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2011 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.
                   International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies




International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

                                  http://www.TuEngr.com, http://go.to/Research




  Oxygen Excess Control of Industrial Combustion Through the
  Use of Automotive Lambda Sensor
                           a*                                   a                               a
  Lutero C. de Lima , Humberto A. Carmona , Cesar V. M. da Silva , and Francisco S.
                           a
  Cavalcante Junior
  a
      Graduate Program on Applied Physics, State University of Ceará, BRAZIL


  ARTICLEINFO                         A B S T RA C T
  Article history:                            The objective of this study is to present a simple and low
  Received 30 April 2011              cost method of determining the flue gases oxygen concentration.
  Received in revised form
  20 July 2011
                                      The method makes use of the Lambda sensor, a part of the fuel
  Accepted 25 July 2011               injection system of the modern automobile’s engine.              A
  Available online 26 July 2011       combustion chamber was mounted with a heated Lambda sensor
                                      installed in its chimney. Residual oxygen concentrations in the
  Keywords:                           flue gases were estimated by the use of the Nernst equation and
  Flue gases;                         compared to a reference combustion analyser. The observed
  Industrial combustion;
  Lambda sensor;                      average deviation in the measurements was of about 5 % which is
  Oxygen concentration;               in the range of interest to the industrial combustion.
  Thermal control
                                        2011 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, &
                                      Applied Sciences & Technologies.                 Some Rights Reserved.



  1. Introduction  
         Laws and environmental regulations for the control of air pollution are turning more
  stringent mainly where the combustion of fossil fuels or biomass is present.                                        After
  Wulfinghoff (2000), the efficiency control of combustion generally is made through the
  measurement of oxygen, carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide concentration in the flue gases.
  The measurement of oxygen concentration is better suited for the efficiency test of a
  combustion process because oxygen and excess air is almost independent of the fuel type.
  When the optimum excess air setting is approached, the relative change in oxygen
  concentration is much more accentuated than the relative change in carbon monoxide or
  *Corresponding author (L.C. de Lima). Tel/Fax: +55-85-31019902. E-mail addresses:
  luterolima@gmail.com.        2011. International Transaction Journal of Engineering,
  Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.      Volume 2 No.3.     ISSN 2228-9860.
                                                                                                                365
  eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TuEngr.com/V02/365-373.pdf
carbon dioxide for a given change in excess air. The Orsat analyser is the pioneer of
combustion efficiency testers. This chemical testing apparatus in which flue gases are mixed
with a liquid reagent that changes volume as a result of the reaction is simple and accurate.
However, the apparatus is built of delicate glass tubing and requires a fine touch.


    Still after Wulfinghoff (2000), most of the modern combustion testers is based on electro-
chemical sensors. For the detection of oxygen the most common sensor used is a zirconium
oxide element that develops a voltage difference across two platinum electrodes separated by
a porous ceramic layer if there is a difference in oxygen concentration. The combustion
process in the modern automobiles generally is controlled by an oxygen sensor known as
Lambda sensor (Figure 1).




                            Figure 1: Commercial Lambda sensors.


    McDonald, et al. (1998) used unheated and heated Lambda sensors for the monitoring
residential oil burners. They observed that even being a little more expensive the heated
Lambda sensor presented better accuracy and low response time when compared to the
unheated one. The unheated Lambda sensor takes about 5 minutes of warm-up in order to be
operational. Unéus, et al. (1999) applied Lambda sensor for the measurement of oxygen
percentage in the range of 12 to 15 % in industrial boilers. Wiesendorf, et al. (1999) used
this sensor for the monitoring of fluidized bed combustors. Gibson, et al. (1999) developed a
new technique of working with Lambda sensor which consist of applying a potential in one
and in the opposite directions of the sensor terminal and the electrical currents measured. The
ratio between forward and reverse currents presents linear correspondence to the oxygen
percentage in the combustion environment.                 Pickenacker, et al. (2000) determined


    366          Lutero C. de Lima, Humberto A. Carmona, Cesar V. M. da Silva, and F. S. Cavalcante Junior
experimentally air excess in boilers and furnaces using the concept of Wobbe which was
determined through the use of Lambda sensor. Auckenthaler, et al. (2002) were the first
researchers to study the transient behavior of Lambda sensor. Niklasson, et al. (2003) studied
air-fuel ratio in a fluidized bed furnace through fluctuating signals from zirconia cell probes.
Eskilsson, et al. (2004) used Lambda sensor to monitor oxygen concentration, combustion
efficiency and emissions in pellet burners. Johansson, et al. (2007) used a Lambda probe to
indicate whether the combustion environment was in oxidizing or reducing conditions.
Varamban, et al. (2005) extended the perturbation method developed by Gibson, et al. and
proposed a scheme to measure the emf and short circuit current of a potentiometric (zirconia)
sensor simultaneously.


    In the present article an automotive Lambda sensor was installed in the chimney of a
combustion chamber where its voltage difference and the flue gases temperature were
monitored and the oxygen concentration determined through the use of the Nernst equation.
Results indicate that it is relatively simple the construction of low cost equipment to monitor
industrial combustion.


2. Materials and methods 
    The Lambda sensor being an electrochemical cell when              inserted in a situation where
there is a difference of oxygen concentration as, for example, between the inside of a
combustion chamber and the atmospheric air, and at a temperature above 300 °C, starts to
conduct oxygen ions from the region of high to the region of low electrochemical potential.
The migration of oxygen ions inside the electrochemical cell generate a voltage which
decrease exponentially with the oxygen concentration inside the combustion chamber, taking
as reference the air outside with oxygen concentration of 20.96 %.


    The equation which relates the oxygen concentration with a voltage developed inside the
Lambda sensor is the Nernst equation in its inverse under the following form:


                                         /
                  ₂ %       20.96                                                             (1),


where z is the number of electrons migrating from one electrode to another electrode inside
*Corresponding author (L.C. de Lima). Tel/Fax: +55-85-31019902. E-mail addresses:
luterolima@gmail.com.        2011. International Transaction Journal of Engineering,
Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.      Volume 2 No.3.     ISSN 2228-9860.
                                                                                          367
eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TuEngr.com/V02/365-373.pdf
the Lambda sensor, F is the Faraday constant, E is the voltage developed in the sensor, R is
the universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature inside the Lambda sensor.


    A commercial Lambda sensor was installed in the chimney of the combustion chamber
shown in Figure 2. The combustion chamber has a Weishaupt LPG burner of 50 kW. Close
to the Lambda sensor was installed a type K thermocouple. It was developed an electronic
circuit which feed the heating element of the Lambda sensor in order to maintain constant the
inside temperature of sensor no matter how is the temperature of the flue gases.




                                  Figure 2: Experimental setup.


    The voltage signal of the Lambda sensor was monitored by a FLUKE 189 multimeter
with resolution of 0.01 mV and accuracy of 0.4 %. The thermocouple signal was recorded by
a temperature controller showing resolution of 1 °C and accuracy of 0.5 %. The oxygen
concentration was measured by the TESTO 300 XL combustion gas analyser with resolution
of 0.1 % and accuracy of 0.2 %.




3. Results and Discussion 
       Figure 3 presents signal of a Lambda sensor in mV calculated by the Nernst equation
  (1) for different levels of temperature and as a function of oxygen concentration. As can be
  seen by that figure when the oxygen concentration comes to the extreme points, as for
  example, 0 % and 20.96 % the voltage signal of the Lambda sensor go to infinite and zero
  respectively. This behavior of the Lambda sensor limits its application to the measurement

    368          Lutero C. de Lima, Humberto A. Carmona, Cesar V. M. da Silva, and F. S. Cavalcante Junior
of oxygen concentration outside of such range.




      Figure 3: Output signal of a Lambda sensor as calculated by the Nernst equation.


    The relationship between the temperatures of the heating element of the Lambda sensor
against its electrical resistance is shown in Figure 4. It was permitted to the combustion
chamber to warm until 300 ºC. The burner was turn off and the electrical resistance of the
heating element inside the Lambda sensor was recorded during the cooling period. It is very
important to know the electrical resistance of the heating element of the Lambda sensor as a
function of temperature because the electronic circuit responsible for the maintenance of
constant temperature inside the sensor works controlling its resistance feeding more or less
power.




*Corresponding author (L.C. de Lima). Tel/Fax: +55-85-31019902. E-mail addresses:
luterolima@gmail.com.        2011. International Transaction Journal of Engineering,
Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.      Volume 2 No.3.     ISSN 2228-9860.
                                                                                         369
eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TuEngr.com/V02/365-373.pdf
Figure 4: Curve of electrical resistance of the heating element against temperature.




  Figure 5: Flue gases oxygen percentage against measurements of the reference monitor.




    Figure 5 presents the percentage of oxygen in flue gases calculated by equation (1) with
the input of the voltage furnished by the Lambda sensor and temperature given by the
thermocouple for different situations of combustion of LPG against measurements taken from


    370         Lutero C. de Lima, Humberto A. Carmona, Cesar V. M. da Silva, and F. S. Cavalcante Junior
the reference combustion monitor. The average deviation of the set of measurements was
about 5 %. The correlation factor was of 0.97 demonstrating good agreement between the
measurements of the proposed method of determining oxygen concentration of combustion
flue gases and the measurements made by the reference monitor. In the range higher than 15
% of oxygen concentration the deviation was more accentuate (about 10%) and this is due the
logarithmic nature of the sensor’s output, as can be seen in the Figure 3.




Figure 6: Output of the Lambda sensor at the constant temperature of 500 °C as a function of
                                     the oxygen concentration.


    Figure 6 presents the evolution of the output of the proposed method as a function of the
oxygen concentration while the temperature inside the Lambda sensor was maintained
constant at about 500 °C and independent of the flue gases temperature. As it is shown in that
figure the measurements follow very closely the Nernst law equation.


4. Conclusion 
    In this work it was presented a simple method of determining oxygen concentration in the
exhaust gases of combustion particularly the industrial combustion. Results demonstrated the

*Corresponding author (L.C. de Lima). Tel/Fax: +55-85-31019902. E-mail addresses:
luterolima@gmail.com.        2011. International Transaction Journal of Engineering,
Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.      Volume 2 No.3.     ISSN 2228-9860.
                                                                                         371
eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TuEngr.com/V02/365-373.pdf
feasibility of the proposed method when the Lambda sensor is operated inside a usual
combustion chamber. The heating time of about 5 minutes and the logarithmic response of
the Lambda sensor are its main drawbacks if it is wanted to develop the herewith presented
method of measuring oxygen concentration in flue gases of industrial combustion.


5. Acknowledgements 
    The authors thank the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological
Development (CNPq) for financial support. A very special thank you is due to Dr.João
Batista Furlan Duarte for insightful comments, helping clarify and improve the manuscript.


6. References 
Auckenthaler, T.S., C. Onder, and H.P. Geering. (2002). Control- oriented investigation of
      Switch-type air/fuel ratio sensor, in: Proceedings of the IFAC World Congress,
      Barcelona, Spain, CD-ROM.

Eskilsson, D., M. Ronnback, J. Samuelson and C. Tullin. (2004). Optimisation of efficiency
       and emissions in pellet burners. Biomass and Bioenergy, 27, 541-546.

Gibson, R.W., R.V. Kumar and D.J. Fray. (1999). Novel sensors for monitoring high oxygen
      concentrations. Solid State Ionics, 121, 43-50.

Johansson, A., F. Johnsson, F. Niklasson and L.E. Armand. (2007). Dynamics of furnace
       processes in a CFB boiler. Chemical Engineering Science, 62, 550-560.

McDonald, R.J., T.A. Butcher and R.F. Krajewski. (1998). Development of self tuning
     residential oil burner – oxygen sensor assessment and early prototype system
     operating experience. Brookhaven National Laboratory, Informal Report BNL-
     66045, 26 pages, Upton, NY, USA.

Niklasson, F., F. Johnsson and B. Leckner. (2003). Local air ratio measured by zirconia cell in
       a circulating fluidised bed furnace. Chem. Eng. J. , 96, 145-155.

Pickenacker, K., D. Trimis and K. Wawrzinek. (2001). Development of a Wobbe number
       sensor for controlled combustion of gaseous fuels with varying quality, in:
       Proceedings of International Conference on Technologies and Combustion for a
       Clean Environment (Clean Air VI), Porto, Portugal, V.1, 1-11.

Unéus, L., P. Ljung, M. Mattson, P. Martensson, R. Wigren, P. Tobias, I. Lundstrom, L.G.
       Ekedahl and A. Lloyd Spetz. (1999). Measurements with MISIC and MOS sensors in
       flue gases, in: Proccedings of Eurosensors XIII, Hague, Netherland, 521-524.

Varamban, S.V., R. Ganesan and G. Periaswami. (2005). Simultaneous measurement of emf
      and short circuit current for a potentiometric sensor using perturbation technique,
      Sensors and Actuactors B, 104, 94-102.

    372          Lutero C. de Lima, Humberto A. Carmona, Cesar V. M. da Silva, and F. S. Cavalcante Junior
Wiesendorf, V., E.U. Hartage, J. Wether, F. Johansson, J. Sternéus, B. Leckner, D. Montat,
      and P. Briand. (1999). The CFB boiler in Gardanne – an experimental investigation of
      its bottom zone, in: Proceedings of the 15th Int. Conf. On Fluidized Bed Combustion,
      Savannah, Georgia, USA, May 16-19, ASME, Paper FBC99-0151.

Wulfinghoff, D. R. (2000). Energy Efficiency Manual. Published by Energy Institute Press,
      USA.


             Dr.Lutero Carmo de Lima graduated in Physics by the University of Santo Amaro, M.Sc. and Dr. Eng. in
             Mechanical Engineering by the Federal University of Santa Catarina and University of São Paulo,
             respectively. He is presently Adjunct Professor at the State University of Ceará and basically works in
             fundamental problems of the thermal science, clean energy and instrumentation. He was awarded a
             Fulbright Fellow and inducted as Vice President of PHI BETA DELTA, Chapter Beta Theta, Honour
             Society for International Scholars, USA. 

             Dr.Humberto de Andrade Carmona is an Adjunct Professor in the Program for Applied Physical Science
             at the Ceara State University working mainly with alternative energies, particularly with material science
             applied to problems involving thermal science and solar energy. He holds a PhD in Physics from the
             University of Nottingham, England, as well as MS and graduation from the Federal University of São
             Carlos, Brazil. He has vast experience with electronic transport in semiconductor devices, and computer
             modeling of materials.

             César Vinicius Mota da Silva graduated in Physics by the State University of Ceará. He is presently
             colaborating at the State University of Ceará working in fundamental problems of the thermal science, clean
             energy and instrumentation. He is currently also working as a monitor of the project Science Traveling with
             experiments in various areas of Physics.


             Francisco dos Santos Cavalcante Junior holds a degree in physics from the State University of Ceará. He
             is currently a student at the Master Program in Applied Physics of that university. In that program he
             conducts research related to renewable energy with emphasis on biomass combustion.




Peer Review: This article has been internationally peer-reviewed and accepted for publication
               according to the guidelines given at the journal’s website.




*Corresponding author (L.C. de Lima). Tel/Fax: +55-85-31019902. E-mail addresses:
luterolima@gmail.com.        2011. International Transaction Journal of Engineering,
Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.      Volume 2 No.3.     ISSN 2228-9860.
                                                                                                             373
eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TuEngr.com/V02/365-373.pdf

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Oxygen Excess Control of Industrial Combustion Through The Use of Automotive Lambda Sensor

  • 1. 2011 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://www.TuEngr.com, http://go.to/Research Oxygen Excess Control of Industrial Combustion Through the Use of Automotive Lambda Sensor a* a a Lutero C. de Lima , Humberto A. Carmona , Cesar V. M. da Silva , and Francisco S. a Cavalcante Junior a Graduate Program on Applied Physics, State University of Ceará, BRAZIL ARTICLEINFO A B S T RA C T Article history: The objective of this study is to present a simple and low Received 30 April 2011 cost method of determining the flue gases oxygen concentration. Received in revised form 20 July 2011 The method makes use of the Lambda sensor, a part of the fuel Accepted 25 July 2011 injection system of the modern automobile’s engine. A Available online 26 July 2011 combustion chamber was mounted with a heated Lambda sensor installed in its chimney. Residual oxygen concentrations in the Keywords: flue gases were estimated by the use of the Nernst equation and Flue gases; compared to a reference combustion analyser. The observed Industrial combustion; Lambda sensor; average deviation in the measurements was of about 5 % which is Oxygen concentration; in the range of interest to the industrial combustion. Thermal control 2011 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Some Rights Reserved. 1. Introduction   Laws and environmental regulations for the control of air pollution are turning more stringent mainly where the combustion of fossil fuels or biomass is present. After Wulfinghoff (2000), the efficiency control of combustion generally is made through the measurement of oxygen, carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide concentration in the flue gases. The measurement of oxygen concentration is better suited for the efficiency test of a combustion process because oxygen and excess air is almost independent of the fuel type. When the optimum excess air setting is approached, the relative change in oxygen concentration is much more accentuated than the relative change in carbon monoxide or *Corresponding author (L.C. de Lima). Tel/Fax: +55-85-31019902. E-mail addresses: luterolima@gmail.com. 2011. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 2 No.3. ISSN 2228-9860. 365 eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TuEngr.com/V02/365-373.pdf
  • 2. carbon dioxide for a given change in excess air. The Orsat analyser is the pioneer of combustion efficiency testers. This chemical testing apparatus in which flue gases are mixed with a liquid reagent that changes volume as a result of the reaction is simple and accurate. However, the apparatus is built of delicate glass tubing and requires a fine touch. Still after Wulfinghoff (2000), most of the modern combustion testers is based on electro- chemical sensors. For the detection of oxygen the most common sensor used is a zirconium oxide element that develops a voltage difference across two platinum electrodes separated by a porous ceramic layer if there is a difference in oxygen concentration. The combustion process in the modern automobiles generally is controlled by an oxygen sensor known as Lambda sensor (Figure 1). Figure 1: Commercial Lambda sensors. McDonald, et al. (1998) used unheated and heated Lambda sensors for the monitoring residential oil burners. They observed that even being a little more expensive the heated Lambda sensor presented better accuracy and low response time when compared to the unheated one. The unheated Lambda sensor takes about 5 minutes of warm-up in order to be operational. Unéus, et al. (1999) applied Lambda sensor for the measurement of oxygen percentage in the range of 12 to 15 % in industrial boilers. Wiesendorf, et al. (1999) used this sensor for the monitoring of fluidized bed combustors. Gibson, et al. (1999) developed a new technique of working with Lambda sensor which consist of applying a potential in one and in the opposite directions of the sensor terminal and the electrical currents measured. The ratio between forward and reverse currents presents linear correspondence to the oxygen percentage in the combustion environment. Pickenacker, et al. (2000) determined 366 Lutero C. de Lima, Humberto A. Carmona, Cesar V. M. da Silva, and F. S. Cavalcante Junior
  • 3. experimentally air excess in boilers and furnaces using the concept of Wobbe which was determined through the use of Lambda sensor. Auckenthaler, et al. (2002) were the first researchers to study the transient behavior of Lambda sensor. Niklasson, et al. (2003) studied air-fuel ratio in a fluidized bed furnace through fluctuating signals from zirconia cell probes. Eskilsson, et al. (2004) used Lambda sensor to monitor oxygen concentration, combustion efficiency and emissions in pellet burners. Johansson, et al. (2007) used a Lambda probe to indicate whether the combustion environment was in oxidizing or reducing conditions. Varamban, et al. (2005) extended the perturbation method developed by Gibson, et al. and proposed a scheme to measure the emf and short circuit current of a potentiometric (zirconia) sensor simultaneously. In the present article an automotive Lambda sensor was installed in the chimney of a combustion chamber where its voltage difference and the flue gases temperature were monitored and the oxygen concentration determined through the use of the Nernst equation. Results indicate that it is relatively simple the construction of low cost equipment to monitor industrial combustion. 2. Materials and methods  The Lambda sensor being an electrochemical cell when inserted in a situation where there is a difference of oxygen concentration as, for example, between the inside of a combustion chamber and the atmospheric air, and at a temperature above 300 °C, starts to conduct oxygen ions from the region of high to the region of low electrochemical potential. The migration of oxygen ions inside the electrochemical cell generate a voltage which decrease exponentially with the oxygen concentration inside the combustion chamber, taking as reference the air outside with oxygen concentration of 20.96 %. The equation which relates the oxygen concentration with a voltage developed inside the Lambda sensor is the Nernst equation in its inverse under the following form: / ₂ % 20.96 (1), where z is the number of electrons migrating from one electrode to another electrode inside *Corresponding author (L.C. de Lima). Tel/Fax: +55-85-31019902. E-mail addresses: luterolima@gmail.com. 2011. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 2 No.3. ISSN 2228-9860. 367 eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TuEngr.com/V02/365-373.pdf
  • 4. the Lambda sensor, F is the Faraday constant, E is the voltage developed in the sensor, R is the universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature inside the Lambda sensor. A commercial Lambda sensor was installed in the chimney of the combustion chamber shown in Figure 2. The combustion chamber has a Weishaupt LPG burner of 50 kW. Close to the Lambda sensor was installed a type K thermocouple. It was developed an electronic circuit which feed the heating element of the Lambda sensor in order to maintain constant the inside temperature of sensor no matter how is the temperature of the flue gases. Figure 2: Experimental setup. The voltage signal of the Lambda sensor was monitored by a FLUKE 189 multimeter with resolution of 0.01 mV and accuracy of 0.4 %. The thermocouple signal was recorded by a temperature controller showing resolution of 1 °C and accuracy of 0.5 %. The oxygen concentration was measured by the TESTO 300 XL combustion gas analyser with resolution of 0.1 % and accuracy of 0.2 %. 3. Results and Discussion  Figure 3 presents signal of a Lambda sensor in mV calculated by the Nernst equation (1) for different levels of temperature and as a function of oxygen concentration. As can be seen by that figure when the oxygen concentration comes to the extreme points, as for example, 0 % and 20.96 % the voltage signal of the Lambda sensor go to infinite and zero respectively. This behavior of the Lambda sensor limits its application to the measurement 368 Lutero C. de Lima, Humberto A. Carmona, Cesar V. M. da Silva, and F. S. Cavalcante Junior
  • 5. of oxygen concentration outside of such range. Figure 3: Output signal of a Lambda sensor as calculated by the Nernst equation. The relationship between the temperatures of the heating element of the Lambda sensor against its electrical resistance is shown in Figure 4. It was permitted to the combustion chamber to warm until 300 ºC. The burner was turn off and the electrical resistance of the heating element inside the Lambda sensor was recorded during the cooling period. It is very important to know the electrical resistance of the heating element of the Lambda sensor as a function of temperature because the electronic circuit responsible for the maintenance of constant temperature inside the sensor works controlling its resistance feeding more or less power. *Corresponding author (L.C. de Lima). Tel/Fax: +55-85-31019902. E-mail addresses: luterolima@gmail.com. 2011. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 2 No.3. ISSN 2228-9860. 369 eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TuEngr.com/V02/365-373.pdf
  • 6. Figure 4: Curve of electrical resistance of the heating element against temperature. Figure 5: Flue gases oxygen percentage against measurements of the reference monitor. Figure 5 presents the percentage of oxygen in flue gases calculated by equation (1) with the input of the voltage furnished by the Lambda sensor and temperature given by the thermocouple for different situations of combustion of LPG against measurements taken from 370 Lutero C. de Lima, Humberto A. Carmona, Cesar V. M. da Silva, and F. S. Cavalcante Junior
  • 7. the reference combustion monitor. The average deviation of the set of measurements was about 5 %. The correlation factor was of 0.97 demonstrating good agreement between the measurements of the proposed method of determining oxygen concentration of combustion flue gases and the measurements made by the reference monitor. In the range higher than 15 % of oxygen concentration the deviation was more accentuate (about 10%) and this is due the logarithmic nature of the sensor’s output, as can be seen in the Figure 3. Figure 6: Output of the Lambda sensor at the constant temperature of 500 °C as a function of the oxygen concentration. Figure 6 presents the evolution of the output of the proposed method as a function of the oxygen concentration while the temperature inside the Lambda sensor was maintained constant at about 500 °C and independent of the flue gases temperature. As it is shown in that figure the measurements follow very closely the Nernst law equation. 4. Conclusion  In this work it was presented a simple method of determining oxygen concentration in the exhaust gases of combustion particularly the industrial combustion. Results demonstrated the *Corresponding author (L.C. de Lima). Tel/Fax: +55-85-31019902. E-mail addresses: luterolima@gmail.com. 2011. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 2 No.3. ISSN 2228-9860. 371 eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TuEngr.com/V02/365-373.pdf
  • 8. feasibility of the proposed method when the Lambda sensor is operated inside a usual combustion chamber. The heating time of about 5 minutes and the logarithmic response of the Lambda sensor are its main drawbacks if it is wanted to develop the herewith presented method of measuring oxygen concentration in flue gases of industrial combustion. 5. Acknowledgements  The authors thank the Brazilian National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) for financial support. A very special thank you is due to Dr.João Batista Furlan Duarte for insightful comments, helping clarify and improve the manuscript. 6. References  Auckenthaler, T.S., C. Onder, and H.P. Geering. (2002). Control- oriented investigation of Switch-type air/fuel ratio sensor, in: Proceedings of the IFAC World Congress, Barcelona, Spain, CD-ROM. Eskilsson, D., M. Ronnback, J. Samuelson and C. Tullin. (2004). Optimisation of efficiency and emissions in pellet burners. Biomass and Bioenergy, 27, 541-546. Gibson, R.W., R.V. Kumar and D.J. Fray. (1999). Novel sensors for monitoring high oxygen concentrations. Solid State Ionics, 121, 43-50. Johansson, A., F. Johnsson, F. Niklasson and L.E. Armand. (2007). Dynamics of furnace processes in a CFB boiler. Chemical Engineering Science, 62, 550-560. McDonald, R.J., T.A. Butcher and R.F. Krajewski. (1998). Development of self tuning residential oil burner – oxygen sensor assessment and early prototype system operating experience. Brookhaven National Laboratory, Informal Report BNL- 66045, 26 pages, Upton, NY, USA. Niklasson, F., F. Johnsson and B. Leckner. (2003). Local air ratio measured by zirconia cell in a circulating fluidised bed furnace. Chem. Eng. J. , 96, 145-155. Pickenacker, K., D. Trimis and K. Wawrzinek. (2001). Development of a Wobbe number sensor for controlled combustion of gaseous fuels with varying quality, in: Proceedings of International Conference on Technologies and Combustion for a Clean Environment (Clean Air VI), Porto, Portugal, V.1, 1-11. Unéus, L., P. Ljung, M. Mattson, P. Martensson, R. Wigren, P. Tobias, I. Lundstrom, L.G. Ekedahl and A. Lloyd Spetz. (1999). Measurements with MISIC and MOS sensors in flue gases, in: Proccedings of Eurosensors XIII, Hague, Netherland, 521-524. Varamban, S.V., R. Ganesan and G. Periaswami. (2005). Simultaneous measurement of emf and short circuit current for a potentiometric sensor using perturbation technique, Sensors and Actuactors B, 104, 94-102. 372 Lutero C. de Lima, Humberto A. Carmona, Cesar V. M. da Silva, and F. S. Cavalcante Junior
  • 9. Wiesendorf, V., E.U. Hartage, J. Wether, F. Johansson, J. Sternéus, B. Leckner, D. Montat, and P. Briand. (1999). The CFB boiler in Gardanne – an experimental investigation of its bottom zone, in: Proceedings of the 15th Int. Conf. On Fluidized Bed Combustion, Savannah, Georgia, USA, May 16-19, ASME, Paper FBC99-0151. Wulfinghoff, D. R. (2000). Energy Efficiency Manual. Published by Energy Institute Press, USA. Dr.Lutero Carmo de Lima graduated in Physics by the University of Santo Amaro, M.Sc. and Dr. Eng. in Mechanical Engineering by the Federal University of Santa Catarina and University of São Paulo, respectively. He is presently Adjunct Professor at the State University of Ceará and basically works in fundamental problems of the thermal science, clean energy and instrumentation. He was awarded a Fulbright Fellow and inducted as Vice President of PHI BETA DELTA, Chapter Beta Theta, Honour Society for International Scholars, USA.  Dr.Humberto de Andrade Carmona is an Adjunct Professor in the Program for Applied Physical Science at the Ceara State University working mainly with alternative energies, particularly with material science applied to problems involving thermal science and solar energy. He holds a PhD in Physics from the University of Nottingham, England, as well as MS and graduation from the Federal University of São Carlos, Brazil. He has vast experience with electronic transport in semiconductor devices, and computer modeling of materials. César Vinicius Mota da Silva graduated in Physics by the State University of Ceará. He is presently colaborating at the State University of Ceará working in fundamental problems of the thermal science, clean energy and instrumentation. He is currently also working as a monitor of the project Science Traveling with experiments in various areas of Physics. Francisco dos Santos Cavalcante Junior holds a degree in physics from the State University of Ceará. He is currently a student at the Master Program in Applied Physics of that university. In that program he conducts research related to renewable energy with emphasis on biomass combustion. Peer Review: This article has been internationally peer-reviewed and accepted for publication according to the guidelines given at the journal’s website. *Corresponding author (L.C. de Lima). Tel/Fax: +55-85-31019902. E-mail addresses: luterolima@gmail.com. 2011. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 2 No.3. ISSN 2228-9860. 373 eISSN 1906-9642. Online Available at http://TuEngr.com/V02/365-373.pdf