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Introduction to research
Methodology

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

1
STEPS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Establish the need research
Define the problem
Establish research Objective & Hypothesis
Determine research design
Identify information types and sources
Determine methods of accessing data
Design data collection form
Determine sample size & plan
Collect data
Analyze data
Prepare & present final research report

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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STEPS

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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• Marketing Research is needed when :
• Information need is identified
• decisions need not be made immediately

• Organization can afford the research
• Value of the research outweigh the cost of the
research

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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STEPS

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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Defining a problem involves the task of laying
down boundaries within which researcher
shall study the problem with a pre-determined
objective in view.

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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• Two types of sources:
• 1. Gap between what is supposed to happen
& what did happen?
• 2. Gap between what did happen and what
could have happen?

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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• Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for

it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.
• Controversial subject should not become the choice of
average researcher.
• Too narrow & too vague problems should be avoided
• Subject should be familiar and feasible

• Cost involved should be minimum. Similarly time factor
should also be considered.
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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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Problem formulation
Steps in Problem formulation:

• Introduction to the problem : discussion with DM, Sec
Data, Qualitative research.
• Review of previous studies : literature review
• Identifying gaps in earlier studies
• Need for the present study
• Objectives of the present study

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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STEPS

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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OBJECTIVES & HYPOTHESIS
• The OBJECTIVES of a research project
summarize what is to be achieved by the
study.

• Objectives should be closely related to the
statement of the problem.

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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Why should research objectives be
developed?
The formulation of objectives will help you to:
• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials);
• Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary
for understanding and solving the problem you have
identified; and
• Organise the study in clearly defined parts or phases.
• Properly formulated, specific objectives will facilitate the
development of your research methodology and will help to
orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilisation of
data.

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

12
Formulation of Hypothesis
HYPOTHESIS: A tentative, logical and verifiable
statement that is to be verified through
research
- It is an unproven statement or a proposition
about a factor or phenomenon that is of
interest to the researcher.

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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Types of Hypothesis:
1.Null Hypothesis
2.Alternate hypothesis

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

14
RESEARCH DESIGN

11/9/2013

RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

15
Research Design

A research design is a framework within which the study is conducted .
It is a blue print of what to collect, from where to collect, how to collect,
how much to collect and what to do with the data collected .

11/9/2013

RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

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Exploratory Research

Converting vague problem statements into small,
precise sub-problem statements
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RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

18
Exploratory research
• Exploratory research is undertaken when the researcher does

not know much about the issue / concern / topic and needs
additional information or desires new or more recent
information.

• Such types of research are conducted in an unstructured
manner and depends largely on primary data .
•

The outcome of this Research is in the form of objectives and

hypothesis .
11/9/2013

RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

19
Exploratory research methods
Secondary data analysis
Experts survey

Focus group
Qualitative research
11/9/2013

RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

20
Conclusive Research
• This is research having clearly defined objectives. In this type
of research specific courses of action are taken to solve the
problem.
• Two types : 1. Descriptive Research
2. Causal Research

11/9/2013

RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

21
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
A type of conclusive research that has its major
objective as the description of something –

usually market characteristics or functions.

11/9/2013

RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

22
Clear Specification Of 6 W’s
• Why : why are we obtaining information?

• Who : Who should be customer?
• What : what information should be obtained?
• When : when the information should be obtained?
• Where : where respondent should be contacted?
• Way : in what way are we going to obtain information from

the respondent ?

11/9/2013

RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

23
When to use descriptive study
• To determine characteristics of market (such as size of the

market, product usage pattern etc)
• To determine the association of two variables such as
advertisement expenditure and sales.
• To estimate the proportion of people in a specific
population, who behave in a particular way e.g. Shopping
behavior of South African people.
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RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

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RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

25
Cross Sectional Design
• A type of cross sectional design involving the collection of
information from any given sample of population elements
only once.
• Single cross sectional design.
• Multiple cross sectional design.

11/9/2013

RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

26
Longitudinal Design Or Panel Study
• A type of research design involving a fixed sample of
population elements that is measured repeatedly.
• The sample remains the same over time, thus providing a
series of pictures which, when viewed together portray a vivid
illustration of the situation and the changes that are taking
place over time.

11/9/2013

RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN

27
STEPS

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

28
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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

29
Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Objective

To gain a qualitative
understanding of the
underlying reasons and
motivations

To quantify the data and
generalize the results from the
sample to the population of
interest

Sample

Small number of nonrepresentative cases

Large number of representative
cases

Data Collection

Unstructured

Structured

Data Analysis

Non-statistical

Statistical

Outcome

Develop an initial
understanding

Recommend a final course of
action

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

30
STEPS

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

31
Measurement and Scaling
Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to
characteristics of objects according to certain prespecified
rules.
– The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized
and applied uniformly.
– Rules must not change over objects or time.

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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Measurement and Scaling
Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured
objects are located.
Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is
assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely
Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement
is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each
respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents
on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward
department stores.

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

33
Primary Scales of Measurement
Nominal Scale
• The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and
classifying objects.
• When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one
correspondence between the numbers and the objects.
• The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic
possessed by the objects.
• The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal
scale is counting.
• Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on
frequency counts, are permissible, e.g., percentages, and
mode.
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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

34
Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale
Nominal

Ordinal

Numbers
Assigned
to Runners

Finish
7

8

3

Finish

Rank Order
of Winners
Third
place

Interval

Ratio
11/9/2013

Time to
Finish, in
Seconds

8.2

9.1

9.6

15.2

Performance
Rating on a
0 to 10 Scale

Second
place

14.1

13.4

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

First
place

35
Primary Scales of Measurement
Ordinal Scale
• A Ordinal scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to
indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some
characteristic.
• Can determine whether an object has more or less of a
characteristic than some other object, but not how much
more or less.
• Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the
ordered relationships between the objects.
• In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal
scale data, ordinal scales permit the use of statistics based on
centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile, median.

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

36
Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale
Nominal

Ordinal

Numbers
Assigned
to Runners

Finish
7

8

3

Finish

Rank Order
of Winners
Third
place

Interval

Ratio
11/9/2013

Time to
Finish, in
Seconds

8.2

9.1

9.6

15.2

Performance
Rating on a
0 to 10 Scale

Second
place

14.1

13.4

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

First
place

37
Primary Scales of Measurement
Interval Scale
• Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal
values in the characteristic being measured.
• It permits comparison of the differences between objects.
• The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point
and the units of measurement are arbitrary.
• It is meaningful to take ratios of scale values.
• Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those
that can be applied to nominal and ordinal data, and in
addition the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and other
statistics commonly used in marketing research.
• It provide the information between one & other object.

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

38
Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale
Nominal

Ordinal

Numbers
Assigned
to Runners

Finish
7

8

3

Finish

Rank Order
of Winners
Third
place

Interval

Ratio
11/9/2013

Time to
Finish, in
Seconds

8.2

9.1

9.6

15.2

Performance
Rating on a
0 to 10 Scale

Second
place

14.1

13.4

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

First
place

39
Primary Scales of Measurement
Ratio Scale
• Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and
interval scales.
• It has an absolute zero point.
• It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values.
• All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data.

11/9/2013

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

40
Primary Scales of Measurement
Scale
Nominal

Ordinal

Numbers
Assigned
to Runners

Finish
7

8

3

Finish

Rank Order
of Winners
Third
place

Interval

Ratio
11/9/2013

Time to
Finish, in
Seconds

8.2

9.1

9.6

15.2

Performance
Rating on a
0 to 10 Scale

Second
place

14.1

13.4

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

First
place

41
Comparative scale
• One of two types of scaling technique in
which there is direct comparison of stimulus
objects with one another

• EG. Row product is better than column

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

42
Comparative Scaling Techniques
Paired Comparison Scaling
• A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to
select one according to some criterion.
• The data obtained are ordinal in nature.
• Paired comparison scaling is used when the stimulus objects
are physical products.
• With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are required
• Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert
paired comparison data to a rank order.

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

43
Comparative Scaling Techniques
Rank Order Scaling
• Respondents are presented with several objects
simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to
some criterion.
• It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand
ranked 1 in an absolute sense.
• Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data.
• Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order
scaling.

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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Preference for Toothpaste Brands
Using Rank Order Scaling
Form
Brand

Rank Order

1. Cibaca
2. Colgate

_________

3. Babool

_________

4. Miswak

_________

5. Close Up

_________

6. Pepsodent

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_________

_________

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

45
Comparative Scaling Techniques
Constant Sum Scaling
• Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100
points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance.
• If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero
points.
• If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it
receives twice as many points.
• The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the
scale.

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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Non comparative scale
• One of two types of scaling technique in
which each stimulus object is scaled
independently of the other objects in the
stimulus set.

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

47
CONTINUOUS RATING SCALE
• Also called as graphic rating scale,
respondents rate the objects by placing a
mark at the appropriate position on the line
that runs from one extreme of the criterion
variable to the other.
• It is easy to construct but data feeding is
difficult and cubersome.
LIKERT SCALE
• It is scale in which respondents indicate a
degree of agreement or disagreement with
each of the series of statements about
stimulus object.
• Each scale item has five response categories
ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly
agree”
SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE
• It is a seven point rating scale with endpoints
associated with bipolar labels that have
semantic meaning.
• The respondents mark the blank that best
indicates how they would describe the object
being rated.
• Eg. Samsung Laptops are
Reliable :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Unreliable
STEPS

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

51
Questionnaire Definition
• A questionnaire is a formalized set of questions for obtaining
information from respondents.

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Questionnaire Objectives
• It must translate the information needed into a set of specific
questions that the respondents can and will answer.
• A questionnaire must uplift, motivate, and encourage the
respondent to become involved in the interview, to
cooperate, and to complete the interview.
• A questionnaire should minimize response error.

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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Individual Question Content
Is the Question Necessary?
• If there is no satisfactory use for the data resulting from a
question, that question should be eliminated.

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Individual Question Content
Are Several Questions Needed Instead of One?
• Sometimes, several questions are needed to obtain the required
information in an unambiguous manner. Consider the question,
“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty and refreshing soft
drink?”

(Incorrect)

• Such a question is called a double-barreled question, because two
or more questions are combined into one. To obtain the required
information, two distinct questions should be asked:
“Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink?” and
“Do you think Coca-Cola is a refreshing soft drink?”
(Correct)

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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Choosing Question Structure
Unstructured Questions
• Unstructured questions are open-ended questions that
respondents answer in their own words.
Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?
__________________________________

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Choosing Question Structure
Structured Questions
• Structured questions specify the set of response alternatives
and the response format. A structured question may be
multiple-choice, dichotomous, or a scale.

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Choosing Question Structure
Multiple-Choice Questions
• In multiple-choice questions, the researcher provides a choice
of answers and respondents are asked to select one or more
of the alternatives given.
Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?
____
Definitely will not buy
____
Probably will not buy
____
Undecided
____
Probably will buy
____
Definitely will buy
____
Other (please specify)
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Choosing Question Structure
Dichotomous Questions
• A dichotomous question has only two response alternatives:
yes or no, agree or disagree, and so on.
• Often, the two alternatives of interest are supplemented by a
neutral alternative, such as “no opinion,” “don't know,”
“both,” or “none.”
Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know
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Choosing Question Structure
Scales

Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months?
Definitely
will not buy
1

11/9/2013

Probably
will not buy
2

Undecided
3

Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

Probably
will buy
4

Definitely
will buy
5

60
Choosing Question Wording
Define the Issue
• Define the issue in terms of who, what, when, where, why,
and way (the six Ws). Who, what, when, and where are
particularly important.
Which brand of shampoo do you use?

(Incorrect)

Which brand or brands of shampoo have you
personally used at home during the last month?
In case of more than one brand, please
list all the brands that apply.
(Correct)
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Choosing Question Wording
Use Ordinary Words
“Do you think the distribution of soft drinks is adequate?”
(Incorrect)
“Do you think soft drinks are readily available when you want to
buy them?”
(Correct)

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Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan

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Choosing Question Wording
Use Unambiguous Words
In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?
_____ Never
_____ Occasionally
_____ Sometimes
_____ Often
_____ Regularly
(Incorrect)
In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores?
_____ Less than once
_____ 1 or 2 times
_____ 3 or 4 times
_____ More than 4 times
(Correct)

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Choosing Question Wording
Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions
• A leading question is one that clues the respondent to what
the answer should be, as in the following:
Do you think that patriotic Indians should buy imported automobiles
when that would put Indian labor out of work?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know
(Incorrect)
Do you think that Indians should buy imported automobiles?
_____ Yes
_____ No
_____ Don't know
(Correct)

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Choosing Question Wording
Avoid Implicit Assumptions
• Questions should not be worded so that the answer is
dependent upon implicit assumptions about what will happen
as a consequence.
1.

Are you in favor of a balanced budget?
(Incorrect)

2. Are you in favor of a balanced budget if it would result in
an increase in the personal income tax?
(Correct)

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Choosing Question Wording
Avoid Generalizations and Estimates
“What is the annual per capita expenditure on groceries in
your household?” (Incorrect)
“What is the monthly (or weekly) expenditure on groceries in
your household?”
and
“How many members are there in your household?”
(Correct)
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Determining the Order of Questions
Opening Questions
• The opening questions should be interesting, simple, and
non-threatening. (helps in qualifying respondent)
Type of Information
• As a general guideline, basic information should be obtained
first, followed by classification (demographics for classifying
repspondents), and, finally, identification information.
Difficult Questions
• Difficult questions or questions which are
sensitive, embarrassing, complex, or dull, should be placed
late in the sequence.
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Determining the Order of Questions
Logical Order
The following guidelines should be followed for branching
questions:
• The question being branched (the one to which the
respondent is being directed) should be placed as close as
possible to the question causing the branching.
• The branching questions should be ordered so that the
respondents cannot anticipate what additional information
will be required.

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Form and Layout
• Divide a questionnaire into several parts.
• The questions in each part should be numbered, particularly
when branching questions are used.
• The questionnaires should preferably be precoded.
• The questionnaires themselves should be numbered serially.

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Pretesting
Pretesting refers to the testing of the questionnaire on a small
sample of respondents to identify and eliminate potential
problems.
• A questionnaire should not be used in the field survey without
adequate pretesting.
• All aspects of the questionnaire should be tested, including
question content, wording, sequence, form and layout, question
difficulty, and instructions.
• The respondents for the pretest and for the actual survey should be
drawn from the same population.
• Pretests are best done by personal interviews, even if the actual
survey is to be conducted by mail, telephone, or electronic means,
because interviewers can observe respondents' reactions and
attitudes.
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Pretesting
• After the necessary changes have been made, another
pretest could be conducted by mail, telephone, or electronic
means if those methods are to be used in the actual survey.
• A variety of interviewers should be used for pretests.
• The pretest sample size varies from 15 to 30 respondents for
each wave.
• Protocol analysis (tape recording or observing rxn while
answering Qs) and debriefing (after Qsnr completion asked to
describe meaning of Qs) are two commonly used procedures
in pretesting.
• Finally, the responses obtained from the pretest should be
coded and analyzed.
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Sampling process
Definition of population
Specification of sampling frame
Specification of sampling unit
Determination of sample size
Selection of sampling method
Defining a population
• A population can be defined as including all people or items
with the characteristic one wishes to understand.
• A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose
properties are studied to gain information about the whole.

• Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a
suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for
the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of
the whole population.
Sampling frame
• Sampling frame is the actual set of units from
which a sample has been drawn.
• A list of all elements in the population of
interest
Sampling unit
• A sampling unit is that element or set of
elements considered for selection in some
stage of sampling.
How to determine Sample size???
Sample size
Involves decisions on how many sampling units to be
selected for study.
Certain factors affecting sample size:
• Size of population (N)
• Diversity in population
• Resources ( time and money)
• Level of confidence (Z)
• Error tolerated in the result
• Variance of the variable under study (S)
Sample size (n)= (Z)2 (S)2
(e)2
Z= Z score from the standard normal distribution for the
confidence level desired by the researcher.
90% confidence level, Z=1.645
95% confidence level, Z=1.960
99% confidence level, Z=2.576
S = population Standard deviation for the
variable that we are trying to measure from
the study.
Can be estimated through:
• Previous study
• From pilot study
e = tolerable error in estimating the variable under
study.
Can be decided by the researcher.
In general, sample size would increase if:
• S is higher
• Confidence level required is higher
• Error to be tolerated is lower.
Basic Sampling Classifications

• Probability samples: ones in which members of the
population have a known chance (probability) of being
selected
• Non-probability samples: instances in which the chances
(probability) of selecting members from the population
are unknown
Classification of Sampling Techniques
Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability
Sampling Techniques

Convenience
Sampling

Judgmental
Sampling

Simple Random
Sampling

Systematic
Sampling

Probability
Sampling Techniques

Quota
Sampling

Stratified
Sampling

Snowball
Sampling

Cluster
Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of
convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected
because they happen to be in the right place at the right time.
– use of students, and members of social organizations
– mall intercept interviews without qualifying the
respondents
– department stores using charge account lists
– “people on the street” interviews
Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in
which the population elements are selected based on the
judgment of the researcher.
– test markets
– purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing
research
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental sampling.
– The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of
population elements.
– In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on random
,convenience or judgment.
Population
composition
Control
Characteristic
Sex
Male
Female

Sample
composition

Percentage

Percentage

Number

48
52
____
100

48
52
____
100

480
520
____
1000
Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is
selected, usually at random.
– After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to
identify others who belong to the target population of
interest.
– Subsequent respondents are selected based on the
referrals.
Simple Random Sampling
• Each element in the population has a known and equal
probability of selection.
• Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and
equal probability of being the sample actually selected.
• This implies that every element is selected independently of
every other element.
Systematic Sampling
• The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then
picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame.
• The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population size N by
the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer.
• When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic of
interest, systematic sampling increases the representativeness of the
sample.
• If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern, systematic
sampling may decrease the representativeness of the sample.
For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a sample
of 1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling interval, i, is 100. A random
number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for example, this number is 23,
the sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
Stratified Sampling
• A two-step process in which the population is partitioned into
subpopulations, or strata.
• The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively
exhaustive in that every population element should be
assigned to one and only one stratum and no population
elements should be omitted.
• Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a random
procedure, usually SRS.
• A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase
precision without increasing cost.
Stratified Sampling
• The elements within a stratum should be as homogeneous as possible, but
the elements in different strata should be as heterogeneous as possible.
• The stratification variables should also be closely related to the
characteristic of interest.
• Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of the stratification process
by being easy to measure and apply.
Cluster Sampling
• The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and
collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters.
• Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a probability
sampling technique such as SRS.
• For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the
sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically
(two-stage).
• Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but
clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally, each
cluster should be a small-scale representation of the population.

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Mr y ppt

  • 2. STEPS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Establish the need research Define the problem Establish research Objective & Hypothesis Determine research design Identify information types and sources Determine methods of accessing data Design data collection form Determine sample size & plan Collect data Analyze data Prepare & present final research report 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 2
  • 4. • Marketing Research is needed when : • Information need is identified • decisions need not be made immediately • Organization can afford the research • Value of the research outweigh the cost of the research 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 4
  • 6. Defining a problem involves the task of laying down boundaries within which researcher shall study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 6
  • 7. • Two types of sources: • 1. Gap between what is supposed to happen & what did happen? • 2. Gap between what did happen and what could have happen? 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 7
  • 8. • Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case. • Controversial subject should not become the choice of average researcher. • Too narrow & too vague problems should be avoided • Subject should be familiar and feasible • Cost involved should be minimum. Similarly time factor should also be considered. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 8
  • 9. Problem formulation Steps in Problem formulation: • Introduction to the problem : discussion with DM, Sec Data, Qualitative research. • Review of previous studies : literature review • Identifying gaps in earlier studies • Need for the present study • Objectives of the present study 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 9
  • 11. OBJECTIVES & HYPOTHESIS • The OBJECTIVES of a research project summarize what is to be achieved by the study. • Objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 11
  • 12. Why should research objectives be developed? The formulation of objectives will help you to: • Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials); • Avoid the collection of data which are not strictly necessary for understanding and solving the problem you have identified; and • Organise the study in clearly defined parts or phases. • Properly formulated, specific objectives will facilitate the development of your research methodology and will help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilisation of data. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 12
  • 13. Formulation of Hypothesis HYPOTHESIS: A tentative, logical and verifiable statement that is to be verified through research - It is an unproven statement or a proposition about a factor or phenomenon that is of interest to the researcher. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 13
  • 14. Types of Hypothesis: 1.Null Hypothesis 2.Alternate hypothesis 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 14
  • 16. Research Design A research design is a framework within which the study is conducted . It is a blue print of what to collect, from where to collect, how to collect, how much to collect and what to do with the data collected . 11/9/2013 RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN 16
  • 18. Exploratory Research Converting vague problem statements into small, precise sub-problem statements 11/9/2013 RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN 18
  • 19. Exploratory research • Exploratory research is undertaken when the researcher does not know much about the issue / concern / topic and needs additional information or desires new or more recent information. • Such types of research are conducted in an unstructured manner and depends largely on primary data . • The outcome of this Research is in the form of objectives and hypothesis . 11/9/2013 RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN 19
  • 20. Exploratory research methods Secondary data analysis Experts survey Focus group Qualitative research 11/9/2013 RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN 20
  • 21. Conclusive Research • This is research having clearly defined objectives. In this type of research specific courses of action are taken to solve the problem. • Two types : 1. Descriptive Research 2. Causal Research 11/9/2013 RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN 21
  • 22. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH A type of conclusive research that has its major objective as the description of something – usually market characteristics or functions. 11/9/2013 RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN 22
  • 23. Clear Specification Of 6 W’s • Why : why are we obtaining information? • Who : Who should be customer? • What : what information should be obtained? • When : when the information should be obtained? • Where : where respondent should be contacted? • Way : in what way are we going to obtain information from the respondent ? 11/9/2013 RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN 23
  • 24. When to use descriptive study • To determine characteristics of market (such as size of the market, product usage pattern etc) • To determine the association of two variables such as advertisement expenditure and sales. • To estimate the proportion of people in a specific population, who behave in a particular way e.g. Shopping behavior of South African people. 11/9/2013 RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN 24
  • 26. Cross Sectional Design • A type of cross sectional design involving the collection of information from any given sample of population elements only once. • Single cross sectional design. • Multiple cross sectional design. 11/9/2013 RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN 26
  • 27. Longitudinal Design Or Panel Study • A type of research design involving a fixed sample of population elements that is measured repeatedly. • The sample remains the same over time, thus providing a series of pictures which, when viewed together portray a vivid illustration of the situation and the changes that are taking place over time. 11/9/2013 RM BY SNEHA CHAVAN 27
  • 30. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Objective To gain a qualitative understanding of the underlying reasons and motivations To quantify the data and generalize the results from the sample to the population of interest Sample Small number of nonrepresentative cases Large number of representative cases Data Collection Unstructured Structured Data Analysis Non-statistical Statistical Outcome Develop an initial understanding Recommend a final course of action 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 30
  • 32. Measurement and Scaling Measurement means assigning numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to certain prespecified rules. – The rules for assigning numbers should be standardized and applied uniformly. – Rules must not change over objects or time. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 32
  • 33. Measurement and Scaling Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1 = Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward department stores. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 33
  • 34. Primary Scales of Measurement Nominal Scale • The numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and classifying objects. • When used for identification, there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the numbers and the objects. • The numbers do not reflect the amount of the characteristic possessed by the objects. • The only permissible operation on the numbers in a nominal scale is counting. • Only a limited number of statistics, all of which are based on frequency counts, are permissible, e.g., percentages, and mode. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 34
  • 35. Primary Scales of Measurement Scale Nominal Ordinal Numbers Assigned to Runners Finish 7 8 3 Finish Rank Order of Winners Third place Interval Ratio 11/9/2013 Time to Finish, in Seconds 8.2 9.1 9.6 15.2 Performance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale Second place 14.1 13.4 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan First place 35
  • 36. Primary Scales of Measurement Ordinal Scale • A Ordinal scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. • Can determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other object, but not how much more or less. • Any series of numbers can be assigned that preserves the ordered relationships between the objects. • In addition to the counting operation allowable for nominal scale data, ordinal scales permit the use of statistics based on centiles, e.g., percentile, quartile, median. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 36
  • 37. Primary Scales of Measurement Scale Nominal Ordinal Numbers Assigned to Runners Finish 7 8 3 Finish Rank Order of Winners Third place Interval Ratio 11/9/2013 Time to Finish, in Seconds 8.2 9.1 9.6 15.2 Performance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale Second place 14.1 13.4 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan First place 37
  • 38. Primary Scales of Measurement Interval Scale • Numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. • It permits comparison of the differences between objects. • The location of the zero point is not fixed. Both the zero point and the units of measurement are arbitrary. • It is meaningful to take ratios of scale values. • Statistical techniques that may be used include all of those that can be applied to nominal and ordinal data, and in addition the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, and other statistics commonly used in marketing research. • It provide the information between one & other object. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 38
  • 39. Primary Scales of Measurement Scale Nominal Ordinal Numbers Assigned to Runners Finish 7 8 3 Finish Rank Order of Winners Third place Interval Ratio 11/9/2013 Time to Finish, in Seconds 8.2 9.1 9.6 15.2 Performance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale Second place 14.1 13.4 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan First place 39
  • 40. Primary Scales of Measurement Ratio Scale • Possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales. • It has an absolute zero point. • It is meaningful to compute ratios of scale values. • All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 40
  • 41. Primary Scales of Measurement Scale Nominal Ordinal Numbers Assigned to Runners Finish 7 8 3 Finish Rank Order of Winners Third place Interval Ratio 11/9/2013 Time to Finish, in Seconds 8.2 9.1 9.6 15.2 Performance Rating on a 0 to 10 Scale Second place 14.1 13.4 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan First place 41
  • 42. Comparative scale • One of two types of scaling technique in which there is direct comparison of stimulus objects with one another • EG. Row product is better than column 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 42
  • 43. Comparative Scaling Techniques Paired Comparison Scaling • A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some criterion. • The data obtained are ordinal in nature. • Paired comparison scaling is used when the stimulus objects are physical products. • With n brands, [n(n - 1) /2] paired comparisons are required • Under the assumption of transitivity, it is possible to convert paired comparison data to a rank order. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 43
  • 44. Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scaling • Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. • It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. • Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. • Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 44
  • 45. Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling Form Brand Rank Order 1. Cibaca 2. Colgate _________ 3. Babool _________ 4. Miswak _________ 5. Close Up _________ 6. Pepsodent 11/9/2013 _________ _________ Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 45
  • 46. Comparative Scaling Techniques Constant Sum Scaling • Respondents allocate a constant sum of units, such as 100 points to attributes of a product to reflect their importance. • If an attribute is unimportant, the respondent assigns it zero points. • If an attribute is twice as important as some other attribute, it receives twice as many points. • The sum of all the points is 100. Hence, the name of the scale. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 46
  • 47. Non comparative scale • One of two types of scaling technique in which each stimulus object is scaled independently of the other objects in the stimulus set. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 47
  • 48. CONTINUOUS RATING SCALE • Also called as graphic rating scale, respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on the line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other. • It is easy to construct but data feeding is difficult and cubersome.
  • 49. LIKERT SCALE • It is scale in which respondents indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of the series of statements about stimulus object. • Each scale item has five response categories ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”
  • 50. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL SCALE • It is a seven point rating scale with endpoints associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. • The respondents mark the blank that best indicates how they would describe the object being rated. • Eg. Samsung Laptops are Reliable :-:-:-:-:-:-:-: Unreliable
  • 52. Questionnaire Definition • A questionnaire is a formalized set of questions for obtaining information from respondents. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 52
  • 53. Questionnaire Objectives • It must translate the information needed into a set of specific questions that the respondents can and will answer. • A questionnaire must uplift, motivate, and encourage the respondent to become involved in the interview, to cooperate, and to complete the interview. • A questionnaire should minimize response error. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 53
  • 54. Individual Question Content Is the Question Necessary? • If there is no satisfactory use for the data resulting from a question, that question should be eliminated. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 54
  • 55. Individual Question Content Are Several Questions Needed Instead of One? • Sometimes, several questions are needed to obtain the required information in an unambiguous manner. Consider the question, “Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty and refreshing soft drink?” (Incorrect) • Such a question is called a double-barreled question, because two or more questions are combined into one. To obtain the required information, two distinct questions should be asked: “Do you think Coca-Cola is a tasty soft drink?” and “Do you think Coca-Cola is a refreshing soft drink?” (Correct) 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 55
  • 56. Choosing Question Structure Unstructured Questions • Unstructured questions are open-ended questions that respondents answer in their own words. Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months? __________________________________ 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 56
  • 57. Choosing Question Structure Structured Questions • Structured questions specify the set of response alternatives and the response format. A structured question may be multiple-choice, dichotomous, or a scale. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 57
  • 58. Choosing Question Structure Multiple-Choice Questions • In multiple-choice questions, the researcher provides a choice of answers and respondents are asked to select one or more of the alternatives given. Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months? ____ Definitely will not buy ____ Probably will not buy ____ Undecided ____ Probably will buy ____ Definitely will buy ____ Other (please specify) 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 58
  • 59. Choosing Question Structure Dichotomous Questions • A dichotomous question has only two response alternatives: yes or no, agree or disagree, and so on. • Often, the two alternatives of interest are supplemented by a neutral alternative, such as “no opinion,” “don't know,” “both,” or “none.” Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months? _____ Yes _____ No _____ Don't know 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 59
  • 60. Choosing Question Structure Scales Do you intend to buy a new car within the next six months? Definitely will not buy 1 11/9/2013 Probably will not buy 2 Undecided 3 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan Probably will buy 4 Definitely will buy 5 60
  • 61. Choosing Question Wording Define the Issue • Define the issue in terms of who, what, when, where, why, and way (the six Ws). Who, what, when, and where are particularly important. Which brand of shampoo do you use? (Incorrect) Which brand or brands of shampoo have you personally used at home during the last month? In case of more than one brand, please list all the brands that apply. (Correct) 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 61
  • 62. Choosing Question Wording Use Ordinary Words “Do you think the distribution of soft drinks is adequate?” (Incorrect) “Do you think soft drinks are readily available when you want to buy them?” (Correct) 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 62
  • 63. Choosing Question Wording Use Unambiguous Words In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores? _____ Never _____ Occasionally _____ Sometimes _____ Often _____ Regularly (Incorrect) In a typical month, how often do you shop in department stores? _____ Less than once _____ 1 or 2 times _____ 3 or 4 times _____ More than 4 times (Correct) 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 63
  • 64. Choosing Question Wording Avoid Leading or Biasing Questions • A leading question is one that clues the respondent to what the answer should be, as in the following: Do you think that patriotic Indians should buy imported automobiles when that would put Indian labor out of work? _____ Yes _____ No _____ Don't know (Incorrect) Do you think that Indians should buy imported automobiles? _____ Yes _____ No _____ Don't know (Correct) 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 64
  • 65. Choosing Question Wording Avoid Implicit Assumptions • Questions should not be worded so that the answer is dependent upon implicit assumptions about what will happen as a consequence. 1. Are you in favor of a balanced budget? (Incorrect) 2. Are you in favor of a balanced budget if it would result in an increase in the personal income tax? (Correct) 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 65
  • 66. Choosing Question Wording Avoid Generalizations and Estimates “What is the annual per capita expenditure on groceries in your household?” (Incorrect) “What is the monthly (or weekly) expenditure on groceries in your household?” and “How many members are there in your household?” (Correct) 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 66
  • 67. Determining the Order of Questions Opening Questions • The opening questions should be interesting, simple, and non-threatening. (helps in qualifying respondent) Type of Information • As a general guideline, basic information should be obtained first, followed by classification (demographics for classifying repspondents), and, finally, identification information. Difficult Questions • Difficult questions or questions which are sensitive, embarrassing, complex, or dull, should be placed late in the sequence. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 67
  • 68. Determining the Order of Questions Logical Order The following guidelines should be followed for branching questions: • The question being branched (the one to which the respondent is being directed) should be placed as close as possible to the question causing the branching. • The branching questions should be ordered so that the respondents cannot anticipate what additional information will be required. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 68
  • 69. Form and Layout • Divide a questionnaire into several parts. • The questions in each part should be numbered, particularly when branching questions are used. • The questionnaires should preferably be precoded. • The questionnaires themselves should be numbered serially. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 69
  • 70. Pretesting Pretesting refers to the testing of the questionnaire on a small sample of respondents to identify and eliminate potential problems. • A questionnaire should not be used in the field survey without adequate pretesting. • All aspects of the questionnaire should be tested, including question content, wording, sequence, form and layout, question difficulty, and instructions. • The respondents for the pretest and for the actual survey should be drawn from the same population. • Pretests are best done by personal interviews, even if the actual survey is to be conducted by mail, telephone, or electronic means, because interviewers can observe respondents' reactions and attitudes. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 70
  • 71. Pretesting • After the necessary changes have been made, another pretest could be conducted by mail, telephone, or electronic means if those methods are to be used in the actual survey. • A variety of interviewers should be used for pretests. • The pretest sample size varies from 15 to 30 respondents for each wave. • Protocol analysis (tape recording or observing rxn while answering Qs) and debriefing (after Qsnr completion asked to describe meaning of Qs) are two commonly used procedures in pretesting. • Finally, the responses obtained from the pretest should be coded and analyzed. 11/9/2013 Research Methodology; Sneha Chavan 71
  • 72. Sampling process Definition of population Specification of sampling frame Specification of sampling unit Determination of sample size Selection of sampling method
  • 73. Defining a population • A population can be defined as including all people or items with the characteristic one wishes to understand. • A sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are studied to gain information about the whole. • Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole population.
  • 74. Sampling frame • Sampling frame is the actual set of units from which a sample has been drawn. • A list of all elements in the population of interest
  • 75. Sampling unit • A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage of sampling.
  • 76. How to determine Sample size???
  • 77. Sample size Involves decisions on how many sampling units to be selected for study. Certain factors affecting sample size: • Size of population (N) • Diversity in population • Resources ( time and money) • Level of confidence (Z) • Error tolerated in the result • Variance of the variable under study (S)
  • 78. Sample size (n)= (Z)2 (S)2 (e)2 Z= Z score from the standard normal distribution for the confidence level desired by the researcher. 90% confidence level, Z=1.645 95% confidence level, Z=1.960 99% confidence level, Z=2.576
  • 79. S = population Standard deviation for the variable that we are trying to measure from the study. Can be estimated through: • Previous study • From pilot study
  • 80. e = tolerable error in estimating the variable under study. Can be decided by the researcher. In general, sample size would increase if: • S is higher • Confidence level required is higher • Error to be tolerated is lower.
  • 81. Basic Sampling Classifications • Probability samples: ones in which members of the population have a known chance (probability) of being selected • Non-probability samples: instances in which the chances (probability) of selecting members from the population are unknown
  • 82. Classification of Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques Nonprobability Sampling Techniques Convenience Sampling Judgmental Sampling Simple Random Sampling Systematic Sampling Probability Sampling Techniques Quota Sampling Stratified Sampling Snowball Sampling Cluster Sampling
  • 83. Convenience Sampling Convenience sampling attempts to obtain a sample of convenient elements. Often, respondents are selected because they happen to be in the right place at the right time. – use of students, and members of social organizations – mall intercept interviews without qualifying the respondents – department stores using charge account lists – “people on the street” interviews
  • 84. Judgmental Sampling Judgmental sampling is a form of convenience sampling in which the population elements are selected based on the judgment of the researcher. – test markets – purchase engineers selected in industrial marketing research
  • 85. Quota Sampling Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental sampling. – The first stage consists of developing control categories, or quotas, of population elements. – In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on random ,convenience or judgment. Population composition Control Characteristic Sex Male Female Sample composition Percentage Percentage Number 48 52 ____ 100 48 52 ____ 100 480 520 ____ 1000
  • 86. Snowball Sampling In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is selected, usually at random. – After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify others who belong to the target population of interest. – Subsequent respondents are selected based on the referrals.
  • 87. Simple Random Sampling • Each element in the population has a known and equal probability of selection. • Each possible sample of a given size (n) has a known and equal probability of being the sample actually selected. • This implies that every element is selected independently of every other element.
  • 88. Systematic Sampling • The sample is chosen by selecting a random starting point and then picking every ith element in succession from the sampling frame. • The sampling interval, i, is determined by dividing the population size N by the sample size n and rounding to the nearest integer. • When the ordering of the elements is related to the characteristic of interest, systematic sampling increases the representativeness of the sample. • If the ordering of the elements produces a cyclical pattern, systematic sampling may decrease the representativeness of the sample. For example, there are 100,000 elements in the population and a sample of 1,000 is desired. In this case the sampling interval, i, is 100. A random number between 1 and 100 is selected. If, for example, this number is 23, the sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523, and so on.
  • 89. Stratified Sampling • A two-step process in which the population is partitioned into subpopulations, or strata. • The strata should be mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive in that every population element should be assigned to one and only one stratum and no population elements should be omitted. • Next, elements are selected from each stratum by a random procedure, usually SRS. • A major objective of stratified sampling is to increase precision without increasing cost.
  • 90. Stratified Sampling • The elements within a stratum should be as homogeneous as possible, but the elements in different strata should be as heterogeneous as possible. • The stratification variables should also be closely related to the characteristic of interest. • Finally, the variables should decrease the cost of the stratification process by being easy to measure and apply.
  • 91. Cluster Sampling • The target population is first divided into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive subpopulations, or clusters. • Then a random sample of clusters is selected, based on a probability sampling technique such as SRS. • For each selected cluster, either all the elements are included in the sample (one-stage) or a sample of elements is drawn probabilistically (two-stage). • Elements within a cluster should be as heterogeneous as possible, but clusters themselves should be as homogeneous as possible. Ideally, each cluster should be a small-scale representation of the population.