The document provides an overview of the history and development of Chinese theater. It discusses origins in early religious rituals and mentions evidence of theatrical traditions from the Shang and Zhou dynasties, including dances imitating animals. During the Tang dynasty, major forms began to emerge, including zaju plays combining drama, music and dance. The kunqu form developed in the Ming dynasty and became very popular. It was during this period that playwright Tang Xianzu created dramatic works that came to epitomize the literature of the time. Chinese opera continued to evolve and diversify into various regional forms.

1. cHINESE
THEATER
(中国剧院)
1

2. The Early History of Chinese Theatre
As elsewhere in the world, it is also in China
that the origins of the theatrical arts seem to lie
in early religious rituals, in China most probably
in shamanistic rites. China has always been an
exceptionally history-conscious culture with a
long continuity, and the Chinese system of
writing was invented very early. Thus it is no
wonder that a relatively substantial amount of
written evidence of the theatrical tradition exists
from the early periods. It gives enlightening, yet
fragmentary, information about the
development of early performance traditions.
2

3.  *Shang dynasty (c. 1766–1066 BC) hunting
dances as well as dances imitating animals
were performed. As has been already
discussed on several occasions, the dances
imitating animals and employing the so-called
“animal movements” have been common in
most cultures.
 * chorus dances were popular during the Zhou
(Chou) dynasty (c. 1066–221 BC). They were
divided into two groups: wu dances
performed by men and xi (hsi) dances
performed by women.
3

4. Before the beginning of our era it was
customary at the court and at public festivities to
organise grand-scale spectacles called baixi
(pai-shi) or a hundred entertainments or hundred
games circus. They were kinds of variety shows
featuring
mimes, jugglers, magicians, acrobats, song, musi
cal recitals, and martial art demonstrations. They
also featured dancing girls wearing dresses with
long, fluttering silk sleeves. Their dances may
have been the predecessors of later opera
scenes, in which female characters elegantly
operate their extra long white silk sleeves, the so-
called “water sleeves”.
4

5. Early dramas combined
mime, stylised movement and a chorus.
The chorus described the action which
was enacted by dancer-actors. A play
called Daimian (tai-mien) or Mask tells
about a prince whose features were so
soft that he was obliged to wear a
terrifying mask in battle in order to scare
the enemy. Later, in the Tang
(T’ang) (618–907) period the play also
found its way to Japan.
5

6. 6

7.  Buddhism, brought from India via Central
Asia, became the dominant religion. Nestorian
Christianity, Manichaeism and later Islam were
also practised. During liberal times they lived
peacefully side by side with the traditional
indigenous belief systems and
ideologies, Taoism and Confucianism. In the
visual arts the pan-Asian Buddhist style was
combined with the refinement of Tang court
elegance. Tang China was open to outside
influences and the trade routes brought to
Changan monks, scholars, artists, musicians
and dancers from all over the then known
world. 7

8.  Earlier theatrical forms were further developed
during the Tang period. However, the traditional
ceremonial chorus dances with their large
orchestras were also performed. Their stories
included, among others, earlier play scripts, such
as Mask and The Dancing, Singing Wife. Perhaps
echoes of these kinds of ceremonial
performances can still be captured in the
Japanese bugaku court dances. Acrobats,
jugglers and clowns, on the other hand,
entertained the audience in the less serious
spectacles, as had been the case in the
earlier baixi or hundred entertainments shows.
8

9.  At court a new form of entertainment gained
popularity. It was the so-called canjun xi (ts’an-
chün hsi) or the adjutant play, which probably
evolved from earlier, more or less loose, clown
and jester numbers. It consisted of short comic
skits and featured two comic characters, a
more or less dumb courtier, canjun (ts’an-
chün), and a slightly cleverer
character, canggu (ts’ang-ku). The “adjutant
play” has been seen as a forerunner of the
fixed role categories of later Chinese opera
and particularly of its comicchou characters. 9

10. CHINESE OPERA IS TAKING SHAPE
After the Tang dynasty the empire split into
several smaller states. A new cultural renaissance
took place from c. 1000 onwards when the Song
dynasty rose to power. At the beginning of the
dynasty the capital was Kaifeng in the middle
regions of the country, some 500 kilometres to the
east of the earlier Tang capital, Changan.
Later, because of enemy attacks, a new
capital, Hangzhou (Hang-chou), was founded in
the south-eastern coastal area. The period was
politically unstable. However, many kinds of
art, such as ceramics, painting, calligraphy and
poetry, attained their classical forms.
10

11.  Many of the Tang period theatrical traditions
were continued. In both Song period
capitals, in northern Kaifeng and in southern
Hangzhou, there were large entertainment or
“red light” districts (wazi, wa-tzû) offering any
kinds of amusements. In the theatre houses
and in the teahouses it was possible to see
mimes, dance spectacles, acrobatics, circuses
with animals, and magic shows. Prostitutes
lured customers by singing and dancing, and
the alleys were lined with fortune-tellers and
street musicians...
11

12.  *During the Song period, a new form of
theatre was born. It was zaju (tsa-chü), which
combined drama, music and dance. It
gradually evolved into two forms, the southern
and the northern. The northern
one, characterised by its string
accompaniment, continued to be performed
for a longer period. A performance started
with a music and dance “prelude”, after
which the actual dramatic action followed. It
combined acting, speech, declamation and
singing. The show ended with a comic number
and instrumental music.
12

13. THE HEYDAY OF CHINESE DRAMA LITERATURE
Northern China was under the dominance of
the Mongol warlike nomad-civilization from c. 1215
onwards, and the whole country came under
Mongol rule in 1279. During this new dynasty, the
Yuan (Yüan), the Chinese themselves became
despised in their own country. Lowest was the status
of the inhabitants of the regions south of the Yangzi
River, although the region had been both
economically and culturally very important.
13

14.  The region south of the Yangzi River, Jiangnan
(Chieng-nan), maintained its importance as a
cultural centre. It was not only a centre of the
arts and passive resistance; it was there where
a successful rebellion arose. It was led by a
Buddhist monk, Zhu Yuanzhang (Chu Yüan-
chang), who made the city of Nanjing
(Nanking, Nan-ching) and its surroundings his
stronghold. With his troops he marched up to
the north and deported the last Mongol ruler
from the country.
14

15.  The new form of opera, fashioned by the
composer and singer Wei Liangfu, is kunqu
(kun-ch’ü). It is the oldest form of Chinese
opera still being performed. The music has a
strongly plaintive quality. With its flowing
melodies and soft and supple note of the
bamboo flute, it is a typically southern style of
opera. Its singing is characterized by its long
notes and elaborated ornamentation. It is said
that the general effect of kunqu music is that
of “undulating waves”.
15

16.  *During the Ming dynasty kunqu emerged as
the most popular and most patronised of the
many theatrical forms and it retained its
national dominance until the 19th century. It
was patronised particularly by the educated
elite, the scholar-officials and the literati. The
acting technique is most demanding, since
the delicate singing is combined with constant
dance-like movements. Because of the
complexity of both its language and acting
technique, the educated courtesan
actresses, trained in several arts, dominated
the kunqu stage for a long time.
16

17.  *The first writer who was able to create
dramatic scripts and language matching
the fashionable kunqu melodies was Tang
Xianzu (T’ang Hsien-tsu) (1550–1617). As he
was contemporaneous with Shakespeare
he is sometimes called the “Shakespeare of
China”. His works are regarded as the
epitome of the dramatic literature of the
Ming period. His plays are still praised for
their harmonious structure, deep emotions
and sophisticated style.
17

18. 18
CLASSICAL CHINESE THEATRE
There are references to theatrical
entertainments in China as early as the Shang
Dynasty; they often involved
happiness, mimes, and acrobatic displays.
The Tang Dynasty is sometimes known as
"The Age of 1000 Entertainments". During this
era, Ming Huang formed an acting school
known as The Pear Garden to produce a form of
drama that was primarily musical. That is why
actors are commonly called "Children of the

19.  generally performed plays depicting great
adventure and fantasy, rarely was this very
stylized form of theatre used for political
propaganda.
TWO DISTINCT FORMS OF
SHADOW PUPPETRY
1. Cantonese (Southern)
2. Pekingese (Northern)
19

20. 20
CANTONESE (Southern)
- puppets were larger than the Pekingnese’s
- built using thick leather which create
more substantial shadows
PEKINGESE (Northern)
- puppets were more delicate and smaller
- were create out of thin, translucent
leather
- were painted with vibrant paints

21. 21
DO YOU KNOW?

22. CHINESE OPERA
In the Song Dynasty, there were many
popular plays involving acrobatics and
music. These developed in the Yuan
Dynasty into a more sophisticated form
known as zaju, with a four or five act
structure. Yuan drama spread across
China and diversified into numerous
regional forms, the best known of which is
Beijing Opera, which is still popular today.

23. 23
A certain traditional
Chinese comedic overall
performance inside the
types of monologue or
dialogue.

24. The greatest variety of roles in
Chinese Opera fall into four main
types:
24
1.Male (Sheng)
2. Female (Dan)
3. Clown (Chou)
4. “Painted face” (Jing)

25. 25

26. The young man (xiao sheng) is
usually a young scholar or
prince.
Sometimes, the role of xiao
sheng is played by a female actress
probably because this role requires
the performer to possess an
excellent voice as he or she needs
to handle long singing parts.
26

27. 27
The role of a scholarly xiao
sheng played by a female
actress.

28.  The old man's role (laosheng) is characterized by his
flowing white beard and plain costume with dull colours
and simple designs. He also applies little make-up on his
face.
28
The wen lao sheng is a
scholar or statesman of
great dignity and
refined manners.
This wen lao sheng is
an
emperor, dressed in
royal yellow and
wearing the jade
girdle. Yellow is
normally worn by
the emperor or
those of royal blood
and traditionally the
five-clawed dragon
is reserved
exclusively for the
Son of Heaven

29. 29
The warrior (wu sheng) is a
fierce fighter, capable
with a wide range of
weaponry. It is most
interesting to watch the
wu sheng as he is the
"action man" in the opera
performance.

30. 30
• Jing is another
interesting character.
Larger than life,
wearing imposing
costumes of large
padded shoulders and
high, heavy shoes. He
draws attention to
himself as soon as he
steps on the stage.

31. 31
• Ching Yi is a virtuous young
woman and often plays the
heroine with a tragic end.
• Hua Dan is a lady who is
often admired for her
beauty and feminine charm.
She could play the role of an
empress, a court lady or
even a flirtatious courtesan.
She captivates the
audience with her changing
facial expressions and
flaunts her charms with
grace. Most unforgetable
female role.

32. 32
• Da Ma Dan means horse
and swords female. Being
a female warrior and
skilled in fighting, horse
riding and more masculine
accomplishments.
DAO MA DAN
• Being strong and
vigorous, the role of da
ma dan calls for
performers to be skilled
in gymnastics, wielding
swords and lances.

33. 33
• is an elderly woman
whose costume and
hairstyle are always
simple. She wears a head
band and carries a
walking staff.
• They can also be
powerful matriarchs and
advisors to the ching yi.
LAO DAN

34. 34
• Chou can be quite serious
and malevolent. A military
chou is a lowly soldier
who performs acrobatic
stunts. A civilian chou
includes the jailer, servant
or merchant whom the
leading actor has
dealings with.
• Chou is always the clown
of the show.
Male Chou

35. 35
Female Chou
• the female chou does not
have the white patch of
make-up around the nose.
Instead simple make-up
exaggerates her features.

36. 36
Besides facial make-up, each
character in Chinese Opera
wears a distinctive costume which
tells the audience about the
rank, status and personality traits
of the wearer.

37. 37
The armour or K'ao is a stiff costume with brilliant
colours and often has the design of a tiger's
head or dragon across the front. It is worn by
actors and actresses playing high military officials
in the jing (painted face), Wu Sheng (male
acrobat) and Dao Ma Dan (female warrior) roles.
If the official wears four triangular pennants on his
back, it shows that he has received his authority
from the emperor himself.
Military characters also wear headgears with two
great pheasant plumes that are sometimes
nearly six or seven feet in length and sprouting
from the actor's head.

38. 38

39. 39
Elaborate headresses decorated with
sequins and pearls are only worn by
people of high status such as emperors
and empresses, generals, princes and
chief concubines. More important
characters will wear more ornate and
striking headresses.

40. 40Dan characters usually wear
elaborate headdresses.
Empress
EmperorA backstage display of headresses.

41. 41
There are many
different kinds of
hats worn in Chinese
Opera. Scholars and
officials often wear
simple black hats
with two fins coming
out from the sides.

42. 42
Hats with rectangular fins
are worn by high officials
while round fins are worn
by treacherous
characters.
Hats with long, thin fins
are only worn by Prime
Ministers.

43. 43
A young scholar from
a well-to-do family will
wear a richly
embroidered hat and
fins in the shape of two
curled butterfly wings.

44. 44
They are sleeves which have an extra
length of cloth that consist of long strips
of white silk.
Water sleeves are flickered to
emphasize a point, shaken when angry
or stretched out when in dance. Some
hua dans and high officials have water
sleeves.

45. 45

46. 46
Men's costumes tend to be long robes
that are either tied at the waist or left
straight down.
The robes also come in different
cuttings. Some are double breasted and
tied on the side, while others are single
breasted and button-down. Some have
round collars and are buttoned around
the shoulder while others have water
sleeves.

47. 47
A robe tied at
the waist with
tassels, is worn
by scholars. It
can also serve
as leisure wear
too.

48. 48
Mong is worn
by officials in
court.
A Gok Dai or
hoop is held
around the
waist. It is a
symbol of rank.

49. 49
It has the same
cutting as a
Mong but it is
worn by lower
ranked officials.
It has less
embroidery with
just a round or
square pattern
on the chest.

50. 50
Go Hur are
shoes made to
look like boots.
They are
usually made
of cloth and
worn by male
characters.

51. 51
This costume is worn by a
general. It consists of a lot of
different pieces and layers and
is tied at the waist.
Generals going to war may
wear many different
accessories such as baan dai
(a waistband that hangs down
to the ankles) and the kwun
Sok (a thin rope with very long
tassels that is tied across the
chest in different ways to form
different patterns on the
performer's chest).

52. 52
Flat soled
shoes worn
by war
generals.

53. 53
The ladies' costumes
are usually made up
of a shirt, either
buttoned down the
front or back and a
long, flowing skirt.
Some ladies' robes
also include water
sleeves.
Pay Fung

54. 54
Do you know why?
This is because a lady's costume and hair
will tell a lot about her status.A lady from a
rich family who is high in social status will
have more embroidery on her outfit and a
more elaborate hair design. Maid and girls
from poor families usually wear a shirt and
pants set.

55. 55
Siu Gu Gong worn by
unmarried girls and
maids is a shirt and
blouse set that is tied
at the waist.
While the Pay Fung, a
blouse and skirt outfit
that is not tied at the
waist, is usually worn
by married women.

56. 56
Mong and
formal costumes
are worn by
royalty at formal
gatherings.
Sometimes a belt
called gok dai is
also included to
symbolise status.

57. 57
Female shoes
are flat soled
and mostly
made of cloth
with some
tassels or
embroidery to
decorate the
shoes.

58. 58
Just like the male warrior, female
warrior's costumes also consist of
a lot of different pieces and
layers, and are tied at the waist.
There are skirts with three knee
length flaps that hang from the
actor's waist or skirts with many
thin flaps that look almost like
long leaves hanging down to the
floor.
Different skirts serve different
purposes. Thus, skirts with thin
flaps that hang to the floor are
usually worn by females who are
pushing a carriage.

59. 59
A female general
going to war may
wear an
extravagant
costume which
may include a
large plate of
armor that covers
the chest and four
pennants worn on
her back.

60. 60
Shoes worn by
female warrior is
structured like that
of the male
general, but are
more colourful and
include
embroideries on
them.

61. 61
The generals and warriors in Chinese
Opera would often carry a range of
weapons for the interesting fighting
scenes.
Actors and actresses engaged in
swordplay would also combine the action
with various body movements and
footsteps such as jumping, leaping and
wrestling.

62. 62
The sword is
called the
"gentleman
of all
weapons."

63. 63
a spear is also used
as a military weapon
by the warriors. In
spear play, actors
and actresses
combine the
poking, circling and
blocking with
acrobatic acts such
as jumping and
leaping.

64. 64
The ring which is
like a bracelet
with saw-like
teeth around the
outside rim is
sometimes used
by warriors
engaged in a
fighting scene.

65. 65
Painted Faces

66. 66
Red indicates
devotion, courage, bra
very, uprightness and
loyalty. A typical "red
face" is Guan
Yu, general of the
period of the Three
Kingdoms (220-
280), famed for his
faithfulness to his
Emperor, Liu Bei

67. 67
Yellow signifies
fierceness, ambiti
on and cool-
headedness.

68. 68
A green face
tells the
audience that
the character is
not only
impulsive and
violent, he also
lacks self-
restraint.

69. 69
Black symbolizes
roughness and
fierceness. The
black face indicates
either a rough and
bold character or an
impartial and
selfless personality.

70. 70
Purple stands
for
uprightness, an
d cool-
headedness.
While a reddish
purple face
indicates a just
and noble
character.

71. 71
White suggests
sinisterness, treacher
ous, suspicious and
craftiness. It is
common to see the
white face of the
powerful villain on
stage.

72. 72
The clown or
chou in Chinese
Opera has special
makeup patterns
called xiaohualian
(the petty painted
face).

73. 73
Music is the essential ingredient in
any Chinese opera performance.
The performer’s every
movement, word and gesture must
be matched with the rhythm of
woodwind, string, and percussion
instruments. Different music
accompanies a tragic moment or a
joyous situation.

74. • The Xiao
• Dizi
• Suona
• Sheng
74

75. 75
The vertical flute
is a five-holed
instrument held
in much the same
way as a clarinet.
It produces a
deep, airy sound.

76. 76
The vertical flute
has eight or ten
holes rather than
keys. It produces
a bright and lively
sound in a higher
register than the
xiao.

77. 77
The suona is a double-
reeded wind instrument with
a large, flared opening like a
horn. It is often used to
imitate high-spirited
horses, to announce
important arrivals or events
and to signal transitions
between scenes. The player
holds it like a trumpet.

78. 78
The sheng is a collection
of bamboo tubes in
varying lengths, fixed in
a base. The player
blows into a
mouthpiece at the side
of the base, which
carries air into the tubes
to produce a sound
similar to a harmonica.

79. Bowed-Strings
• Jinghu
• Erhu
• Banhu
Plucked-Strings
• Sanxian
• Pipa
• Yueqin
• Guzheng
79

80. 80

81. 81
The jinghu ("Beijing huqin") or the
Chinese fiddle has two strings and
a bow made of horsehair which is
passed between the strings of the
instrument. The bow comes in
contact with the inside of one
string and the outside of the
other, alternating from one to the
other as it is bowed back and
forth. The fiddle has a
shrill, piercing sound that is
amplified through a snakeskin-
covered sound box open at the
back. It is held upright on the
musician's knee.

82. 82
The erhu ("two-stringed huqin") is a two-
stringed fiddle. It has two steel strings
(originally silk, and generally tuned a fifth
apart) between which a bow of bamboo
and horsehair is permanently fixed, a
hexagonal wooden sound box covered in
front with python skin, and a long thin
neck with two tuning pegs and a curved
scroll at the end. It is held upright on the
musician's knee. Its mellow but plaintive
tone makes it ideal for tragic or poignant
melodies. The erhu's emotional depth
now also extends to lively and playful
pieces, and it can even be used to imitate
the neighing of a horse.

83. 83
The banhu has a
short, round sound box
that opens at the
back, and a wooden
soundboard rather
than a python-skin
cover. This gives it an
especially shrill and
strident tone quality.
The instrument is held
upright on the player's
knee.

84. 84

85. 85
The sanxian ("3 strings") is said to
have originated in the Qin
Dynasty (221 - 207 BC), but was
known as the xian until the Yuan
Dynasty (1280-1368). It is a long-
necked, three-stringed instrument
with a python skin membrane
stretched over its resonator. The
musician holds the instrument as
he plucks its strings, usually with a
plectrum. It produces a shallow
and twangy sound. Having a rich
and strong tone and a wide
range, the sanxian is now used
mostly for accompaniment and
ensemble.

86. 86
The pipa is a four-stringed plucked
instrument that was introduced by
the nomadic races of Central Asia
in the Eastern Jin Dynasty (317 -
420 AD). Its name came from the
two techniques for right-handed
strumming: "pi" (leftward,
outward) and "pa"(rightward,
inward). There are 19 to 26
bamboo frets glued on its
soundboard, which together with
the 6 upper ledges are arranged as
stops. Originally played with a
plectrum on silk strings, most pipa
now use steel strings and are
played with the fingernails. Pipa is
probably the best known among
China's many plucked instruments.

87. 87
It gets its name from a
large round wooden
sound box. Like the
banjo, it is plucked with a
plectrum rather than
bowed and is held
vertically on the
performer's knee. Unlike
the banjo, the moon
guitar has four strings and
frets on a short neck.

88. 88
The Guzhengs sound box is
constructed of wood, red sandal
for its sides and bottom and
wutong wood (firmiana
platanifolia) for the arched
soundboard. Each string is
suspended over the upper
soundboard by a single
adjustable bridge as a device
for fine tuning. The strings are
traditionally silk, or steel wire
with or without nylon coiling
round. It has a loud and bright
tone. If its strings are struck
consecutively, it produces a
sound like flowing water.

89. • Danpigu
• Dagu
• Dalo
• Xiaolo
• Bo
• Ban
• Yunlo
89

90. 90
The drum has a tight leather
skin drawn over a wooden
frame about twenty-five
centimeters across. The
drummer sits behind the three-
legged stand that holds the
drum. It produces a
high, crisp, wooden sound
when hit. The leader of the
orchestra plays the small drum.
The other musicians listen to his
cues.

91. 91
Military or festive
scenes will
sometimes use the
large drum. This
drum stands upright
and gives a
deep, resonant
sound. The musician
is seated while
playing the
instrument.

92. 92
The musician holds the
brass gong with one
hand from a handle at
the top and strikes it
with the other hand. It
produces deep
reverberations and is
often used at exciting
moments such as
fighting scenes.

93. 93
This is a smaller
version of the
gong. It can
produce a
distinctively high-
pitched sound. The
small gong is often
played when a
female lead
character enters
the stage.

94. 94
The cymbals are two
hollow, bell-shaped
metal instruments that
usually have a
long, decorative scarf-
like piece of cloth
attached to the back of
each. The musician
holds one in each hand
by grasping the cloth
and clangs them
together for a
sharp, strong sound.

95. 95
The orchestra leader also plays
hand clappers. This instrument is
made up of three pieces of
wood, each about thirty
centimeters long. Two of the pieces
are fitted against one another to
form one side of the
instrument.The two sides are
loosely joined by a cord at one end
and supported by the musicians'
left thumb. The paired pieces hang
down in the palm on either side of
the thumb. The leader swings one
piece across the other for a sharp
sound that keeps rhythm and
punctuates the performance

96. 96
Ten little gongs, each half
the size of the small
gong, hang in a wooden
frame. Each gong is tuned
to a different note of the
scale. The musician can
thus play clear, ringing
melodic lines, holding the
frame by a handle at the
base.

97. 97

98. 98

99. 99