Collaborative learning project

Running head: HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
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Human Growth and Development:

An Analysis by Age Group

Sharla Carpenter, Erin Colby, Mary Kramer, Sara Linden, Michelle Mehlhaff, Lavinia

Roberts, and Robyn Tiemeyer

Emporia State University

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The field of Human Development is the study of how an individual grows and changes

throughout his or her lifespan. Most often divided into chronological categories based on age, the

differences between the life stages relate biology and psychology within social, environmental,

and even economic context. This collaboration focuses particularly on theories of Jean Piaget

(1896-1980), Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934), and Erik Ericson (1902-1994), all of whom are

considered to be the most significant experts on human learning style, cognitive growth, and

physical advancement.

Ages 0-5

It is without doubt that the period from birth to age five is a period of intense growth and

development for humans. According to Caviness, Kennedy, Bates and Makris, a baby’s brain at

birth is about 25% of adult size. By age one, the infant brain has increased in weight by more

than twofold, and by age three, the weight of the young child’s brain is about 80% of its final

weight (as cited in Schön and Silvén, 2007, p. 141). Myelination of axons (required for the

successful development of cognitive, motor, and sensory functions) contributes directly to

maturation of individual brain regions and their connecting pathways (Steen, 2000). This process

peaks during the first eight months of life, but chronic stress has been shown to lead to the

regression of brain development and cell death. Research continues to show that ―affectionate

and responsive caregiving during infancy is an important prerequisite for healthy brain

development and later emotional wellbeing‖ (Schön and Silvén, 2007, p. 142). Infants need their

basic needs met repeatedly to ensure proper physical and emotional development. Many

researchers believe that sensitive parenting (including cosleeping, breastfeeding and quick

response to crying) are key to raising a healthy child, because these ―practices prevailed during

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the evolutionary history of the human species, to which the human infant has biologically

adapted over the course of evolution‖ (Schön and Silvén, 2007, p. 102).

Constructivists such as Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky theorized that ―young children

initiate most of the activities required for learning and development.‖ Aside from meeting the

basic needs of infants, they, too, theorized that ―view young children as active participants in the

learning process.‖ Constructivists believe that when a young child encounters difficulties in the

learning process, the appropriate response is not to label or to retain the child, but to give the

child individualized attention and customize the learning situation to help the child address his or

her difficulties. (NCREL, 2004).

Ages 6-10

From around ages six to ten, children are continuing to radically develop both mentally

and physically, however they are beginning to head in a new cognitive direction. This is a time

that children are establishing a sense of identity and how they function in the world around them.

They seek opportunities to master and demonstrate new skills, make independent decisions,

control their behavior and form good social relationships with peers and adults outside the family

(Eccles, 1999). According to Dr. Jacquelynne Eccles, a professor of psychology at the

University of Michigan, during this time ―children are learning about the world outside their

family and matching themselves against the expectations of others. (1999)‖ She attributes this to

children being in school settings where they are around children their age, which strongly

influences their development. She also states that Erik Erikson, who proposed the ―Eight Stages

of Man,‖ stressed that middle childhood is a time where children move from home into a broader

social context that greatly influences their development. During this time children are learning to

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cooperate with peers and adults and are more involved in schooling and social activities (Eccles,

1999).

Piaget believed that cognitive development is dependent upon maturation and interaction

with the environment and processes according to an orderly succession of learning styles

(Thomas 2004). Piaget’s study of human development has four stages of development; this age

group is in the latter ends of the preoperational stage (2-6) but mainly in the concrete operational

stage (7-11). In the concrete operational stage, increased cognitive growth shows that the child

has a more objective view of the world and is beginning to understand how others see things

(Thomas 1979). For example, a child in the preoperational stage would think that there is more

clay in five balls than in three, even when it is combined into one. A child in the concrete

operational stage would be able to comprehend that the amount of clay would stay the same no

matter how many balls the piece of clay was made into. Though Piaget regarded these

developmental stages as invariant, children do pass through all stages of cognitive development

at different rates (Thomas 2004).

Ages 11-18

Adolescence, ranging from ages 11-18, is also a time of cognitive change and growth.

Puberty not only affects adolescents physically, but also cognitively. Adolescents seek to

discover their sexual identity as well as their identity as individuals away from parents and

family structures (Manheim 2009). Adolescents may have increased independence, firmer sense

of self, greater emotional stability, increasing self reliance, and rely more on peer groups then in

previous stages (AACAP 2001).

According to psychiatrist Eric Erickson adolescents will likely go through stages 5 and 6

of his 8 stages of development referred to as the ―8 Stages of Man.‖ Developed by Erickson in

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1956, each stage of development is marked by crisis and brings the individual closer to

adulthood (Child Development Institute 2009). Stage five of Ericson’s ―8 Stages of Man,‖ is

titled Learning Identity Versus Identity Diffusion and is the stage where individuals develop

their identity through experimentation and by playing different constructed roles. Stage five is

titled Learning Intimacy Versus Isolation and is a time where adolescents develop intimate

romantic relationships.

Age 11 to adulthood according Piaget is the final stage of cognitive development, called

by Piaget ―Formal Operations.‖ Adolescents, as formal operational thinkers, are able to think

about abstract ideas and develop propositional, inductive, and deductive logical as well as

combinatorial reasoning. Adolescents as formal operational thinkers are additionally capable of

reflecting on their own thought processes critically (Meece 2002).

Ages 19-24

The ages of 19 through 24 reflect the maturation in human development from late

adolescence to early adulthood. Research in this age demographic shows ―dramatic shifts in

romantic relationships, risk taking behavior, insight, and worldviews‖ (Bennett, 2006). It is also

the period during which most individuals change from being a member of a family to

establishing their own family and adult relationships, learning how to relate to others in more

deeply intimate ways. Essentially, the young adult distances from the support, both emotionally

and financially, of his or her parents, becomes responsible for their own needs, and then is able

to take on the responsibility of others.

Erik Ericson’s theories originally put the age of maturity around 21, but more recent

research has now estimated it to be somewhere more in the mid-twenties. A 2006 study at

Dartmouth College concluded significant change occurs in the brain of college freshman in their

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first year away from home, an environment of social uncertainty that fosters further development

of self-knowledge and independence (Bennett, 2006). This shows that the biology of

development is still changing at least through age 25, while previous data documented the age

around 18.

At this point, too, is a shift from developing the self-identity to establishing the

relationship of that identity to parents, spouses, children, and work colleagues. This also leads to

a growing ability to nurture the physical and emotional needs of others. Socially, there still

remains a gap between genders as in previous stages of development. ―[L]eisure time is still

spent largely with others of the same sex even after marriage‖ (Carter, 1999). Men tend to have

more influence in groups while women seem to have closer relationships with their children than

their male partners.

Ages 25-50

When a person reaches the age of 25 they are continuing their transition into the adult

world. According to Levinson (1986) this age group spans several life transitions: Age 30

Transition, the Culminating Life Structure for Early Adulthood, and the Midlife Transition.

Today it takes longer to make the transition into adulthood than in earlier decades,

according to Furstenberg (2004) this is because of the increase of those who are receiving a

higher education and also the postponement of marriage and childbirth. Johnson and Dye (2005)

found the median age at first marriage in the United States is 26.7 for men and 25.1 for women,

which is an all time high for the United States.

When a person reaches the 28-33 age range they are moving into the Age 30 Transition,

in this stage they make new life choices and reaffirm the old. According to Levinson (1986) it is

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in this stage that one works to establish a niche in society. Where they anchor their life, develop

competence in a craft, and become a valued member of society.

In the Culminating Life Structure for Early Adulthood (33 to 40), one begins to reflect on

their life and determine if they have built a satisfactory life structure. This stage can produce

rebellion or crisis if the person determines their life is unsatisfactory. Ages 40 to 50 begin the

Midlife Transition and the termination of Early Adulthood. According to Sheehy (1995) in this

stage psychologically something must die to end Early Adulthood and move into Second

Adulthood or Middle Adulthood. Levinson (1986) found that this is also where one prepares to

become a ―senior member‖ in society who is responsible not only for themselves but also the

development of the current generation.

Ages 50-75

The ages of 50-75 are a time of change in the life of an adult. During this time,

individuals begin to deal with retirement, the birth of grandchildren, and increasing health issues.

Also during this time of life, individuals are more prone to begin to think about their worth as

individuals, which can be complicated by no longer working, limited family interaction or the

idea that because they are aging, their ability to help within their families is limited. This can

conflict with wanting to make sure connections are made with younger generations. It is also a

time in life when people begin seeking to engage in other interests in their lives.

According to Carter and McGoldrick, this is the eighth stage of the life cycle (1999).

This is a time when individuals become concerned with more physical problems and begin the

transition to retirement. Individuals become worried about their retirement finances and making

sure they have enough money to live on and are able to take care of their medical needs. This is

also a time in life when individuals begin dealing with the deaths of their parents or other

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members of an older generation; it is also a time of connecting to younger generations,

maintaining emotional connections, and ensuring information about older family members is

passed on to younger generations as a way to maintain a familial connection.

Because this transitional phase is, traditionally, a time when individuals are no longer

caring for their children, this opens up time for new interests and activities. This allows

individuals to have more time researching interests or becoming involved in groups or activities

they were unable to participate in during their working years.

It is important to understand that not all individuals within this age range are going to be

interested in the same things, and diversity is important when considering the needs of

individuals in this stage of life (Mates, 2003). Crosnoe and Elder (2002) point out that ―…aging

is not a uniform process and the aged are not a uniform group: individual coping and adaptation

are highly variable.‖(311). This can be a time of growth and learning for individuals who no

longer have the responsibilities of raising children or working and are looking for a way to have

meaning in their lives.

Ages 75+

Before addressing the growth and development of the elderly, it is necessary to determine

which adults actually comprise this group. In the past, persons 65 and older were commonly

considered to be our senior citizens. Likewise, according to Erikson’s

Developmental Stages, the eighth stage – or old age – was typically from age 65 onward.

However, as the number of older adults increases in the world, it seems appropriate to redefine

the term elderly. The older elderly in this report are adults aged 75 and older.

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In general, most older elderly have markedly begun to weaken – physically, mentally, or

both. In terms of mental decline, the elderly may have particular difficulty with short-term

memory recall. Many elderly also tend to suffer other cognitive losses, including a diminished

ability to think clearly. Disease and brain disorders associated with old age can further affect

the elderly’s ability to process information.

Thornbury (1989) discusses a study that correlated Piaget’s developmental model to

cognitive losses in persons afflicted with Alzheimer’s disease. Findings showed that well elderly

adults performed at the Piagetian concrete/formal operational stage (school-age or adolescent).

However, the Alzheimer sample was divided equally between the concrete/formal stage and the

Piagetian sensorimotor/preoperational stage (infant or preschool).

Furthermore, another recent study examined new concept formation from early childhood

to adulthood. Verifying Vygotsky’s claim that most conceptual learning takes place during

adolescence, the study showed a rise consistent with age that peaked among

11 to 15-year olds and then steadily declined thereafter (Towsey & Macdonald, 2009).

In terms of psychosocial changes, Erikson purported that each of the seven stages

preceding the last helps to ripen the fruit of old age – that being wisdom. He viewed old age as a

time when integrity, or certainty in the completeness of one’s life, could offset feelings of

despair that often accompany physical decline and deterioration. Despair, which can further

lead to depression and feelings of hopelessness, can also result if the elderly adult perceives his

life as unsuccessful – a failure to have met personal goals.

Moreover, Erikson believed that psychosocial behaviors of life’s earlier stages will

reoccur in the final years. The sense of trust that began in the loving and supportive environment

of infancy will reemerge as an appreciation for the need for interdependence as one reaches old

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age. Additionally, the second stage of life (years 2 - 3), when control over one’s body is

acquired, will repeat itself in old age as one learns to accept inevitable physical change and

disintegration. Furthermore, a sense of purpose in life, first learned in ―play age‖ (years 3 - 5),

will be mirrored again in old age through retrospection and close consideration of one’s

accomplishments thus far (Goleman, 1988).

While old age can be a time of struggle between integrity and despair, it is also a time to

recognize both the certainty and the challenges of physical degeneration. Despite the adverse

effects of aging, many elderly indeed still strive to be active and engaged.

Elfreda Chatman (1991) examined older elderly populations and the relationship between

health, health care, and their desire/need for information. Most of Chatman’s subjects were

women with relatively low income and limited means of transportation.

They tended to have a short-term view of life but thrived on staying in touch with the world.

Mass media, especially television, was used as a way to gather information as well as a medium

for keeping up to date. Liroff and VanFleet (1992) further observed the benefits of mental

stimulation on the very old and noted how highly important mind-challenging activities were to

elderly adults and their overall well-being (Tolbert, 1993).

Although growing old is a common topic of conversation among the elderly, it seems that

most elderly do not hold positive feelings about the aging process. In fact,

Chatman (1992) closely associated aging with increased loss of self-reliance and independence.

Subjects worried about disabilities and having to leave the retirement center for nursing care or

other health services, they experienced greater loneliness during holiday periods when they

especially missed being with family. Many of the elderly were so depressed at the idea of

getting old; they refused to even talk about it.

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Nevertheless, Chatman (1992) also observed certain elderly who were still fully engaged

in life and living. Those who best handled aging were friendly, upbeat, and displayed a good

sense of humor. Therefore, it appears that a positive attitude and good health are closely

associated and are important factors contributing to successful aging.

Human development continues across all ages. From the moment of conception and

individual begins to develop. The brain development of infants’ is crucial to emotional

development in later life. Children’s development focuses on developing an identity of their

own and learning how they function in the world around them. Adolescence is about discovering

a sexual identity and separating from their birth family. In late adolescence, individuals move

from being a part of a family to developing their own family. They begin to be responsible for

their own needs both emotionally and financially. Adulthood includes developing a niche and

being a valued member of society. In mid to late adulthood, individuals begin to evaluate what

they have done in life. They begin to question if their contributions have been valued in late

adulthood and move from being employed to retirement. They deal with the loss of older

members of their families and maintain connections with younger members. Finally, the elderly

are continuing the process of late adulthood and trying to stay connected to the world at large.

All of these stages of development are important in the human life cycle. It is important

for individuals to know where they are developmentally, as well as those around them. Stages of

development affect how and individual understands what is happening to them personally and

within the world at large. Understanding where an individual is within the stages of

development affects how they take in and process information.

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References

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Furstenberg, F. F., Kennedy, S., McLoyd, V. C., Rumbaut, R. G., & Settersten, R. A. (2004).

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Suggested Readings

Auslander, B. A., & Rosenthal, S. (2010). Intimate romantic relationships in young adulthood: A

biodevelopmental perspective. In J. E. Grant, & M. N. Potenza, Young adult mental

health (pp. 155-168). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Chatman, E. (1991). Channels to a larger social world: Older women staying in contact

with the Great Society. Library & Information Science Research, 13(3), 281-300.

Erikson, E., & Erikson, J. (1997). The life cycle completed (extended version). New

York: W. W. Norton & Co.

Erikson, E., Erikson, J., & Kivnick, H. (1987). Vital involvement in old age. New

York: W. W. Norton & Co.

Hoare, C. H. (2001). Erikson on development in adulthood: New insights from the unpublished

papers. New York: Oxford University Press.

Huston, A. C. (2010). Human Development in Societal Context. Annual Review of Psychology,
61.

Knowles, M.S., Holton, E.F., & Swanson, R.A. (2005). The adult learner, sixth edition: The

definitive classic in adult education and human resource development. Burlington, MA:

Elsevier.

Mooney, C.G. (2000). Theories of childhood: An introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erikson,

Piaget & Vygotsky. St. Paul, MN: Redleaf Press.

Rowe, J.W.,Kahn, R.L. (1998). Successful aging. Dell Publishing: New York.

Rutter, M. (2008). Implications of Attachment Theory and Research for Child Care Policies. In

Cassidy J and Shaver PR. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical

Applications (2nd ed.). New York and London: Guilford Press. pp. 958–974.

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Sell, C.M. (1991). Transitions through adult life. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing

House.

Vaughn, B.E., Bost K.K., Van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (2008). Attachment and Temperament. In

Cassidy J, Shaver PR. Handbook of Attachment: Theory, Research and Clinical

Applications. New York and London: Guilford Press. pp. 192–216.

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