Parts of Speech - Structure Classes, Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar .pptx

LANE 333 -
MORPHOLOGY
2012 – Term 1

Parts of speech:
Structure-Classes 13
By: http://SBANJAR.kau.edu.sa/
Dr. Shadia Y. Banjar http://wwwdrshadiabanjar.blogspot.com
Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar 1 12/3/2011

Structure-Classes
Structure-class words, sometimes
called function words, are words
that signal how the form class
words (sometimes referred to as
“content words”) relate to each
other in a sentence.


cont.,
Structure-Classes
Structure classes have three main
characteristics:
1- recognized mainly by position, as
they rarely change form.
2- small in number.
3- stable and closed classes.


A. Qualifiers
• The qualifier occurs in the position just
before an adjectival or an adverbial as
shown:
The dinner was very good.
She performed rather skillfully.
• The function of a qualifier: is to
modify; and
• The modified word: is called the
head.

cont., Qualifiers
• You can use a frame sentence to test whether
a word is a qualifier:
The handsome man seems_____ handsome.
• You can supply very, quite, rather, etc.
• Many qualifiers appear similar to adverbs;
however, you will find that they do not pass
many of the adverb tests.


cont.,
Qualifiers
• Qualifiers’ position can accept any
form class: Nouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs.
The table was only inches wide.
The water is boiling hot.
My dress seems lighter blue than
yours.
You did fairly well.

cont., Qualifiers
1. Some qualifiers are homophones of adjectives:
Pretty good, mighty fine, jolly hot, great big,..
2. Some qualifiers have a limited distribution:
brand new, much alive, that good,.....
3. Some noun phrases and idiomatic expressions
are considered qualifiers due to their positions:
a lot , kind of, sort of, a bit (of). ......
4. The qualifiers used before a comparative differ
from the ones used before the positive degree:
I feel much better.
I feel very good.

B. Prepositions
• Prepositions signal that a noun phrase
called the object of the preposition
follows.
• A noun phrase is any word or group of
words for which a noun can be
substituted.
• A preposition and its object are
together called a prepositional phrase
(PP).

cont., Prepositions
• Prepositions are either simple (one-word)
or compound (multi-word) prepositions.
•Prepositions connect the nominal or noun
phrases (the object of the preposition) that
follow it to the rest of the sentence.
Examples:
1. Simple: e.g. about, of, by, since.
2. Compound: e.g. next to, by means
of, in front of.

cont., Prepositions
Simple Prepositions:
• English has a small group of
prepositions:
1- one-syllable prepositions, which
are frequently used such as at, in .
Example: He came with the girl.
2-Two-syllable prepositions, such as
about, before.
Example: We invested despite the
risk.

cont., Prepositions

Compound prepositions

two-part
with noun
Examples
1. We arrived ahead of time.
2. The game was called off on account
of rain.

cont., Prepositions

Prepositions are usually followed by a
noun, noun phrase, personal pronoun,
or noun-substitute called the object of
the preposition..
Examples:
• George sat between the two deans.
• George jumped on it.
• George went from this to that.

cont., Prepositions
• Prepositional phrases themselves function as
post modifiers of noun phrases or verb phrases
in a sentence:
Adjectival function: ‘The voice of the people’
(modifies the voice)
Adverbial function: ‘hurried to the store’
(modifies hurried)
Adverbial function: ‘sorry for the interruption’
(modifies sorry)

cont., Prepositions
Some of these words we have
been dealing with can be either
prepositions or adverbials.
Compare:
Preposition: She looked up the
stairs.
Adverbial: She looked up.


cont., Prepositions
• The name Preposition implies that
this structure word occupies a pre-
position.
•Prepositions usually precede their
objects.
• Some –ing verb forms may
function as prepositions. Example:
Considering your loss, the bill
will not be sent.

cont., Prepositions
• There are cases where prepositions
occur at the end of a structure and
the object of the preposition was
fronted for stylistic purposes:
1. Relative clause : The job ( that)
he worked at.
2. Passive: the lock had been
tampered with.
3. Infinitive: Clay is fun to play with.

cont., Prepositions

4. Exclamation: What a mess we got
into!
5. QW question: Which room did
you find it in?
6. Set expression: The world over,
your objection notwithstanding.


C. Determiners
A determiner is a word that patterns with a noun.
It precedes the noun and serves as a signal that a
noun is soon to follow.
Example: The gymnasium
If the noun is proceeded by adjectives and nouns,
the determiner precedes these modifiers.
Examples:
1. The new gymnasium
2. The brick gymnasium
3. The new brick gymnasium.

cont., Determiners
There are five main groups of determiners:
1. Articles: a/an, the
2. Demonstratives: this, these, that,
those
3. Possessives:
Possessive nouns
Prenominal Possive Pronouns: my,
our, your, his, her, its, their,


cont., Determiners
4. Indefinites & Quantifiers: some,
any, no, every, other, another,
many, more, most, enough, few,
less, much, either, neither,
several, all, both, each
5. Numerals:
Cardinal numbers: one, two,
three, four,...
Ordinal numbers: first, second,
third,....last

cont., Determiners
The Ordering of Determiners:
Determiners occur before nouns, and
they indicate the kind of reference which
the nouns have. Depending on their
relative position before a noun, we
distinguish three classes of determiners:
1. Predeterminer
2. Central Determiner
3. Postdeterminer


cont., Determiners
EXAMPLE: ‘I met all my many friends.’
I met
Predeterminer:
all
Central Determiner :
my
Postdeterminer:
many
Noun:
friends.

cont., Determiners

1. Predeterminers: all, both, fractions (half,
one-third) , multipliers (double, twice)
2. Central determiners:
– articles: the, a, an
– demonstratives: this/that ; these/those,
– possessives: my, our, your, his, her,
possessives of names
– wh-determiners: which, whose, whichever
– negative determiner: no


cont., Determiners

3. Post-determiners:
– ordinal numerals: (first, second, former,
latter, last, next)
– Cardinal numerals: (1, 2, 3)
– Quantifiers: (much, many, any, every,
few)


cont., Determiners
• The absence of a determiner to signal a
following noun will sometimes produce
ambiguity. Here is a case from a newspaper
headline:
Union demands increase
• we do not know how to interpret increase
because a signal is absent:
1. A determiner would indicate that it is a
noun:Union demands an increase
2. An auxiliary would indicate that it is a
verb:Union demands will increase

cont., Determiners
Some determiners overlap with noun
substitutes (words that can substitute nouns)
as in:
1. That will be enough
2. what can one do with old cars like these?
3. I can’t tell Jim’s tennis shoes from his.
4. I prefer Elizabeth’s
• All the italic words are noun substitutes
forming noun phrases whereas determiners
form a constituent of a noun phrase which
modifies the head nouns.

D. Auxiliaries
• Auxiliaries are closely associated with the
verb and are of three kinds.
1. Modal auxiliaries
2. Primary auxiliaries: have and be
3. The periphrastic auxiliary: do
1. MODAL AUXILIARIES:
• There are ten modal auxiliaries: can,
could, may , might, shall, should ,will,
would ,must ,ought (to).


cont., Modal Auxiliaries

• The modal auxiliaries are bound together as
a group by two characteristics of form:
(a)The present tense form does not take
an–s in the third person singular.
(b)They do not have participle forms ,
present or past.


•Modal auxiliaries precede verb stems and
give the special shades of meaning such as :
Futurity probability
Volition permission
possibility necessity
• they are sometimes called verb markers
because they signal that a verb is about to
follow.
•The majority of the modals are said to have
tense: • can, could • Shall, should
• May, might • Will, would

• Must and ought to do not have a parallel form, like the
others. To express past tense of must, in the sense of
necessity, we use “had to’, e.g.:
This morning I must trim the hedge.
Yesterday I had to trim the hedge.
• To express past tense of ought to, in the sense of
necessity, we use ‘ought to/should have + a past
participle’, e.g.:
You ought to see those strawberries.
You ought to have/ should have seen those
strawberries.

• The negatives of must and ought (to) are not regular.
• If must means “is necessary” then its negative means “is not necessary”.
This negative meaning is expressed by do not have to or need not, and NOT by
must not, which is forbiddance of the action of the following verb. Thus:

AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE

You must return tomorrow. You don’t have to return tomorrow.

You need not return tomorrow.

You ought to carry that log You ought not to carry that log away.
away. (used in speech only)
You hadn’t ought to carry that log
away.
(used in speech only)
You shouldn’t to carry that log away.
( the most common form)

Primary Auxiliaries
2.The Primary Auxiliaries:
The second kind is the primary auxiliaries:
have and be.

Forms of Primary Auxiliaries
STEM HAVE BE
Present tense has/have am/is/are
Present Participle having being
Past Tense had was/were
Past participle had been


cont.,
Have and Be
• When auxiliaries are employed in groups
of two or three, they must follow the
sequence: modal + have + be

EXAMPLES
MODAL HAVE BE {-ING vb}/{-D pp}
I might have been fishing/shot
George may - be reading/startled
They - had been sleeping/seen
She must have - quit

• With have only one form is used in main-verb sequences.
• but be may be doubled, as in: “ He was being punished.”

Do
Auxiliary do has three main functions:
1. The formation of questions and tag questions in
sentences which do not contain an auxiliary:
Sally studies chemistry. Does Sally study chemistry?
Sally studied chemistry. Did Sally study chemistry?
Sally studies chemistry , doesn’t she?
Sally studied chemistry, didn’t she?
2. The formation of negatives in sentences which do not
contain an auxiliary :
Sally studies chemistry. Sally doesn’t study chemistry?
Sally studied chemistry. Sally didn’t study chemistry?
3. The formation of emphatic sentences:
I do like that one.

cont., Do
• Do may also function as a main verb.
Its general meaning is something “to
perform” or “to cause”:
I’ll do it.
It’ll do you good.
• As a main verb, do may also get its
meaning from another verb, as in:
We want it more than they do. (i.e.
‘want it’).

cont., Primary Auxiliaries
• It is important to note that primary
auxiliaries can be main verbs in
structures such as:
He did the dishes.
We have a dog.
She is a nice girl.


Auxiliaries in Questions and Negation
1. In forming questions:
The first auxiliary is placed in front of the
subject:
The dog should be licensed.
Should the dog be licensed?
They are happy. Are they happy?
Jim is teaching history.
Is Jim teaching history?
2. Negatives:
Placing the word ‘not’ after the first auxiliary:
The dog should be licensed.
The dog shouldn’t be licensed

cont., Auxiliaries in Questions and Negation

They are happy They aren’t happy.
Jim is teaching history.
Jim isn’t teaching history.
3. Tag questions:
Locate the first auxiliary of the utterance and
repeat it in a subsequent tag
The dog should be licensed, shouldn’t it?
The dog should be licensed, should it?
They are happy, aren’t they?
They aren’t happy, are they?
Jim is teaching history, isn’t he?
Jim isn’t teaching history, is he?

cont., Auxiliaries
• The behaviour and patterning of auxiliaries
differ from those of verbs in several respects:
1. an auxiliary verb is not used as a full verb. It
may be used, however, as a substitute verb
or in reference to a previously mentioned
verb, as in:
He ate an orange and so did I.
I can drive and so can he.
A: “Are you going to the play?”
B: “Yes, I am.”


cont., Auxiliaries
2. The negative of a verb phrase that has a
verb only is different from a one that has an
auxiliary verb.
3. Forming a question with an auxiliary is
different than forming a question with a verb.
Affim.“ He has been attending.”
Neg.“ He has not been attending.”
Affim.“He attends”
Neg.“He doesn’t attend.”


E. Pronouns:
Personal, Interrogative, Relative
• Pronouns are substitutes for noun phrases. This
is clear if you perform a simple substitution test on
the sentence:
That old torn hat is lying here.
* That old torn it is lying here.
It is lying here.
• Of course, the forms of pronouns don’t refer
specifically to the noun phrase they are
substituting.
•The referent of a pronoun is called an antecedent:
A: You know that hammer we lost?
B: It is lying there.

Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun is the most basic type used
to substitute for a noun phrase. The forms of
personal pronouns are determined by three
different characteristics: person (1st, 2nd, or
3rd), number (singular or plural) and gender
(masculine, feminine, or neuter).
Singular
Person Gender Subject Object Prenominal Possessive
Possessive Pronoun
1st I Me my Mine
2nd You You Your Yours
3rd M He Him his His
F She Her Her Hers
N It its Its Its


cont.,
Pronouns
Plural
Person Subject Object Prenominal Possessive
Possessive Pronoun
1st we us our ours
2nd you you your yours
3rd they them their theirs
Interrogative & Relative Pronoun
who whom whose whose


cont.,
Pronouns
Examples:
1. They are going to the ballet.
2. It was she who missed the test.
3. We saw her in the car.
4. I gave her the letter yesterday.
5. A package came from him.
6. That lawn mower is ours.
7. Yours was the best.


Relative Pronouns
• who, whom, whose, which, and that.
These are called relative pronouns because
they relate a dependent clause to an
independent clause.
The woman who married Rusty is an
aerospace engineer.
• Here the word who modifies a noun phrase,
the woman. In fact, the woman is the
antecedent of the relative pronoun. Since
who modifies a noun phrase, it is functioning
adjectivally. Adjectival clauses which use
relative pronouns are called relative clauses.

cont., Relative Pronouns
The woman whom Rusty married is an
aerospace engineer.
• Why the change to whom? It is because the
relative pronoun is functioning as the object of
married, rather than the subject, as in the first
sentence.
•The form whose is a relative pronoun that
functions as a possessive determiner within
the relative clause.
The bicyclist whose helmet fell of kept
writing.

• The pronouns who, whom, and whose are all
used for human antecedents, and sometimes
for animals.
• For nonhuman antecedents, a single form that
is used.
The trip that intrigues me most visits the
Copper Canyon in Mexico.
• The form that is also frequently used for
human antecedents.
• However, the who forms tend to be preferred
by more educated speakers and in standard
English.

•The pronoun which has antecedents
that are things, animals, and sometimes
a general idea expressed by the rest of
the sentence. It is never used for
humans.
Those apple trees, which belong to
our neighbour, bear beautiful fruit.
Carlo read all of War and Peace in
one day, which astounded us.


• In the second sentence, the entire main
clause is the antecedent of which.
• Sometimes whose is used as the
possessive of that and which:
He tossed aside the lock whose key
was missing.
• However, prepositional phrases are
also frequently used:
the lock to/for which the key was
missing.

Interrogative Pronouns
• We use interrogative pronouns to ask
questions.
•The interrogative pronoun represents the
thing that we don't know (what we are
asking the question about).
•There are four main interrogative
pronouns: who, whom, what, which.
• Notice that the possessive pronoun whose
can also be an interrogative pronoun (an
interrogative possessive pronoun).

cont., Interrogative Pronouns

subject object
person who whom
thing what
person/thing which
person whose (possessive)


Notice that whom is the correct form
when the pronoun is the object of the
verb, as in "Whom did you see?" ("I saw
John.")
However, in normal, spoken English we
rarely use whom. Most native speakers
would say (or even write): "Who did you
see?"


Examples
question answer
Who told you? John told me. subject
Whom did you tell? I told Mary. object
What's happened? An accident's happened. subject
What do you want? I want coffee. object
Which came first? The Porsche 911 came first. subject
The doctor will see the
Which will the doctor see first? object
patient in blue first.
There's one car missing. Whose
John's (car) hasn't arrived. subject
hasn't arrived?
We've found everyone's keys.
I found John's (keys). object
Whose did you find?


•When we add "-ever", we get the pronouns
( whoever, whatever, whichever).
• we use it for emphasis, often to show
confusion or surprise. Examples:
Whoever would want to do such a
nasty thing?
Whatever did he say to make her cry
like that?
They're all fantastic! Whichever will
you choose?

Conclusion
• Structure classes have relatively few
and fixed members.
• they are closed classes as they rarely
admit new members.
• they are recognized by position.
• they do not carry a heavy semantic
load, but they are very important in
what they signal and how the structure
of a sentence is to be interpreted.

Parts of Speech - Structure Classes, Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar .pptx

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Parts of Speech - Structure Classes, Dr. Shadia Yousef Banjar .pptx