1. Human Motivation and Emotion
Human Motivation
Definition:Motive is something that has the power to initiate action. underlying
factors that energize and direct behavior, explain why people do
what they do when they do them.
It is divided into needs and drives. Needs refer to the physiological
aspects of emotion, psychological factors are considered Drives.
Types of motivation:1- survival and social needs.
2- Curiosity motives.
Human Emotion:Is the feeling, tone or response to sensory input from the external
environment or mental images.
Mood&Temeperament
Mood is a state of emotional reaction that last for a limited period ,
while,temperament is the habitual expression of emotions

2. Physiological Basis of Motivation:1.Hunger.
Lateral (LH)&(VMH) Ventro medial Hypothalamus regulates feeding & set body weights, not
satiety centre. Osmoreceptors regulate body fluids by releasing ADH in response to
dehydration.
2.Social needs.
Sexual & maternal needs modified by social controls & culture
3.Curiosity motives.
Inborn ( innate) drive to manipulate or explore the environment. Observed in early
childhood ( PLEASURABLE). Stimulation & exploration provide new & changing
sensory input essential for the integrated functioning of the CNS. Depravation lead to
hallucination & other sensory distortions
4.Instincts.
Innate biological forces predisposing the organism to act in certain ways e.g. flight
repulsion & curiosity

3. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
1.Homeostasis & The Drive Theory
Maintenance of constant internal environment for optimum
function leading to corrective measures to ensure certain
range of:
• Body temperature fluids ,chemicals, hormones,etc...
• Hunger drive & glucose level, body fats
2.Psychoanalytic Theory
Life Preservation instinct (Eros)& Life destruction instinct {Thantos,(
Death)}are determinants of human behaviour.
3.Incentive (Behavioural) Theory
Derived from learning theory it explains survival needs & sex .Engagement in
certain type of behaviour if rewarded after a seeking behaviour.

4. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION 2
4.Drive Reduction Theory
Tension builds in some organisms if failed to satisfy certain needs.
Achievement of Goals reduces tension,& associated with pleasure e.g
Food.It does not satisfactorally explain all human motives like Incentive
theory.
5.Humanistic Theory(Abraham Maslow)
1. Self Actualization, realization of ones potential 2.Asethetic needs( beauty
& symmetry) 3.Cognitive needs (explorations & understanding) 4.Esteem
needs (competence &achievement) 5. Love & belongingness 6.safety
needs(security &freedom from danger) 7.Physiological needs , basic hunger,
thirst & sex.
Lower needs has to be fulfilled partly before higher ones can assume
importance.

5. Motivation & Health Behaviour
1.Unhealthy behaviours :
• Smoking ,
• Alcohol ,
• Substance abuse.
2.Theories of motivation has been used to
understand why such irrational behaviour occurs
3.Motivation is used as an important therapeutic
tool to change ill behaviour,.

6. Theories of Emotion
• James langer theory:
Bodily changes are the primary cause of emotion i.e the type of emotion
elicited is determined by the physiological change that precedes it.
• Canon Theory:
Bodily changes occurring simultaneously with cortical reactions to a perceived
situation.
• Cognitive theory of Schachter & Singer:
Perceived situation js followed by better understanding of the situation ,
eliciting more emotions & more specific bodily changes , incorporating
both theories.

7. Stress and Stress Management
Definition:Stress is the physical and psychological response to harmful or potentially harmful
circumstances. It is a state of severe physiological and psychological tension, a
non-specific response of the body to any demand.
Stressor:It is the stimulus which causes stress, e.g. bereavement, divorce or a crucial event .
Responses to stress are influenced by:
 Personality (our strength).
 The burden (type) of the stressor. Intense ,overwhelms psychological defenses.
Causes of stress:• Life crises e.g. accidents, death of spouse or divorce.
• Transitions e.g. divorce, bereavement and retirement.
• Catastrophes--natural and otherwise e.g. earthquakes and floods.
• Daily hassles.
• Frustration and conflicts.
• Uncertainty, doubt and inability to predict the future.
• Physical and social environment.
• Self, for example, type A personality which is associated with high levels of arousal,
guilt and irrational feelings.
• Interpersonal relationships.

8. Pressure/Stressor& stress
Pressure /stressor
To achieve
ordinary or
extraordinary
pursuit in life
Genetic, biological,
personality, physical
psychological & social
state environmental, past
&present life experiences,
future expectations,
coping styles, culture
immunity factors
OUTCOME/STRESS
Achievement in Life
Pursuit, Physical.
Psychological &social
health status &related
symptoms behaviour
etc Adjustment
disorder, clinical
syndromes disorder.

9. Stress and Output:1. Normal to mild stress.(pressure to achieve positively co related with out
put)symptoms not disabling
2. Moderate to severe stress.(pressure to achieve does not lead to an
increase in out put)symptoms increase & clinically predominant
3. Pathological stress: debilitating symptoms and the output declines. the
stress symptoms become the primary focus. Clinical syndromes and
disorders ,require attention on their own.
Other Considerations:1. Pressure and stressors at times are necessary drives for people to
achieve certain goals in life.
2. Pressure to achieve produces signs and symptoms that become the
problem.
3.
The Challenges:
i.
Stressed people don’t know symptoms of stress . They are only Suffering
merely from a physical or unexplained illness.
ii.
Do Family members & friends know he is stressed? Usually not. They
tend to see him as merely sickly or abnormal.
iii. Do health care professionals recognize when their clients are stressed?
Usually not .they tend to over-investigate along physical lines.
4. Health education to both the client and support system , including the
professionals on how to recognize and manage stress.
5. Most people can be helped to cope with or minimize normal life
stresses while leading relatively normal and productive lives.

10. Responses to Stress:1. Psychological responses.
2. Physiological responses.
Psychological responses:•
The individual may display self destructive life styles and risk taking
behavior, such as (excess drug intake, suicidal gestures and self neglect.
They may start stuttering, they may also experience frustration and
become aggressive)
•
Anxiety can be the most dangerous psychological symptoms of stress ( it
may manifest with physical symptoms of autonomic hyper arousal and
activity).
•
Depression can be also a sign of stress, it can be a real danger, one may
also suffer inhibited sexual desire.
•
Spiritual signs and symptoms of excessive stress may include doubts
about one’s faith, loss of self confidence or loss of purpose. At times
there is renewed faith in God.
Physiological responses:•
The body prepares itself either to fight or flight. After the escape the
animal relaxes. However in situations where the individual is subjected
to chronic stress some physical symptoms may appear.

11. Health and Stress:• Cardiovascular system.
• Neurological system.
• Gastro-intestinal system.
• Immune system.
• Muscle-skeletal system.
• Endocrine system.
Chronic stress can lead to ulcers, high blood
pressure and heart disease. It can also impair the
immune system decreasing the body’s ability to
fight invading bacterial and viruses. One may
develop allergies, cancers and autoimmune
disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis.

12. Controlling the causes of stress:Controlling the environment:
• Avoid noisy surroundings.
• Live in a large space.
• Keep your surroundings clean and neat.
• Save free time for relaxation.
• Dedicate time to your partner and family.
• Create a good working environment.
Bodily control:
 Choose the healthy way to eat and drink.
 Rest.
 Drink a lot of water.
 Do moderate, regular exercises.
 Avoid drugs and toxic stimulants.
 Do not use any type of tranquilizing drug unless it is prescribed.
 Breathe properly (breathing as relaxation technique)

13. Mental control :
 Plan your activities without becoming a slave to your own
plans or other’s.
 Think positively.
 Maintain a positive mental attitude.
 Worry constructively and free yourself from worry.
 Share your talents.
 Choose to be assertive.
 Accept your mistakes.
 Free yourself from guilt.
 Practice relaxation.

14. Conflict & Adjustment
Frustration
Blocking of a motive by some kind of an obstacle e.g traffic jam ,
conflicting motives, (Intolerance , aggression, very likely to
misunderstand others & hurt them verbally)
Conflict :Is the simultaneous arousal of more incompatible motives. It’s a pair of goals
that cannot be attained.
Types of conflict:• Approach-approach conflict : there are two goals and to attain one means
that the other goal must be given up.
• Avoidance-avoidance conflict: both alternatives are unpleasant and yet
one has to choose either.
• Approach-avoidance conflict: fulfilling a motive which will have both
pleasant and unpleasant consequences.
• Double-approach-avoidance conflict: the individual is torn between goals,
which have both pleasant and unpleasant consequence.

15. Adjustment to conflicts:Frustrations and conflicts cause physical and psychological
symptoms, stress is not necessarily bad. It helps the person
reach desired goals, General adaptation syndrome is a
sequence of responses that individuals go through during
stressful circumstances as follows :
Phase 1 (alarm phase)
The body mobilizes it’s resources to meet the threats .
Phase 2 (resistance phase)
Attempt to resolve the stress makes some adjustments and
appears to be doing well. One may use defense mechanism to
cope.
Phase 3 (exhaustion)
Fails to resist the stress, sign of stress start appearing (physical or
psychological ) e.g., fatigue, anxiety, or depression. Poor
adjustments to stress is associated with aggression, risk
taking, wishful thinking, denial and dangerous escapism.
.

16. Coping strategies:Problem-focused
• Defining the problem.
• Coming up with alternatives.
• Weighing the alternatives-costs and benefits.
• Choosing among alternatives.
• Implementing the chosen alternatives.
Emotion-focused
These are used with uncontrollable problems:
1. Behavioral strategies
• Exercising.
• Using alcohol or other drugs.
• Venting anger.
• Seeking emotional support from friends

17. 2. Cognitive strategies
• Temporarily setting aside thoughts about the
problems.
• Changing the meaning of the situation.
• Reappraising the situation.
3. Other coping strategies
• Isolation oneself.
• Thinking about How badly one feels.
• Worrying.
• Repetitively thinking about how bad things are.
• Engaging in pleasant activity e.g. going to
parties.

18. Defense Mechanisms
• The unconscious strategies that people use to deal
with negative emotion. Life threatening and anxiety
cues can be excluded. They are invoked automatically
as psychological measures, inadequate use of defense
mechanism can lead to overt anxiety or depression.
The defense mechanisms: Do not alter the stressful situation.
 Have an element of self deviation.
 Help during rough times, but delay the solutionseeking behavior.
 Are unconscious processes as opposed to other
methods of coping with problems.
If it is the dominant mode of responding. it may become
a personality maladjustment.

19. Common Defense Mechanisms
Repression
is considered the central and basic psychological defense mechanism. Thoughts or
feelings which our consciousness find unacceptable are repressed. Dealing with
unbearable aspects of inner life; so that aggressive or sexual feelings, fantasies or
desires are thrust into the unconsciousness. It is a mental process arising from the
pleasure principle (Id) and the reality principle(Ego), impulses and desires are in
conflict with enforced standards of conduct (superego),painful emotions arise and
the conflict is resolved by repression.
Displacement:Transfer of affect, usually fear or anger from one person, situation or object to
another.
e.g. the wife who is irritated by her husband always coming home late she vents her
anger, not on the husband but on the children.
Rationalization :Justifying by reasoning after the event, providing logical and believable explanation to
persuade that the irrational behavior is justified and therefore should not be
criticized.
Projection:Unconsciously disowns an attitude or attribute of his own and describes it to someone
else.

20. Isolation:Dangerous memories are allowed back into the consciousness, but the associated motives
and emotion are not recalled. The memories are isolated from their associated feelings.
Seen in people who suffered severe physical or psychological trauma such as in
concentration camps.
Denial:Involuntary and automatic distortion of an obvious aspects of external reality.
Reaction formation:The repressed wish is warded off by its diametrical opposite. Repressed hostility can still be
detected underneath the loving exterior.
Sublimation:Potentially dangerous urges are given a socially acceptable expression usually carried out
with vigour &success.
Introjections:Take in and swallows the values of others. Accepting the values of the enemy through
identification with the aggressor.
Identification:People who fell inferior may identify themselves with successful causes, organization or
persons perceived as worthwhile against anxiety of inferiority.
Compensation:Masking of perceived weaknesses or developing certain positive traits to make up for
limitations. Socially incompetent may develop their intellectual capacities and spend
their time in lonely academic pursuits.
Ritual and undoing:Make right the wrong they feel for some perceived misdeed. A rejecting father Alleviate his
guilt by flooding his son with presents.

21. Health Professionals And Work Stress
• Doctors and lawyers work under a lot of stress and tend to drink more
alcohol compared to other professionals.
General sources of stress:• Poor working condition
-Lack of facilities to facilitate recovery.
-Lack of equipment.
-Lack of office space.
• Poor relationships e.g. professional conflicts with colleagues.
• Long working hours.
• Heavy work load.
• Not receiving gratitude from clients.
• Unachievable High goals.
• When transference interferes with the treatment process, countertransference a result of being overprotective of a patient, rejection of
patients or dual relationships.
• Dealing with severely ill patient or when a patient dies.

22. Outcome of stress:Professional burnout
Burnout is a state of physical, emotional and mental exhaustion
characterized by :
• Physical depletion, feelings of hopelessness, helplessness or
powerlessness.
• Negative attitude towards oneself, others, work and life.
• Fatigue, loss of energy and loss of enthusiasm.
• Feel drained, empty and fragmented.
• Feel impaired of therapeutic skills.
Symptoms of burnout:
Day dreaming & fantasies.
Cancellation of important appointments.
Tendency to abuse drugs.
Therapy sessions loose their excitement &spontaneity.
Health workers social life suffers.
Heath workers are reluctant to explore the causes & cure of their
conditions.

23. Coping with Burn Out
A high degree of self-awareness and a deep
respect and concern for patients & safe
guards.
Ability to build therapeutic relationships with
the patient, lessens anxiety.
Recognize transference and countertransference in the relationships and deal with
it.

24. Crisis and Crisis Management
What is a crisis?
A state of emotional upset, it is a state of disequilibrium and
disorganization faced with a problem which needs an urgent
solution. A crisis situation is overwhelming and may involve danger
to the individuals personal security. A characteristics feature of
crisis is the search by the affected person for a solution.
When the threat of personal danger posed by the event is over, state
of relaxation together with the accompanying sense of threat
persists, mental alertness and the state of readiness persist. The
end result is the development of a stress-related state of fatigue, it
is the point that a stressful event becomes a crisis situation.
Changing the situation or environment this is know by coping, coping
involves making changes, controlling the situation, avoiding the
stressful situation, changing the way one responds to the problem.

25. Types of crisis:1. Maturational or Transitional.
2. Situational.
Maturational crisis:Occurs as a result of human development from one
developmental stage to another. Crucial stages as
beginning school, leaving home, beginning first
employment, marriage and retirement . At each stage one
is forced to make adjustment, resolve anxiety and
conflicts . Successful resolution of maturational crisis
normally leads to personal growth , emotional stability
and good mental health. Unsuccessful resolution may
result in unresolved anxiety and internal conflicts,
unstable emotional disposition , depression, maladaptive
behavior or disorders of personality.

26. Situational crisis :Results from a specific hazardous event or threat to one’s life these include:Suicidal behavior
Self-intentional cessation. Due to the following factors:
• Biological factors: vulnerability to depression.
• Psychological factors : hostility, despair, shame, guilt, dependency and
helplessness.
• Intra-psychic factors.
• Family history of suicide.
Attempted suicide
Where the goal is to attract attention, attempted suicide should be taken
seriously and the survivor assessed for suicide intent.
Accidents
Events that occur unexpectedly, they may cause physical injuries, destruction
of property, loss of life and destruction of lifestyle and livelihoods.
Death and bereavement
Thanatology is the study of the phenomenon of death , emotional and
psychological.

27. Sources of Crises
• A severely disabling accident.
• Natural or unnatural disasters.
• Being diagnosed with a potentially fatal disease such as AIDS or
inoperable cancer.
• Coronary thrombosis/myocardial infarction (heart-attack)
• Being raped.
• Being arrested for a serious offence.
• Break-up of a relationship.
• Failure of examination.
• Forced retirement.
• Separation or threatened separation.
Stressful events can occur in human experience without undue effects.