
a specific runner using several
different tools. Video capture, for
example, lets researchers create
a three-dimensional force-vector
diagram of the runner’s feet as they
hit the surface of a force plate while
running. Pressure sensors inside
the runner’s shoe provides pres-
sure data as the runner’s feet hits
the ground and lets the researchers
determine how the feet are inter-
acting with the shoe. High pressure
values, for example, indicate an
area of the foot that is important
during that phase of the foot strike.
Armed with this data and some
parametric modeling software,
New Balance designers calculate
the best spike pattern, how large
3D PRINTING builds custom track shoes
ENGINEERS AND SHOE DESIGNERS at New Balance Athletic Shoes Inc.
(www.newbalance.com), Boston, are using 3D printing to make
shoes for elite runners (professionals and Olympians) in hopes of
improving their performance. The company uses an EOSINT 395
3D printer from EOS (www.eos.info/systems_solutions) to custom-
build spike plates, the bottom part of the shoe that contains a pat-

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Before the engineers at New Balance can
come up with a custom spike pattern for a
runner, they have to study, record, and ana-
lyze his (or her) foot impact using pressure
sensors and motion-capturing video.
shoes for sports other than running. However, the
repetitive foot motions used in running don’t carry
over to other sports in which participants quickly
change directions, pivot, back-pedal or shuffle side to
side. These motions would need to be closely studied
to determine what performance data needed to be col-
lected, and how to analyze it. „
the spikes should be, and how they
should be oriented. After the final
design is cleaned up, it gets con-
verted to an .stl file and sent to the
printer to build the spike plate. The
printer lets them build spike plates
that could not be economically
made using traditional manufactur-
ing processes. Designers usually
provide runners with several spike
plates to test and then vary the fit,
stiffness, and design depending on
the length of the race the runners
are facing, along with their personal
preferences. Currently, the 3D
printer makes four spike plates at a
time in five to six hours.
One Olympic runner, Kim Con-
ley, wore her custom spike plates
when she set personal records in
3000- and 5000-meter races, and
during her best international per-
formance – the 2013 World Track
Championships. She credits her
success to the shoes’ improved
traction they provide while reliving
pressure on the outside of her feet.
The shoes are also 5% lighter than
traditionally made track shoes. For
competitive runners, even a small
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News
now, CNTs could not be grown together
tightly. To get around this limitation, Stan-
ford engineers grew CNTs on a quartz
wafer and then used a metal film that acts
like adhesive tape to lift them off the quartz
and transfer them to a silicon wafer. After
12 more similar transfers, they had assem-
bled one of the densest array of CNTs
ever made, then used it as the foundation
of their high-rise chip. It’s notable that the
team could do this with lab equipment
rather than the sophisticated gear used in
commercial fabrication plants. Moreover,
they showed this technique could build
more than one layer of logic CNTs.
The Stanford team also came up with a
method of building a new type of memory
directly on top of the CNT layer. The mem-
ory is a metal-oxide-metal sandwich of tita-
nium nitride, hafnium oxide, and platinum
– there is no silicon. This sandwich resists
current flow in one direction and allows
it in the opposite direction. The change
from resistive to conductive states lets this
new memory – a resistive random access
memory or RRAM – create digital zeros
and ones. The new memory uses less
electricity than conventional silicon memory
and can be built at lower temperatures, so
it is compatible with the high-rise manufac-
turing processes and materials.
The final breakthrough was drilling thou-
sands of interconnections (nanoscale sig-
nal elevators) through the memory layers
to the layers of CNTs below them. All those
interconnects eliminate the traffic jams of
signals common on conventional circuit
cards. There is no comparable way to add
interconnections between silicon-based
memory and logic on conventional chips
built as high rises. That’s because it takes
temperatures as high as 1000°C to create
silicon memory, and that would melt any
logic components below. „
AN ENGINEERING TEAM at Stanford University has devised a way to
improve computer chips by making them taller. According to the
team, current chips suffer from “jammed wires’ when the logic and
memory components become overtaxed. Their solution – adding
layers of logic atop memory and using electronic nanoscale “eleva-
tors” to move data between layers — eliminates bottlenecks cre-
ated by wires and thereby moves data faster using less electricity.
It took the team three breakthroughs to be able to build a four-
story prototype of their high-rise chip. The first was efficiently
building nanoscale carbon-nanotube transistors (CNTs ) that could
be more completely sealed than current conventional transistors
which leak electrons, creating heat and wasting electricity. Until
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News
In one application, a painless injection
with a microneedle done every three to six
months can replace daily administration of
eye drops to stave off glaucoma. It is the
second leading cause of blindness and
affects about 2.2 million people in the U.S.
It is hoped the injections will provide more
consistent dosages and make it easier on
patients who sometime neglect to apply
eye drops daily. The drug is formulated to
be relatively viscous, letting it stay where
it is injected. In animal studies, research-
ers could reduce intraocular pressure,
the major symptom, using just 1% of the
amount of dug used with eye drops.
In the second application, a solid needle
places precise amounts of a dry drug on
injured area in the cornea. The needles
are held in place for about a minute as the
drug is absorbed. The anti-body-based
drug inhibits growth of new blood vessels,
a problem with neovascularization in which
unwanted blood vessels impair vision.
Although eye injections with hypodermic
needles much larger than microneedles rou-
tinely administer compounds into the center
of eye, those needles are not designed for
eye injections and are not the best for deliver-
ing drugs to various parts of the eye. And eye drops are often unable
to get the drugs where they need to go. Microneedles, however, can
be tailored to penetrate the eye only as far as needed. For the glauco-
ma drug, for instance, the needle is only about half a millimeter long,
which is enough to penetrate through the sclera and outer layer of the
eye to where it needs to be, the supraciliary space. „
BIOMEDICAL RESEARCHERS at the Georgia Institute of Technology
have devised two new applications for using microneedles 400 to
700 microns long to help fight eye diseases. The small needles let
doctors target the drug to specific areas of the eye, which should
increase the drug’s effectiveness while limiting side effects and
using less of the expensive drugs.
MICRONEEDLES ACCURATELY DELIVER drugs to the eye
A microneedle used to inject glaucoma
medications into the eye is shown next to a
liquid drop from a conventional eye dropper.

Interview
CHUCK DOLEZALEK | Director of Engineering for Lighting
Banner Engineering Corp. (www.bannerengineering.com), Minneapolis
Light-Emitting Diode-Based
Light Bulbs for Industry
and Consumers
Are LEDs ready for prime time? In other words, can they be
economically used by industry and consumers?
Definitely. You’ll notice whenever you visit any home improve-
ment store or department that LED light bulbs are taking over
the shelves that used to be filled with incandescent and compact
fluorescent bulbs.
What are the benefits of LED lighting to industry?
Two of the major benefits are energy efficiency and longevity.
Other benefits include durability and design flexibility. Addi-
tionally, LED lights are eco-friendly; they are free of toxic mate-
rials, like mercury, which is found in fluorescent bulbs.
How long can a business/consumer expect the average LED
to last? Are they good in all weather/environments?
A typical lifetime listed by many manufacturers is 50,000 hours.
There are LED luminaires designed for use in extreme outdoor
conditions where temperature extremes, as well as exposure to
rain, snow, and UV light from the sun, can be a challenge.
Any idea of the payback period for LEDs? In other words,
how long does a person or business have to use an LED to
save enough money over conventional bulbs to make up for
the difference in cost between conventional bulbs and LEDs?
The payback period depends on a number of factors, including
the cost of the bulb or fixture, the savings in cost of electricity,
and the frequency of use. Payback periods are typically some-
where between two and five years.
Are LEDs safe? Are there any problems with overheating,
EMF, or hazardous materials for recycling?
LEDs are safe, but with any electronic product it is critical that
the overall design meets the proper safety standards.
Are there any downsides to LEDs?
The main downside is the initial cost, but prices continue to
drop, making it more attractive to make the switchover. And
although LEDs excel in cold environments, like coolers or
freezers, they struggle in high-temperature conditions, such
as those found inside industrial or commercial ovens. LED
lifetimes are significantly shorter in higher temperatures, and
materials used ... have limitations compared to the glass, met-
als, and ceramics used to make incandescent bulbs.
How far will costs for LED bulbs drop?
Costs have dropped significantly over the past few years. I
expect that prices may continue to drop, but it is believed that
the bigger changes will be increases in efficiency.
Are all LEDs on the market of good quality? How can a busi-
ness or consumer tell the difference between good ones and
the not-so-good ones?
Not all LEDs are high quality, but even with high-quality LEDs,
overall fixture design is important. One key task of the fixture
design is to keep the LED temperature within specifications.
Other design considerations to take into account depend on
the end application of the LED fixture. The requirements are
much different for an LED light intended for a clean, dry envi-
ronment, like an assembly station, as compared to a light for a
CNC machining center that is regularly exposed to water or oil-
based coolants. Having the proper approvals, like CE and UL,
verify the design meets performance and safety requirements,
but this doesn’t always mean that the light will last a long time.
Are any technological changes/upgrades coming to LEDs? If
so, what is pushing them and what benefits will they bring?
LEDs are continually evolving. The efficiencies (lumens/watt)
are increasing and the costs are continuing to decrease. There
is a lot of competition among LED manufacturers to continue
outdoing one another, which is great for luminaire manufactur-
ers, because it gives them more choices and allows them to offer
brighter and more efficient products.
Where are most LEDs made? Any chance LED manufactur-
ing will come to the U.S.?
There is still a lot of the LED die being manufactured in the U.S.,
but for the most part, the packaging of the die into the final LED
is done in Asia ... there is no reason to expect that to change.

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Mark Curran
Senior Engineer
When we merged the country’s three leading service bureaus into one, we created Stratasys
Direct Manufacturing—a powerful resource for designers and engineers to challenge conventional
approaches to manufacturing. When Structural Integrity Engineering (SIE) set out to design Orbis
International’s new Flying Eye Hospital, we partnered with their engineers to create unique solutions
usingourFDMtechnology.Theairplane’s3D-printedductsystemmeasureduptothedesign’scomplex
geometry and met strict FAA regulations. Together, we produced a design that would have been
impossible without our advanced manufacturing technologies. With the help of SIE, Orbis’s Flying
Eye Hospital will be embarking on its work to transform lives through access to quality eye care.
Solutions for a healthier world. The power of additive manufacturing. The power of together.

Learn how Stratasys is redefining manufacturing, download our recent white
paper and explore more stories like SIE and Orbis. STRATASYSTOGETHER.COM
PROJECT AIR DUCT FOR FLYING EYE HOSPITAL
CLIENT STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY ENGINEERING
PARTS 1
DAYS 7

The Rise of the
Exoskeletons
Trendsinsensors,powersupplies,batteries,andothertechnologiesare
bringing even more potential to the field of developing exoskeletons.
E
ngineers relied heavily on motion-
control technology to develop the
first wearable exoskeleton at Cornell
University, the Hardiman-1, in 1965.
(see image on p. 32) The arms, legs, and feet used
electrohydraulic servos, while a hydromechanical
servo controlled the hands. The hydraulics oper-
ated off of a 3000-psi pump, letting the person in
the suit lift up to 1500 lbs and walk at 1.7 mph.
The suit itself, however, weighed almost 1500
lbs, making it too heavy and complex to warrant
further funding.
Since then, sensors, materials, drives, and power
supplies have undergone a host of incremental
innovations. Companies developing exoskele-
tons no longer find it difficult to secure funding.
Investors recognize that this technology has many
potentially profitable applications. These include
letting soldiers carry more weight for longer peri-
ods of time, aiding senior citizens and others who
suffer musculoskeletal injuries, and giving long-
shoremen and warehouse workers a competitive
advantage in the shipping and trucking industries.
ADVANCING THE SENSOR
The human body constantly senses its surroundings and
itself to react properly in a wide variety of environments. A con-
stant exchange of information flows between the sense organs,
muscles, and brain. Similarly, exoskeletons require a flow of
data between sensors and the central processor.
Many types of sensors would be required for such a com-
plex machine, and they would have to be small, efficient,
and economical. Fortunately, the trends in sensors are in line
with those needs.
For example, the Nintendo Wii game controller was intro-
duced with a new accelerometer from ST Microelectronics
that was smaller, more sensitive, and demanded less power
than previous designs. It was also developed with high-volume
production in mind. The silicon wafer was increased from four
inches in diameter to eight inches, allowing more “chips” to be
made at once. The size of each sensor was also reduced with
a new micro-surfacing process that made it possible for ST
Microelectronics to make lots of accelerometers for just a few
dollars per sensor.
“The Wii controller grabbed the attention of cellphone com-
panies,” said Tony Massimini, CTO of Semico Research. “They
A paramedic uses the help from Strong Arm Technologies’ V-22 passive exoskeleton
vest to reduce injuries while lifting a patient into the ambulance.
JEFF KERNS | Technical Editor
MedicalTechnology

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Medical Technology
Multiple microphones use sen-
sor fusion for audio beaming. For
communication devices, this utiliz-
es multiple microphones to reduce
background noise by using soft-
ware and algorithms to locate and
identify which sound is meant to
be heard. This technology is being
used to locate objects in a defined
space. Audio equipment able to
perform this accurate detection of
sound can cost over $150 and need a
few man hours to set up. Eventually
this equipment could be replaced
with the technology in a modern-
day smartphone.
Unfortunately, sensor fusion often
requires two chips, and customers are stuck with the size and
cost of those two chips. To get around this hurdle, companies
like mCube are fabricating chips directly on top of the inte-
grated circuits in standard complementary-metal-oxide semi-
conductor facilities to lower cost and size.
POWER AND DRIVES
To make a viable exoskeleton, engineers need motors or some
other actuators that function quickly to prevent interference
with the user’s natural motions. Hydraulics seems like a good
way to gain mechanical advantage. Lockheed Martin, for exam-
ple, has used them in its Human Universal Load Carrier suit.
Today, hydraulics can provide the desired exosuit’s character-
istics with open- or closed-loop control. Using both gives users
hard set variables (open-loop) and dynamic variables (closed-
loop) that adjust as needed.
Electric actuators, another
good option, offer features such as
variable speed and efficient opera-
tion. They are also becoming more
“intelligent,” thanks to the addi-
tion of sensors, microprocessors,
and software.
Although hydraulics looks like
the most common drive for exoskel-
etons, some designers still use elec-
tric actuators. Many engineers use
both to better combine synthetic and
natural motion.
With technology becoming
increasingly mobile, battery density
has increased over the last decade.
In 2007, for example, batteries with
an energy density of 600 Wh/L cost
realized sensors could add value
while maintaining a competitive pro-
duction cost.”
The digital frontier was begin-
ning to take hold at this time and it
was necessary to develop the abil-
ity to communicate between digital
and analog components. One of the
ways that was done was with sen-
sors called MEMS (micro-electrical-
mechanical systems). They gener-
ally range from 0.02 to 1.0 mm in
size, but include electromechanical
components range from 0.001 to 1.0
mm. The development of MEMS has
resulted in countless innovations and
improvements in sensor technology.
For example, ST’s MEMS digital and analog accelerometers
can detect up to ±400g, and measure 2 × 2 × 1 mm. The Kinetis
KL02 from Freescale Semiconductor measures less than 2 × 2 ×
0.6 mm, while the VL6180X module from STS, which measures
4.8 × 2.8 × 1.0 mm, is an optical sensor that accurately measure
distances up to 10 cm.
These improvements mean that multiple sensors can fit in
one package. This further reduces size and cost when using
“sensor fusion.” Sensor fusion lets two or more sensors work
together to improve accuracy or add capabilities. For example,
adding a gyroscope to an accelerometer lets the accelerometer
compensate for drift and be more precise. Sensor fusion can
also add features without adding more sensors, for example,
combining an accelerometer with a magnetometer creates an
emulated gyroscope.
Cyberdyne’s HAL is helping therapy patients walk and be more independent.
Hardiman Prototype arm 1970, courtesy of Chris Hunter,
Curator of the miSci (Museum of Innovation and Science,
formerly the Schenectady Museum in Schenectady, NY) .”

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Medical technology also relies on our drive systems. They are used, for
instance, in modern arm prostheses which enables the wearer to make precise
movements.
Medical Technology
ing factors in exoskeleton development,
especially improved hydraulics, and elec-
tromyographic (EMG) control, which
lets patients control electronics by con-
tracting and relaxing specific muscles.
Advances in EMG allow the machine to
get ahead of the human in the control
loop, thereby reducing lag and the asso-
ciated metabolic cost of tightening and
releasing muscles.
The main problem with EMGs is that
it can be difficult to translate their analog
frequencies to a drive or digital system.
A muscle pulse wavers and can even
switch polarity. Rectification, pulse-
width modulation, and algorithms are
used to “smooth” these signals.
EMG electrodes have been made more
sensitive and capable of detecting faint
electric pulses through the skin. This is
leading defense contractors to work on
controls in which human pilots interact
with computers to control aircraft by flex-
ing muscles. This technology has caught
the eyes of computer gaming companies.
YEI Technology, for example, recently
introduced PrioVR, a full-body EMG
suit. The company’s goal is to have it to
market for under $400, and an upper-
about $1,000/kW-hr. By 2013, density had gone to 1,400 Wh/L
at a cost of $300/kW-hr.
The higher a battery’s voltage, the shorter its lifespan tends
to be. To sidestep this conundrum, engineers have developed
higher-capacity electrodes and anodes. They’ve also devised
better chemistries for batteries. Lithium-ion cells, for example,
have the highest specific capacity (3,860 mAh/gm). But there
are safety concerns about lithium batteries’ charging/discharg-
ing cycles. They suffer from thermal runaway and could cause
fires. New carbon nano-composites are helping isolate the cul-
prit: lithium deposits that build up on the electrode.
DEVELOPMENTS AND MARKETS
Lockheed Martin says advances in motion control are driv-
A GENERAL COMPARISON
OF ACCELEROMETERS
FROM 2004 TO TODAY
Accelerometers 2004 Today
Size 5 × 5 × 1.8
mm
2 × 2 × 1.7
Current 4000
microamps
100 micro-
amps
Volt 5 V 1.8 V
Cost +$2 per
sensor in
bulk order
$0.30 per
sensor in bulk
order
This table shows how MEMS accelerometers
have improved over the last decade.

body suit for under $270. The equipment could control a video
character or an exoskeleton.
ReWalk built an exoskeleton that received FDA approval
to be sold as the first motorized device that will act as an exo-
skeleton for people with lower body paralysis due to spinal
cord injury. And in 2009, Cyberdyne said it would build 400
of its Hybrid Assistive Limb suits per year and license them to
hospitals for $2,000/month for rehab.
Three years later, 130 medical institu-
tions were using it.
There are also several robotic com-
panies designing and prototyping exo-
skeletons that could prevent debilitat-
ing muscle injuries, the most common
type of on-the-job injury. In 2011, inju-
ries caused by lifting, pushing, pulling,
holding, and carrying cost businesses
$14 billion, which was up from $8 bil-
lion just two years prior to that in 2009.
These injuries and costs are driving the
need for exoskeletons that serve as lift-
assistance devices.
Another factor driving demand
for exoskeletons is the price of fuel.
Although gasoline prices are currently
low and going lower, higher prices will
likely return. This could lead to more
U.S.-based shipping lines. To stay com-
petitive, longshoremen wearing exo-
skeletons could be used to load and
unload cargo without undue exhaustion
or injury.
Shipping and global competition will
make exoskeletons necessary, according
to Sean Petterson, CEO of Strong Arm
Technologies. Many companies, includ-
ing Strong Arm Technologies, are work-
ing on passive and soft exoskeletons to
promote proper posture and form for
lifting. With modern materials, some of
these devices, like Arm Strong Technol-
ogy’s V-22, weigh only a few pounds but
can lift hundreds.
In September 2014, the U.S. Defense
Advanced Research Project Associa-
tion gave $2.9 million to researchers at
Harvard to develop soft exoskeletons
that are comfortable enough to be worn
under clothing and reduce exhaustion
and injury associated with walking long
distances carrying up to 100 lb.
However, costs and design limitations could hamper prog-
ress in this area, according to the Journal of Mechanical and
Civil Engineering published information on associated design
restraints, and costs that might stand in the way of exoskel-
eton development. Despite these hurdles, the report notes that
with 3D printing and rapid prototyping, exoskeletons might
soon be a reality.

Quantum
Computing
Q
uantum computing
could change the face
of computing over
the coming decades,
especially when it comes to quickly solv-
ing certain classes of problems such as
optimization, code cracking (cryptogra-
phy), and machine learning. Google and
Lockheed Martin have already climbed
aboard the bandwagon, each purchasing
and now experimenting with a quantum
computer from D-Wave Systems.
However, quantum computing and
its reliance on quantum mechanics and
esoteric phenomenon such as superpo-
sition and entanglement, however, make
it difficult for most people to under-
stand it. But then most people have no
trouble using today’s “conventional”
computers despite knowing little about
transistors, tunneling, or n- and p-type
semiconductor materials and compilers.
So here’s a look at the basics of quan-
tum computing. (Another article in this
issue, Programming a Quantum Com-
puter, further explores and explains
quantum computing.)
THE THEORY
Quantum computers use an entirely
different approach to problem solving
than classical computers. An analogy is
a landscape with mountains and valleys.
Solving an optimization problem can be
thought of as trying to find the lowest
point on that landscape.
Every possible solution is mapped to
a set of coordinates on the landscape,
and the altitude of the landscape at those
coordinates is the “energy’” or “cost” of
the solution at that point. The goal is
to find the lowest point on the map and
get the associated coordinates, since this
gives the lowest energy or best solution
to the problem.
Classical computers can only “walk
over this landscape.” Quantum com-
puters, on the other hand, can tunnel
through it, letting them find the lowest
point more quickly. In fact, they con-
sider all possibilities simultaneously and
determine the lowest-energy required to
form those solutions.
Because quantum computers are
probabilistic rather than deterministic,
E.D. DAHL | Senior Research Scientist
D-Wave Systems, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
ComputerTechnology
101
The heart of the D-Wave quantum com-
puter lies inside the gold box, the 512-qubit
Vesuvius processor.
The 10-ft-tall D-Wave Two, D Wave Systems commercial quantum computer, has its roots in
a 16-qubit processor built in 2006. It led to the firm’s 28-qubit processor in 2007, and then its
128-qubit processor in 2010. The Two’s 512-qubit processor was completed in 2013.
Here’s a look
at the first
commercial
quantum
computer.

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Computer Technology
they return many good answers in a short amount of time — 10,000 answers in one
second on the D-Wave 2 computer. This not only gives users the best solution or
single answer, but also a host of other alternatives to consider.
To program a quantum computer, users map problems into this search for the
lowest point. Users interact with the computer by connecting to it over a network, as
they often do with traditional computers. Problems are sent to a server interface that
turns the optimization program into machine code to be programmed onto the chip.
NOT QUITE READY
FOR PRIME TIME
IT WILL BE quite a few years, more like
decades, before everyone has a quantum-
computing laptop or cell phone. The require-
ments for the support hardware are simply
too daunting.
For example, D Wave’s current commercial
computer, the D-Wave Two, needs its qubits
(or niobium wire loops) to be kept as cold
as possible, with as little exposure to ther-
mal noise or thermal vibrations as possible.
This translates into –273°C, or 0.02° above
absolute zero. To handle that task, it uses a
dedicated closed-cycle dilution refrigerator.
It consumes much of the 15.5 kW of power
needed to run the 512-qubit machine.
Keeping the processors cold minimizes
thermal noise — a must for inducing or set-
ting the stage for quantum phenomenon. The
processor is also kept in a near-vacuum to
eliminate interference with stray molecules.
Vacuum is said to be one ten-billionth that of
atmospheric pressure.
The processor is also shielded from mag-
netic fields, a step to prevent the Earth’s
magnetic field from interfering with those in
the niobium loops. D-Wave Two’s shielding
knocks the Earth’s magnetic field down by a
factor of 50,000. Engineers also had to con-
struct a way to get 192 lines into the proces-
sor and one fiber-optic feed out of it without
breaking the magnetic or pressure seals.
A technician wires the D-Wave computer.

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it’s a 0. When the current travels in both directions, it’s a qubit.
The programming model used in D-Wave computers does
not let programmers directly control the current flowing
through these qubits. Instead, they influence the qubits and
the computer responds to those influences.
Programmers influence qubits in two ways. First, each qubit
has an associated weight which is part of each QMI and under
ministically on this state, transform-
ing the contents of a few registers or
memory locations at a time. Quantum
computers like the D-Wave, however,
have no registers or memory locations
and, therefore, do not possess anything
analogous to state. Also, as noted before,
instructions for quantum computers are
not deterministic; instead, they return
probabilistic results.
If quantum computers have no reg-
isters or memory locations, how do we
learn anything from executing a QMI?
The answer is that the computer returns
samples from a distribution as a side
effect of executing the QMI. To explain
what these samples are and how this
distribution is defined, we must intro-
duce several entities that are key to the
D-Wave programming model.
The first such entity is the qubit,
which is simply a variable (q) that has
a value from the set {0, 1}. Qubits hold
information in quantum computers.
Each qubit’s behavior is governed by the
laws of quantum mechanics and it lets
them be in a “superposition” state—that
is, both a 0 and a 1 at the same time until
an outside event causes the qubit to “col-
lapse” into either a 0 or a 1. This prop-
erty is unlike anything in our everyday
lives and completely nonintuitive. But it
forms the basis upon which all quantum
computers will be built and how they
solve problems.
In the D-Wave computer, loops of
niobium wire measuring 2 microns in
diameter and 700 microns in circumfer-
ence serve as a qubits. After the loops
are supercooled, two currents can be
generated that circle each loop in oppo-
site directions. When the current travels
in one direction, it’s considered to be a
1; when it travels the opposite direction,
The system then executes one or more “quantum machine
instructions” (QMI) to generate results.
QUANTUM BASICS
Classical computers consist of registers and memories.
The collective contents of these devices are referred to as the
computer’s state. Instructions for the computer act deter-

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Computer Technology
more, programmers specify the number
of solutions that they want the computer
to return.
With definitions for qubits and
weights, as well as couplers and
strengths, programmers can compose
an objective function that defines the
and qj, the strength of that coupler will be denoted by bij.
A programmer maps a problem to a QMI, whose objec-
tive is to return the minimal values (the optimal solutions).
The programmer must provide two values: the “weights” of
the qubits and “strengths” of the interaction between them.
Up to about 500 weights and 1500 strengths are able to be
specified in the current D-Wave 512 qubit processor. Further-
programmer control. In D-wave programming language,
qubit qi has a weight ai. And second, a coupler makes it possi-
ble for programmers to control the influence one qubit exerts
on another qubit. A coupler is always identified with exactly
two qubits, and therefore the coupler connects the qubits.
Just as a weight is associated with each qubit, strength is
associated with each coupler. If a coupler connects qubits qi
The dilution refrigerator takes the processor
in the D-Wave Two down to 20 millikelvins.

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distribution from which the samples (or solu-
tions) will be selected:
O(a,b;q)=∑N
i=1 aiqi +∑i,j bij qi qj
This objective function takes the values of
the weights (ai), strengths (bij) and qubits (qi) as
its input. For each specification of its input, the
function will return an objective value, or simply
an objective.
The first summation in the function encom-
passes all qubits. Thus, the limits range from 1 to
N, where N is the number of qubits in the system.
The second summation covers all couplers and
is denoted by the pairs of qubits corresponding
to a coupler by angle bracket notation i, j .
It’s important to note that each QMI consists of
exactly the ai and bij values that appear in the
above objective function.
With a defined objective function, program-
mers can describe samples and the distribution
from which they are drawn. Each sample is sim-
ply the collection of qi values for the entire set of
qubits in the problem. The distribution is (ideal-
ly) an equal weighting across all samples that give
the minimum value of the objective function.
Programmers working with quantum com-
puters encode the various possible solutions to
an optimization problem in terms of the qubit
variables. Then they translate constraints in the
optimization problem into values of the weights
ai and strengths bij so that when the objective is
minimized, the qubits satisfy the constraints.
The Vesuvius processor chip contains 512 loops of
niobium wire, each serving as a quantum bit or qubit,
according to D-Wave Systems.

Walking through
the steps for
programming
a quantum
computer
illustrates how
they solve
problems.
P
rogramming quantum com-
puters is vastly different
than programming con-
ventional ones. To get a
better idea of what it could be like,
this article steps through the process
of programming a quantum comput-
er, a D-Wave System Two, using the
direct embedded method to solve a rela-
tively simple problem.
THE PROBLEM
Map coloring is a type of combinato-
rial optimization problem. For this prob-
lem, the goal is to color the 13 territories
and provinces of Canada so that no two regions shar-
ing a border are the same color, and regions touching only at
one or more isolated points, such as Nunavit and Saskatch-
ewan, are not considered to share borders. There are also a
limited number of colors, C.
The programming involves variables defined in the glossa-
ry and the objective function described in the previous article:
O(a,b;q)=∑N
i=1 aiqi +∑i,jbij qiqj
Next, choose a correspondence or encoding between colors
for a region and the qubit values. After fixing the encoding,
work out the form of a quantum machine instruction (QMI)
that will provide valid colorings. This task breaks down into
four steps:
1. Turn on one of several qubits.
2. Map a single region to a unit cell.
3. Implement constraints using couplers.
4. Clone neighbors to meet similar constraints.
Using unary encoding for the possible colors for each
region, assign C qubits to each region of the map. If the ith
color is assigned to a region, then the ith qubit (qi) associated
with that region will have the value 1 in our samples (or results
from the quantum computer) and the other (C – 1) qubits
associated with that region will have the value 0.
TURN ON ONE OF C QUBITS
First, solve the simpler problem of turning on just one qubit
in a two-qubit system. For a two-qubit system, the objective
thus becomes:
E. D. DAHL | Senior Research Scientist
D-Wave Systems, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
ComputerTechnology
Prince Edward Island
Yukon
Northwest Territory
Nunavik
British Columbia
Alberta
Saskatchewan
Manitoba
Ontario Quebec
Newfoundland and Labrador
New
Brunswick
Nova
Scotia
The goal of this problem is to color the map of Canada so that border-
ing provinces and territories are different colors.
Programming a
QUANTUM
COMPUTER

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Computer Technology
O(a, b; q) = a1q1 + a2q2 + b12q1q2
The four possible states in the distribu-
tion are listed in the Two-Qubit System table.
Choose a1, a2 and b12 values so that the dis-
tribution consists of the states with q1 = 0 and
q2 = 1, and the one in which q1 = 1 and q2 = 0.
The other two states in which qi is equal 0 or 1
should not be in the distribution.
To make encodings of either color equal-
ly likely in the distribution, a1 must equal a2.
These values also need to be less than 0 so that
the state characterized by q1 = 0 and q2 = 0 will
not appear. Therefore:
a1 = a2 0
To eliminate the state in which q1 and q2
equal 1 from the distribution requires that:
a1+ a2 + b12 = 0
A solution to these equations is:
a1= −1, a2 = −1, and b12 = 2
Substituting those values for a1, a2, and b12 into the Two-Qubit System table
shows that the objective value is minimized for the two states in which one q1 value
is 1 and the other is 0. This means samples from the distribution generated by the
QMI will consist solely of these two states.
These coefficient values would be enough if the map had only two colors, but
most maps require more colors. Therefore we must generalize to the case where C
qubits represent the possible colors assigned to a region. The ultimate goal is to find
values of ai and bij coefficients that will yield a distribution over those samples that
have exactly one qubit turned on (equal to 1) and the other C − 1 qubits turned off
(equal to 0).
To solve this problem, take a clue from the two-qubit problem. In that problem,
two states needed exactly one qubit turned on to be equally represented in the dis-
tribution and thus we set a1 = a2. The solution is symmetric if the two qubits are
interchanged, as expected.
Now apply this principle to the case with three colors, along with a corresponding
number of qubits to simplify the constraints.
If C = 3, then there are three qubits. The corresponding objective function is:
O(a, b ; q) = a1q1 + a2q2 + a3q3 + b12q1q2 + b13q1q3 + b23q2q3
C=2 C=4C=3
Connectivity of Qubits and Couplers
GLOSSARY
COUPLER: A variable (b) that defines how two qubits i, j affect each other. For
example, coupler bij determines how qi affects qj.
QUBIT: A variable (q) that has a value from the set {0, 1}.
QUANTUM MACHINE INSTRUCTION (QMI): A restatement of the problem to be
solved. The computer comes up with a distribution of qubit values that minimize the
value of the QMI.
STRENGTH: Defines the coupler relationship between qubits and provides another
way to influence qubits. A coupler connecting qubits qi and qj has a strength of b
and is denoted bij.
WEIGHT: In the QMI, each qubit (q) is given a weight (a) as one way of influencing
qubits. For example, qubit, qi has a weight of ai.
In these diagrams, each vertex represents
a qubit and each edge represents a coupler
between qubits.
Two-Qubit System table
q1 q2 O(a,b:q)
0 0 0
0 1 a2
1 0 a1
1 1 a1+a2+b12
This table shows the possible qubit states
and the objective in a two-qubit system.

Machine design january 2015

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