My presentation from the Inheritance and Evolution unit, 2012-2013.

1. Hereditary Genetics
Hereditary means something which is passed on
from one generation to the next.
What are we talking about?
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ragdoll_kitten_blue
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hair01.JPG

2. What do we Inherit from our Parents?

3. What are?
● Chromosomes?
● DNA?
● Genes?
● CG, AT?
● Why can two right-handed parents have a left-
handed child?
● Why do some people look different to their
parents?
● What causes some people to be born disabled?

4. Chromosomes
● Most cells contain a nucleus
● The nucleus contains long, thin strands of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid).
● The DNA contains the code to make every part
of an organism.
● Instructions for a particular characteristic is
called a gene.

5. Chromosomes and DNA
http://www.riversideonline.com/health_

6. Chromosomes in a Cell
http://media.ehd.org/images/prenatal_numbe

7. A Real Photo
http://www.sciencephoto.com/image/31303

8. Human Chromosomes
Homologous
chromosomes
http://www.edinformatics.com/math_scie

9. Chromosome Pairs
● Chromosomes always come in pairs. Humans
have 23 pairs.
● Each chromosome in the pair contains
instructions for the same genes. The
instructions may be the same or different, eg
'blonde hair' and 'black hair', or 'right handed' or
'left handed'.
● In organisms which undergo sexual
reproduction, one chromosome is inherited
from each parent. Sex cells (eg sperm, egg,
pollen) contain one chromosome from each
pair, so 23 chromosomes.

10. Spotlight Science
● Page 7.

11. Mitosis
Mitosis is for
growth and http://www.accessexcellence.o
repair of tissue.

12. Meiosis
Meiosis produces sex cells, or gametes (sperm
and egg)
Each gamete has half the number of chromosomes
– one from each pair. Each allele is stored on one
chromosome.
http://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/n100/2k4ch9meio
l

13. Mendel
Mendel was an Austrian Monk who worked with
peas.
Where's Austria?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel

14. Mendel Used Peas
Mendel studied characteristics.
A characteristic is something which can change.
Mendel studied five characteristics in peas.
http://slohs.slcusd.org/pages/teachers/rham

15. Pollination and Flowers
http://andromeda.cavehill.uwi.edu/flower

16. Cross Pollination
http://www.ekapa.ioisa.org.za/module9/pollin

17. First Generation Plants
Image from a Japanese textbook:
http://www.tmd.ac.jp/artsci/biol/textbook/genetics.htm

18. Third Generation Plants
The second generation plants' flowers were all pink.
When the second-generation flowers were self-pollinated,
three quarters of the third-generation had pink flowers and
one quarter and white flowers.
From this Mendel determined that each of the second-
generation pea plants contained one pink gene from one of
their parent plants, and one white gene from the other
parent. Since they were all pink, he determined that the
pink gene would always show up if present; he called this
the dominant gene.
The recessive gene 'recedes' and can remain hidden for
several generations, and only appears when no dominant
gene is present.

19. Vocabulary
A characteristic is a feature which can take different forms,
eg hair colour, handedness.
A trait is a possible form of a characteristic, eg blonde hair,
left handed.
A gene is the instruction for an inherited characteristic.
Different forms of a gene are known as alleles, which are
written as letters.
A dominant allele will always show up. It's written as a
capital letter.
A recessive allele will only show up if there is no dominant.
It's written as a lowercase letter.

20. MORE vocabulary
HH
Everyone has two alleles for each gene, with one
from each parent.
A genotype is the the genes, written as two
letters.
A phenotype is the physical characteristic that we
can see.

21. Punnet Squares
A punnet square is used to calculate the
probability of outcomes.
Probability does not mean it will happen.
There is a one in two chance of a head when I flip
a coin, but this doesn't mean I will always get half
heads.

22. Discontinuous Human Characteristics
All these are controlled by one gene in humans.
These show more variation in Europeans. Why?
Images in my presentation from class included a European
sailing ship, the Josean Empire (Korean) logo and the Great Wall
of China.

23. Tongue Rolling
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rolled_tongue_flikr.jpg

24. Hitchhikers Thumb
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hitchhiker%27s_Thumbs.jpg

25. Hair Colour
Dark (brown / black) hair is dominant to light-
coloured hair (blonde, ginger etc).
Like all these examples, this is a simplification as
hair colour is controlled by many different genes.

26. Eye Colour
Dark (brown / black) eyes are dominant to light-
coloured eyes (blue, hazel etc).

27. Punnet Squares Example
Right handedness (H) is dominant to left
handedness (h). A right handed parent who also
carries the left handed allele has four children with
a left handed parent.
a) draw a punnet square for this cross.
b) what is the probability that each child will be
right handed?
c) how many of the six children would you expect
to be left handed?

28. More Vocabulary
Homozygous means both alleles are the same.
1. Homozygous dominant means both alleles
are dominant.
2. Homozygous recessive means both alleles
are recessive.
3. Heterozygous means both alleles are different.
Which one will have a recessive phenotype?
Which one will have all children the same?

29. 1. Ayumi, who is homozygous right handed, has four children with
Satoshi, who is left handed.
A) Write down the genotypes and phenotypes of Ayumi and Satoshi.
B) Draw a punnet square to calculate the genotype and phenotype of
their offpsring.
C) Explain why all of the children are right handed.
2. One of Ayumi and Satoshi's children, Atsumi, has children with a
Yuuto, who is heterozygous. Determine the phenotype ratio for
Atsumi and Yuuto's children.
3. Black hair B is dominant to blonde hair, b. Mary, who has black
hair, has five children with Bill, who has blonde hair. All the children
have black hair.
a) What is Mary's genotype most likely to be? Explain why we can't
be certain.
b) What is the genotype of Mary and Bill's children?
c) One of Mary and Bill's children has children with a blonde haired
person. What percentage of their children do you expect to have
blonde hair?

30. Punnet Squares Worksheets
In-class work

31. Male/Female difference
Males have an x and a y chromosome.
Females have two x chromosomes.
Which sex chromosome (x or y) does sperm
have?
Which sex chromosome do eggs have?
Draw a punnet square of this cross.

32. King Henry VIII
King Henry the VIII had a
lot of wives.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_VIII_of_England
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tower_of_London,_Traitors_Gate.jpg

33. Colour Blindedness
Colour
blindedness is
recessive on the
x chromosome.
Which gender is
more liky to be
colourblind?
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ishihara_9.png

34. Explain...
Explain why colourblindedness is more likely to
occur in males than females.
Your explanation should be suited to a fifth grade
child.
It should explain:
1. dominant and recessive.
2. X and Y chromosomes and their role in gender
3. Why boys are more likely to be colourblind than
girls.
4. It should also give an example of what is
required for a girl and boy to be born colourblind.

35. Pedigree Charts
http://www.biologyjunction.com/pe

36. Sex Chromosome Problems
Sometimes errors occur during meiosis (the
production of gametes) and the zygote (sperm
and egg combined) have the wrong number of
sex chromosomes.
In class we looked at a few of the more common
syndromes that result from sex chromosome
abnormalities, however I do not expect you to
remember what they all are.

37. Quick Review
1. Who was Mendel?
2. Mendel found that smooth peas are dominant
to wrinkled peas. Mendel crosses two pea plants
which are both heterozygous for pea texture.
Draw a punnet square to show the cross, and
determine the phenotype ratio of the offspring.
3. Tall pea plants are dominant to short pea
plants. A pure-breeding (homozygous) short pea
plant is crossed with a heterozygous pea plant.
Determine the phenotype ratio of the offspring.

38. Pedigree Charts

39. Pedigree Charts
● A pedigree chart is a diagram which shows the
phenotypes for one gene through generations.
● A female is represented by a circle and a male a
square.
● A filled in (black) shape represents the presence
of one phenotype and an empty (white) shape
represents the other phenotype.
● The dominant trait can be determined because
two parents with the ____________ trait can have
offspring with the __________ trait, but not vice
versa.

40. The Cryptogram
The human genome contains over three billion
base pairs, about one and a half percent of which
stores codes for twenty three thousand proteins,
and the rest stores other information, including
controversial "junk DNA" which has no known
purpose. The total amount of data is about six
hundred megabytes. Each cell copies this entire
code during mitosis, and it only takes about eighty
minutes to copy the entire genome. Cells very
rarely copy any of the code incorrectly, but if a
mistake is made, it is called a mutation, and can
be good, bad or have no effect.

41. Poster
Design an A3 poster to show your family's genotypes
and phenotypes.
1.Include as many people as possible.
2. It should be a pedigree chart, but style can vary.
(eg it doesn't need to use squares and circles if it's
obvious)
3. It may include photos or pictures.
4. If possible, show them with the phenotype, eg
rolling their tongue or holding a pen in one hand. Be
creative.

42. DNA
DNA = Deoxy--ribo--
nucleic Acid
It stores the code to
make all living things.
It is like a recipe
book.
It's shape is a double
helix, like a twisted
ladder.
Image source: wikipedia

43. DNA is made of four
Nucleotides
different nucleotides joined
together.
Each one has a sugar, a
phosphate and a base.
The base is the only part
that is different.
A always pairs with T.
G always pairs with C.
Please only learn the above;
don't memorise the structure of
the DNA molecule. This image is
included because it is licensed
under Creative Commons.

44. How the Code is Stored
The order of the base pairs stores code for
proteins. Every part of our body is made of
protein, and the code is in our DNA.
Our DNA has some
differences but is mostly
the same. It is also similar
to other primates.
It is the ORDER of the
base pairs which is the
same or different.
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dna_strand.png

45. Proteins
Proteins make up all living things. Hair, toenails,
skin etc are all made of proteins.
Proteins are made of amino acids. There are
twenty different amino acids used by animals.
A good diagram here:
http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages

46. Quick Review
1)Explain the terms DNA, chromosome, gene,
genotype, genome, phenotype, dominant, recessive.
2)In pea plants, green pea pods are dominant to
yellow pea pods. Karina cross-pollinates a
heterozygous plant with a plant with yellow pods.
a) What colour are the pods of the heterozygous
plant.
b) Draw a punnet square for the cross.
c) Determine the phenotype ratio of the next
generation.
3)Explain how our DNA stores code to make an
organism. You should consider how it is coded and
what the information tells.

47. Incomplete Dominance
● Incomplete Dominance occurs when the
phenotype of the heterozygous genotype
shows some of each of the homozygous
phenotypes.
● For example, the Snapdragon flower can be:
RR = red
rr = white
Rr = pink
http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/biobk/bi

48. A good diagram here:
http://www.biologycorner.com/APbiology/

49. Mutations
● The human genome is about three billion base
pairs long, and it is usually copied without error.
● If an error does occur the genes are changed.
This is called a mutation.
● Mutations usually have no effect, are
sometimes harmful and occasionally beneficial.
● Blue eyes in humans are a recent mutation,
therefore all blue-eyed people share a common
ancestor.

50. Adaptation
An adaptation is a change which helps an
organism survive and reproduce in its
environment.
Images:wikipedia

51. We discussed how similar skeletons of mammals are,
as can be shown at the link below, and what scientists
believe this tells about our origins (that we are
related). We also discussed the existence of the
tailbone, and how that suggests that humans once had
a tail.
http://anthropology.net/2008/01/24/the-majority-of-human-genom

52. Human Influence on Evolution
We have studied how species adapt to their
natural environment, and those that survive are
likely to have more offspring. This is called
n________ s__________.
Humans change the gene pool of many other
species by selecting which ones reproduce. This
is called selective breeding.
Selective breeding is different from g________
e_______ in that organisms can only be
genetically combined if they are of the same or
similar species.

53. Carrots
It is believed that the carrot was first found
growing in present-day Afghanistan around 5000
years ago, in colours of white, black and purple.
It is believed that this cave drawing Egypt from
2000 years ago is of a purple carrot.
We looked at historical drawings of carrots, but of
course I don't expect you to remember them!
Main idea: humans have selectively bred plants
and animal species to the point that most look
little like their ancestors from thousands of years
ago before humans began farming them.

54. Greeks on Carrots
Theophrastus (371-287bc, Greece), the “father of
Botany” reports of carrots being found in Greece
and Asia.
Archaeobotanists have analyzed plant DNA in
Greek-made pills from a 130 BC shipwreck, and
found that the pills appear to contain carrot,
parsley, radish, alfalfa, chestnut, celery, wild
onion, yarrow, oak, and cabbage.
www.carrotmuseum.co.uk

55. Cows
Cattle (cows) have been domesticated by humans
since the neolithic period.
They are unusual in that they rarely exist in the
wild anymore.
We have selectively bred cows to produce a lot of
milk (and meat?).

56. What's Not Good about Selective
Breeding
Selective Breeding of can cause food to be
less healthy than old varieties. We get more
food faster, but it's not necessarily better.
Through selective breeding of cows (and
often the use of drugs) the average annual
production of milk has increased from
3,300kg per year to 8,500 kg per year in a
century.
http://gabriel37.wordpress.com/page/10/

57. Evidence for Evolution
The fossil record
Observable changes within recordable human
history, or even smaller times.
What is something which evolves very fast, and
why?
ANS: things with shorter lifespans evolve faster.

58. Carbon 14
Most carbon is carbon-12, which means that it has ________
protons and ______ neutrons. Carbon-14 has an extra two
____________.
In the atmosphere, the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12 is about
1 : 7 * 1011.
Carbon 14 has a half life of 5730 years. This means that every
5730 years, exactly half of the carbon 14 will change into
carbon-12.
By measuring the amount of carbon-14 in something we can
estimate how long since it died.

59. Simulation
http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/radioactive-
dating-game.

60. Geologic Time
Scale
At this level I only expect
you to remember the order
(using PreCambrian,
Paleozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic) and which types
of organisms appeared in
each.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Geologic_time_scale.jpg

61. Mass Extinctions
Many species become extinct if they can not adapt to changes
in their environment fast enough.
At some times during history, many species become extinct.
Scientists believe this is due to changes in climate, which may
be caused by meteorites.

62. Pangea
It is believed that all
the continents were
once together in one
landmass. Pangea
means “all Earth”.
As the continents drift
apart, their climate
changes, so species
must adapt. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pangea_animation_0

63. Why Did they Die?
Dinousaurs died out about 65.5 million years ago.
Why?
Heat generated caused fires, and the smoke
and dust blocked out the sunlight, so the
plants all died out, leaving the dinosaurs with
nothing to eat.

64. Hominids
The human-like family of primates are called
hominids.
All hominids walk upright.
Even though our skeletons are similar to
Chimpanzees, hominids are unique in that their
skeletons are built for walking upright.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ape_skeletons.png

65. Lucy
Lucy is a skeleton of
Australopithicus Afarensis, found
in Ethiopia (where?) in 1974.
Several hundred bones were
found, and they are estimated to
make up about 40% of her whole
skeleton.
She walked like a human, but was
only 1.1m tall.
She is estimated to have lived 3.2
million years ago.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lucy_Skeleton.jpg

67. Neanderthal
Neanderthals lived in
Europe and Asia from
about 230 000 until as
recently as 30 000
years ago.
Please don't learn these
figures!
They had clothing, tools,
art and culture.
No one knows what
caused them to die out.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Neandertala_homo,_modelo_en_Neand-muzeo.JPG

68. Homo Sapiens
We are Homo Sapiens.
We left Africa between 40 000 and 100 000
years ago.
Early homo sapiens had an organised and
complicated society, with a lot of art, sculpture,
paintings etc.

69. The End
Next Unit: Chemicals and Their Reactivity