1. *BLOOD
- Dr.Chintan

2. *
* The bloods of different people have different antigenic and immune
properties, so that antibodies in the plasma of one blood will react with
antigens on the surfaces of the red cells of another blood type
* Antigen (Agglutinogen) – Red cell membrane
* Antibody (Agglutinin) – Plasma
* Types :
ABO Blood group
Rhesus (Rh) Blood group
Others

3. *
* Karl Landsteiner’s law :
* If an antigen is present in the RBC’s of an individual, the corresponding
antibody must be absent from the plasma
* If an antigen is absent in the RBC’s of an individual, the corresponding
antibody must be present from the plasma
* Exception
Blood Types
Agglutinogens
Agglutinins
A
A
Anti – B (β)
B
B
Anti – A (α)
AB
A and B
-
O
-
Anti – A and Anti - B

4. The ABO gene locus is located on the chromosome 9

6. *
* Immediately after birth, the quantity of agglutinins in the plasma is
almost zero. Two to 8 months after birth, an infant begins to produce
agglutinins.
* Anti-A agglutinins when type A agglutinogens are not present in the cells,
and anti-B agglutinins when type B agglutinogens are not in the cells.
* A maximum titer is usually reached at 8 to 10 years of age, and this
gradually declines throughout the remaining years of life.
* But why are these agglutinins produced in people who do not have the
respective agglutinogens in their red blood cells ?
* Small amounts of type A and B antigens enter the body in food, in
bacteria, and in other ways, and these substances initiate the
development of the anti-A and anti-B agglutinins.
* Agglutinogens A & B 1st appear in the 6th week of fetal life. (1/5 →
puberty → adolescence.

8. *
* When bloods are mismatched so that anti-A or anti-B plasma agglutinins
are mixed with red blood cells that contain A or B agglutinogens,
respectively, the red cells agglutinate as a result of the agglutinins’
attaching themselves to the red blood cells.
* Because the agglutinins have two binding sites (IgG type) or 10 binding
sites (IgM type), a single agglutinin can attach to two or more red blood
cells at the same time, thereby causing the cells to be bound together by
the agglutinin. This causes the cells to clump, which is the process of
“agglutination.”
* These clumps plug small blood vessels throughout the circulatory
system.
* During ensuing hours to days, either physical distortion of the cells or
attack by phagocytic white blood cells destroys the membranes of the
agglutinated cells, releasing hemoglobin into the plasma, which is called
“hemolysis” of the red blood cells.

9. *
The red blood cells are first separated from the plasma and diluted with saline.
One portion is then mixed with anti-A agglutinin and another portion with anti-B
agglutinin.
After several minutes, the mixtures are observed under a microscope.
If the red blood cells have become clumped—that is, “agglutinated”—one knows
that an antibody antigen reaction has resulted.
RBC Types
Anti – A Sera (Blue)
Anti – B Sera (Yellow)
O
-
-
A
+
-
B
-
+
AB
+
+

11. *
* The Rh system is the second most significant blood-group system in
human-blood transfusion. The most significant Rh antigen is the D
antigen, because it is the most likely to provoke an immune system
response.
* Anti-D antibodies are not usually produced by sensitization against
environmental substances.
* D-negative individuals can produce IgG anti-D antibodies following a
sensitizing event.
* A fetomaternal transfusion of blood from a fetus in pregnancy or
occasionally a blood transfusion with D positive RBCs.
* When red blood cells containing Rh factor are injected into a person
whose blood does not contain the Rh factor—that is, into an Rh-negative
person—anti-Rh agglutinins develop slowly, reaching maximum
concentration of agglutinins about 2 to 4 months later.
* % proportion

12. *
* If an Rh negative person has never before been exposed to Rh positive
blood, transfusion of Rh-positive blood into that person will likely cause
no immediate reaction.
* However, anti-Rh antibodies can develop in sufficient quantities during
the next 2 to 4 weeks to cause agglutination of those transfused cells that
are still circulating in the blood.
* These cells are then hemolyzed by the tissue macrophage system. Thus, a
delayed transfusion reaction occurs, although it is usually mild.
* On subsequent transfusion of Rh-positive blood into the same person,
who is now already immunized against the Rh factor, the transfusion
reaction is greatly enhanced and can be immediate and as severe as a
transfusion reaction caused by mismatched type A or B blood.

13. *
* Erythroblastosis fetalis is a disease of the fetus and newborn child
characterized by agglutination and phagocytosis of the fetus’s red blood
cells.
* In most instances of erythroblastosis fetalis, the mother is Rh negative
and the father Rh positive. The baby has inherited the Rh-positive
antigen from the father.
* The mother develops anti-Rh agglutinins from exposure to the fetus’s Rh
antigen.
* Mother’s agglutinins diffuse through the placenta into the fetus and
cause red blood cell agglutination.
* 1st delivery – no harm
* The incidence rises progressively with subsequent pregnancies.

14. *
*Rapid production – early form of RBC – nucleated blastic forms
*Anemic, sometimes severe
*Agglutination – hemolysis – hemoglobin – bilirubin – jaundice
*Hepatomegaly, splenomegaly (Icterus gravis neonatorum)
*Kernicterus
*Hydrops fetalis – edema – cardiac failure – intrauterine death

15. *
* Kernicterus :
* Bilirubin – BBB – Brain damage
* Basal ganglia, hippocampus, cerebellum, cranial nerves
* Lethargic, sleepy, hypotonia
* Hypertonia
* Irritability, crying, chorea, athetosis, spasticity, convulsions, fever, coma

16. *
* To replace the neonate’s blood with Rh-negative blood. Rh-positive blood
is being removed – exchange transfusion
* Rh immunoglobulin globin, an anti-D antibody is administered to the
expectant mother starting at 28 to 30 weeks of gestation.
* The anti-D antibody is also administered to Rh-negative women who
deliver Rh-positive babies to prevent sensitization of the mothers to the
D antigen.
* This greatly reduces the risk of developing large amounts of D antibodies
during the second pregnancy.
* MOA : to inhibit antigen-induced B lymphocyte antibody production in
the expectant mother. It also attaches to D antigen sites on Rh-positive
fetal red blood cells that may cross the placenta and enter the circulation
of the expectant mother.

17. *
ABO
Rh
IgM
IgG
Can’t cross the placenta
Cross the placenta
Immediate
Late
Cold
Warm
Natural antibody
No natural antibody
Tissues, body fluids +
-
Glycolipids, glycoproteins
Integral membrane proteins

18. *
* Blood transfusion, tissue transplant, emergency conditions
* Rh incompatibility
* Paternity dispute
* Medico legal
* Diseases (O – ulcer, A – carcinoma)

19. *BLOOD
TRANSFUSION

20. *
* Blood loss – accidents, surgical operations
* Severe anemia (Pregnancy & emergency surgery – quick restoration of
Hb)
* Exchange transfusion
* Blood diseases – Aplastic
anemia, agranulocytosis, leukemias, hemophilia, purpura, clotting &
bleeding disorders
* Acute CO poisoning
* Autologous (Elective surgery)

21. *
* Donor selection
* Cross matching
* Major – Donor cell with recipient plasma
* Minor – Recipient cells with donor plasma
* Universal donor (O –ve)
* Universal recipient (AB +ve)

22. *

26. *
* Chills, fever, skin rash, itching
* Anaphylactic shock
* Circulatory overload
* Iron overload – hemosiderosis
* Transmission of diseases
* Infection
* Thrombophlebitis
* Air embolism
* Hyperkalemia
* Hypocalcaemia

27. *
* Hemolysis – hemoglobinemia & hemoglobinuria (red urine), heart rate
↑, BP ↓, dyspnea, bronchospasm, nausea, vomiting,, pulmonary
edema, CCF…………. Jaundice
* Chest pain, back pain
* Renal stone
* Renal shutdown – anuria
* Renal vasoconstriction, circulatory shock, kidney tubules blockage
* Uremia, Coma, death

28. *
* 1 unit of blood (300 ml) – every 3 months
* ACD mixture (21 days)
* Cold storage
- RBC swell (loss of K, ↑ in Na, water)
- 80 % - 24 hrs. – Destroyed at 1% / day
- WBCs, Platelets – absent after 24 hrs.
* Blood components – PCV, FFP, Platelets

29. *THANQ……