More Related Content Similar to Garden warfare - How Plants Protect Themselves (20) Garden warfare - How Plants Protect Themselves1. 3/11/2013
Out of the Wilds and Into Your Garden
Gardening with California Native Plants in Western L.A. County
Project SOUND – 2013 (our 9th year)
© Project SOUND
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Warfare in the Garden
how plants protect themselves
from pests and invasions
C.M. Vadheim and T. Drake
CSUDH & Madrona Marsh Preserve
Madrona Marsh Preserve
March 2 & 5, 2013
© Project SOUND
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Why consider plant defenses?
Plants – and everything about them – are inherently
interesting
Understanding how plants interact with other living things
may improve your gardening
Plants and animals are more similar than we think – at least
at the cellular level
May suggest novel medicines, pesticides and other useful
prodcucts
© Project SOUND
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Plants are primary producers
Photosynthesis:
stored energy,
other (biomass)
http://www.bostonbakesforbreastcancer.org/summer-sun-radiation-and-chemo/
http://www.glogster.com/beckeyy/food-web/g-6mp96eehhgdfvco22h8bna0
That means they are ‘food’ to many organisms
© Project SOUND
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But plants aren’t merely generous benefactors
or faithful servants….
http://thebillfold.com/2012/04/reader-mail-how-to-be-a-generous-person/
© Project SOUND
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After all, plants have to live too…
Capturing energy needed for life
(photosynthesis)
Obtaining water: roots
Obtaining nutrient chemicals
(primarily through the roots)
Reproducing: seed or vegetative
Protecting themselves from
anything that impacts the above:
Abiotic factors: temperature,
weather, soils etc.
Biotic factors: living things
CA Goldenrod - Solidago californica
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Plants are far more
complex than most
of us realize
They interact with many types of
organisms – for better or worse
They are at least as complex as
higher animals
They were not set on this planet
for our use alone
http://img.ehowcdn.com/article-
new/ehow/images/a08/4f/it/avoid-leggy-seedling-
800x800.jpg
They often behave more like
plant warriors than like shrinking
violets
© Project SOUND
http://gorillaartfare.com/character-design/two-little-kittens/
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Types of defenses
Physical barriers (preformed or
induced)
Waxy cuticle
Trichomes/leaf hairs
Tough epidermis
Sticky gums & resins
Prickles, barbs and thorns
Dense growth habit
Hard covering to protect seeds
Etc.
Defense chemicals
Preformed: always ready
Induced: produced only when
needed (usually when stimulated
by an attack)
© Project SOUND
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Phytochemicals: the basis of plant chemical warfare
Phytochemicals: non-nutritive
plant metabolites that are
essential for the survival and
proper functioning of growth and
reproduction in plants
Often involved in protection
against herbivores, pests and
micro-organisms (or other
environmental stresses)
Sometimes used by animals that
eat them:
http://naturallyjodi.blogspot.com/2012/08/medical-news- As defense chemicals
2012.html#!/2012/08/medical-news-2012.html
As human plant-based medicines,
Phytochemicals are sometimes flavorings and other uses
called secondary metabolites
© Project SOUND
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Phytochemicals The distribution of phytochemicals within
plants is often tissue/organ specific
These molecules tend to be concentrated
in outer cell layers of plant organs,
suggesting that they may indeed act as
deterrents to pathogens and pests.
These compounds are of two types:
Constitutive chemicals: made during
normal growth and development
(preformed antimicrobial compounds, or
“phytoanticipins”)
http://plantpathology.uark.edu/4844.htm Induced chemicals: absent from healthy
plants, accumulating only in response to
pathogen attack or stress (‘phytoalexins’)
Whether a given compound has a defensive function is the
subject of much current interest & research
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Competition between plants: it’s a fact of life,
particularly in our mediterranean climate
Light
Water
Soil nutrients
Access to services of
beneficial organisms
Plants sometimes have to ‘fight
dirty’ to best their competitors:
allelopathy
http://primarybestsc.blogspot.com/2012/10/plants-competition.html
http://the-gist.org/2012/09/allelopathy-when-plants-attack/
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Southern CA Walnut – Juglans californica
http://biology.csusb.edu/PlantGuideFolder/JuglansCalif/JuglansCalifPage.htm
© Project SOUND
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S. CA Walnut: not for
every yard
Proper location: consider
Size: moderate for tree
http://biology.csusb.edu/PlantGuideFolder/JuglansCalif/JuglansCalifPage.htm Light: full sun/part shade
Soils: clay soils best
Water regime:
Tolerates seasonal flooding
No or very occasional deep water
in summer (hot gardens)
Allelopathy:
Leaves produce chemicals toxic
to other plants
Can’t grow plants under walnuts
http://www.phytoimages.siu.edu/imgs/paraman1/r/Juglandaceae_Juglans_
nigra_4178.html
© Project SOUND
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Allelopathy: one type of chemical warfare
Term from allelon ("of each other“) and pathos ("to suffer“).
Refers to the chemical inhibition of one species by another.
Allelopathy has generally come to mean the deleterious effect
that one plant has on another through the production of
chemical retardants
The "inhibitory" chemical is released into the environment where it
affects development and growth of neighboring plants.
Process is often more complex:
Allelopathic plants are also capable of stimulatory effects
The chemical producing plant may also inhibit itself with the same
chemicals that inhibit its neighbors
The process may involve other organisms [soil microbes]
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Plants release allelochemicals in several
different ways
Above ground
Leaves release volatiles
Leaching from leaves
Leaching from plant litter or
on decomposition
Below ground
From above-ground leachates
Root exudates
Decomposing roots
http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/430/430-021/430-021.html
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Naphthoquinones
Often responsible for colored barks, root
barks and heartwoods
http://kremerpigments.com/shopus/index.php?cat=0104&lang=EN
Example: Juglone (C.I. Natural Brown 7)
G&product=37300&sidFEE4B14F27014E7795A5F1BD0DD62743=
63e5300d98a56f6479a23d579380ca6a
In leaves, roots, husks, and bark of plants in the
Juglandaceae family
Is toxic or growth-stunting to many types of
plants and insect herbivores - inhibits key
enzymes needed for metabolic function.
Awareness of walnut toxicity dates back at
least to Roman times
Used as:
an herbicide
a dye for cloth and inks
a coloring agent for foods and cosmetics (hair
dyes).
Folk medicine – ground/extract green hulls
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Juglone is an effective toxin because it affects
basic processes required for life
The active agent inhibiting growth of
other plants was suggested by Massey
in 1925; confirmed by Davis in 1928.
Juglone disrupts oxygen and food use in
both plants and animals, a respiration
poison. Juglone is like cyanide in its
http://www.bgshoppingmall.com/Brand-Names/abbyson-
living.php
effect on people, animals, and plants
Juglone is so toxic only minute amounts
can sicken, sedate, or kill people and
So how do walnut animals. The concentration difference
trees survive? of juglone between that needed for
sedation, and that causing death, is
small.
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The toxin is stored in a non-toxic form (so
it doesn’t harm the walnut tree)
Juglone exists within wlanut tree cells in a
non-toxic form called hydrojuglone.
Hydrojuglone is colorless and generally
nontoxic, but is immediately converted to
juglone by oxidation.
Upon continual contact with oxidative
http://www.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/ge20/02b.gif
conditions, or tissue drying, juglone is tied
up and decomposed.
When you cut open a green walnut husk, it
quickly turns brown when exposed to air.
This is caused by the clear, non-toxic
hydrojuglone being quickly converted into
the toxic, dark brown juglone in the
presence of oxygen.
© Project SOUND
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Allelochemicals: many modes of action
Allelopathic chemicals can be
present in any part of the plant -
leaves, flowers, roots, fruits, or
stems.
They can also be found in the
surrounding soil.
Target species are affected by
these toxins in many different ways:
Inhibited shoot/root growth
Inhibited nutrient uptake
Altered symbiotic relationship
[mycorrhyzae] - destroying the
plant's usable source of a nutrient.
http://www.sustland.umn.edu/implement/images/trees_turf_4.gif
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Why do Juglans species make juglone? At
least part of the story involves seedlings
Juglone in the husk protect the seed from being
eaten. The juglone also leaches into the
surrounding soil
If juglone leaks back into a walnut root, it is
quickly made non-toxic again and stored.
Annual plants, garden vegetables, fruit trees, and
some broad-leaf perennials can be severely
damaged when juglone is in the soil. These are a
seedling’s biggest competitors
http://www.hiltonpond.org/images/WalnutBlackS Most grasses seem immune from juglone
problems.
eedling01.jpg
Select mycorrhizal fungi and soil microbes have
been shown to be highly adapted to walnut tree
control zones and the presence of juglone.
© Project SOUND
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Other native trees/large shrubs with
allelopathic properties
Oaks – Quercus spp.
Cottonwoods – Populus spp.
Manzanitas – Arctostaphylos spp.
CA Sycamore – Platanus racemosa
CA Bay Laurel - Umbellularia
californica
http://farm1.static.flickr.com/29/101896704_625b8ccece.jpg
False Indigo - Amorpha fruticosa
Eucalyptus
Tree of Heaven
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Dealing with allelopathy in the garden
Rake up leaves & other parts containing the chemicals(s)
Leaves, twigs, fruit husks, and wood chips from walnut trees
should be well aged or completely composted before adding
to a garden or landscape, if at all
Walnut stumps should be ground-down or removed from a
site
Plant tolerant species under/near:
Solanaceae, annuals are particularly susceptible
Grasses are usually not
Soil microorganisms ingest allelochemicals as energy sources,
and metabolic decomposition can render the chemicals non-
toxic to plants. When soils are well drained and aerated, a
healthy population of aerobic microorganisms can accelerate
this progress.
© Project SOUND
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But making Juglone is expensive: is
allelopathy the only explantion?
Juglone precursors appear to be
translocated from older tissue to
younger tissue over time.
The immediate precursors of
juglone are found in high
concentrations within buds,
flowers, fruit, and in the phloem
http://enhancedbc.tfrec.wsu.edu/CA_walnut.html (vascular system).
Juglone is also effective for
protection from leaf, root and
stem pests, like insects, diseases,
nematodes, and grazing animals.
http://www.graftedwalnuts.co.uk/pest.ihtml
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Pros/cons of preformed defense
chemicals (or precursor forms of them)
Positive
Always ready
Mechanism often involves basic
mechanisms – effective against a
wide range of living things
Negative
May not ever be needed – a waste of
energy & other resources
Not specific – so may not work as well
against some threats
May be deleterious to the plant itself
http://c0365781.cdn2.cloudfiles.rackspacecloud.com/datas/5598254/
original/799px-155mmMustardGasShells.jpg
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Other good native Goldenrods
Solidago californica Euthamia (Solidago) occidentalis
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The genus Solidago: the Goldenrods
~ 100 perennial species
Most grow in meadows, pastures, along
roads & ditches in North America
Unfairly blamed for hay fever in late
summer/fall - Ragweed (Ambrosia sp.),
blooming at the same time but wind-
pollinated, is the usual culprit.
Easily recognized by their golden
flowering stalks with hundreds of small
flowers; plants & flowers make nice
yellow & green dyes.
Their alternate leaves are linear to
CA Goldenrod - Solidago californica lanceolate. Their margins are usually
finely to sharply serrated.
Goldenrods have been used in
British gardens for > 200 years
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Southern Goldenrod is an herbaceous perennial
Size:
2-3 ft tall
2+ ft wide, spreading
Growth form:
Stout looking herbaceous
perennial
Fall/winter deciduous; dies
back to basal rosette
Foliage:
Leaves lance-shaped – mostly
basal
Leaves fleshy, bright to pale
green
Roots: spreads via rhizomes
© Project SOUND
© 2003 Christopher L. Christie
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The genus Solidago: the Goldenrods
Propagation by wind-
disseminated seed or
underground rhizomes (form
patches that are vegetative
clones of a single plant).
Goldenrod is a companion plant,
CA Goldenrod - Solidago californica
playing host to beneficial
insects, repelling some pests
Goldenrods are important
habitat plants for a wide range
of native insects, butterflies,
birds, etc.
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Outside of their native range, Goldenrods
can be invasive. Why?
© Project SOUND
http://www.calflora.net/bloomingplants/southerngoldenrod.html
http://www.calflora.net/bloomingplants/southerngoldenrod.html
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Teasing out whether the effect is due to allelopathy:
can be difficult Competing processes: competition for
Light
Water
Nutrients
Associated animal species may be the
culprit:
Pollinators, mycorrhyzae, other
beneficial species
Above or below-ground pests – Solidago
may be tolerant
Vast number of chemicals produced;
many not toxic (at least to other plants)
Nature of the chemicals themselves:
highly changeable (oxygen; pH; exposure
to other chemicals)
© 2003 Christopher L. Christie © Project SOUND
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Bioassays often used to test for allelopathy
http://www.biosci.ohio-state.edu/~plantbio/osu_pcmb/pcmb_lab_resources/images/pcmb300lamb/allelopathyExperiment.jpg
Example: testing the effects of plant tissue extracts (or specific
chemicals) on the germination of seeds.
Issues in relating laboratory bioassays to allelopathic
interactions in the field; allelopathy in the laboratory is not
always demonstrated in the field – and vice versa
http://plantecology.dbs.umt.edu/People/collaborators.html
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Why are U.S. Goldenrods so invasive in
China? Could it be due to allelpathy?
Extracts were made from 12.5 g of dried
leaf tissue placed in 500 ml of distilled
water.
Dilutions of each extract, ranging from
0% to 100% in 10% increments were
made.
Filter paper was placed in 90 mm petri
plates with 20 seeds of the target
species (lettuce & radish).
Five trials were run for each dilution for
each goldenrod species tested.
http://posieinthevase.blogspot.com/
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The answer is not exactly straightforward
Solidgo canadensis does influence soil
levels of possible allelochemicals
(total phenolics, total flavones and
total saponins)
The chemical content and possible
allelopathic effects were greater in
S. canadensis from China than
those from the USA as demonstrated
in a field survey and a common garden
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0929139311000849 experiment.
Suggests that S. canadensis has
But is the effect direct? evolved to be more competitive – and
possibly more allelopathic - in the
introduced range
Allelopathy might significantly
increase competitiveness for this
invasive species. © Project SOUND
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Plants have complex relationships with
other living things
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1360138510001007
© Project SOUND
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Roots and the rhizosphere: life within the soil
Beneficial effect
of mycorrhyzae
http://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-S1360138512000799-gr2.jpg
© Project SOUND
http://www.cottoncrc.org.au/industry/Tools/Symptoms_Identification_Tool/Cotton_Symptoms/Allelopathy
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Goldenrods brought ‘novel weapons’ with them
S. canadensis altered the indigenous
mycorrhizal fungal spore composition
and reduced the mycorrhizal
colonization of native plants one year
after invasion.
The alien Goldenrod inhibited the
colonization of native species and
changed the indigenous mycorrhizal
fungi by exuding allelochemicals.
Experimental results suggest that
http://openi.nlm.nih.gov/detailedresult.php?img=2972720_pone.0015418.g001&query=the
&fields=all&favor=none&it=none&sub=none&uniq=0&sp=none&req=4&simCollection=305
invasive S. canadensis may acquire
8081_1471-5945-11-5-6&npos=74&prt=3
spreading advantage in non-native
habitat by using “novel weapons” to
inhibit not only local plants but also
soilborne pathogens and beneficial
microbes.
© Project SOUND
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A novel, non-native plant species (like Goldenrod)
can have many effects on the environment
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S016953471000145X © Project SOUND
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You may have noticed that the Sunflower
family is pretty successful
The Sunflower family
(Asteraceae) is one of the
most diverse families in
California.
Largest plant family
worldwide: contains ~ 1550
genera and 24,000 species.
Almost 200 pages of the
Jepson Manual are dedicated
http://www.wildflowers-and-weeds.com/Plant_Families/Asteraceae_pics/Asteraceae.jpg
to describing the California
species alone.
Why are they so successful?
© Project SOUND
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Possible reasons for Sunflower success
Ability to adapt well to variety
of environments
Plasticity: changes in phenotype
Ability to evolve quickly – change
in the genes in the population
Make lots of seeds
Work well with wide range of
pollinators and other beneficial
species
?? Good defenses
© Project SOUND
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What types of invaders/competitors do
plants need to worry about?
Other plants
(compete for water,
light, nutrients)
Large herbivores
Insect herbivores
Other herbivores:
mollusks
Pathogens
Fungal
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1360138509003008
Bacterial
Viral
© Project SOUND
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Why do plants make the chemicals found
in ‘essential oils’?
A wide range of reasons, many
related to communication:
To attract pollinators – or the
spreaders of seed (usually in
flowers, fruits)
To repel herbivores – insect or
other; either cue or toxin
As breakdown products from
compounds used for other purposes
As protection against fungi, bacteria
and viruses
To prevent other plants from
growing too close ?
To communicate with other plants –
via soil water or air
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The ‘Double-whammy’ of injury
http://ericwongmma.com/wp-
content/uploads/2013/01/double-
whammy.jpg Tissue damage (from physical
injury or herbivory)
Vascular tissue: must seal off
quickly, then re-grow or re-attach
if possible
Water – Xylem tissue
Nutrients + other - Phloem tissue
Support tissue
Other
http://www.tantebazar.com/gardening_histology_of_plant_part_2.php
Secondary infection
Bacterial
Fungal
Viral
http://ipm.ncsu.edu/corn/diseases/cornfg18.gif © Project SOUND
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Insects are known to be selective in their
use of plants in the sunflower family
http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/charlet2.htm
Long-horned Beetle
Sunflower Bud Moth
This suggests that Asteraceae may selectively deter some pest species
© Project SOUND
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Certain plant compounds are effective
against insect herbivores
http://michellebiology.blogspot.com/2012/02/54-pesticide-and-biological-control.html
The most important of these are alkaloids, terpenoids,
steroids, phenols, saponins and tannins
These may be an alternative source of insect control agents
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The most cost effective strategy is often
to prevent/limit herbivory
Has a pleasant odor similar to
pennyroyal, peppermint and
camphor.
Is used in flavoring agents, in
perfumery, and in
aromatherapy
Pulegone
Insect repellant; less toxic to
animals/humans than other
Plants in both the Sunflower insect repellants
and Mint families make a range
of chemicals to prevent/limit
herbivory
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Mint family insecticidals: mostly terpenoids
Most common : monoterpenes (1,8-cineole,
thujone, camphor, pulegone, menthone, others)
Plant-derived insecticides may represent
alternative pest control strategies.
They may degrade more rapidly than the
synthetic insecticides
May be more specific in their action
Have no genotoxicity.
Mint oil is already used as an environmentally-
friendly insecticide for some common pests like
wasps, hornets, ants and cockroaches
Mints also repel some birds & other large
herbivores – terpenoid’s smells repel
© Project SOUND
http://www.safesolutionsinc.com/TweetMint_Gallon.jpg
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Diterpenes: another class of bioactive
terpenoids
They have 20 carbon atoms
Produced by plants and fungi; often play
active role as hormones (Gibberelins)
Found in resins, gummy exudates, and in
the resinous high-boiling fractions
remaining after distillation of essential
http://ars.els-cdn.com/content/image/1-s2.0-
S0367326X02001703-gr1.gif
oils.
Diterpenes display a broad range of
activities against insects
Important defense chemicals in
Asteraceae, Salvia, many others
monoterpenes
© Project SOUND
http://www.cyberlipid.org/images/pict295.gif
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How do plant insecticidal chemicals work?
Feeding deterrants:
Render plants unattractive or unpalatable;
Usually small chemicals; may be aromatic
Often bitter or strong tasting/smelling
Examples: alkeloids, terpenopids;
http://www.gov.mb.ca/agriculture/crops/ins
Direct toxicity:
Kill insects outright; or stun them
ects/images/fae02s00a.jpg
significantly so that they are eaten by their
predators
Usually function as neurotoxins
Examples:
Other, more subtle methods:
© Project SOUND
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How do plant insecticidal chemicals work?
A few more subtle means
Modifying plant food absorption
Modify either the food itself, the gut wall or gut flora
Often larger size
Example: Tannins – make food undigestable
Disrupting the endocrinologic balance of insects
Affects reproduction
Acting as insect growth regulators, disrupting the normal
process of morphogenesis
May ultimately kill
Usually affects reproduction
Behaviour modifying agents
Usually influence the feeding and ovipositing (egg-laying) behavior
of insects
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California/Big Gum Plant
Grindelia camporum var. bracteosa
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CA Gum Plant
Erect herbaceous perennial to 4
ft tall by 4 ft wide
Grows in clay or sandy soil:
Dry stream banks, washes
Rocky fields & plains
Sandy or alkali bottomlands
Along road sides
Grows where it gets full sun
Is stress deciduous – looses
leaves during dry periods
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Gumplants make an interesting array of chemicals
Active compounds: resin flavanoids
and diterpenes of the grindelane type.
The resin produced in multicellular
glands on the surfaces of stems,
leaves, and involucres - density of
resin glands highest on the immature
involucre bracts and lowest on the
stems.
The resin is composed of grindelic
acid and several of its derivatives.
These labdane diterpenes are similar
to the resin acids that constitute
rosin, a principal product of the naval
stores industry
© Project SOUND
http://www.ag.arizona.edu/~spmcl/Research/newcrops.htm
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Protecting developing leaves and flowers
Grindelia species are used as food plants
by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species
including Flower Moths, other herbivores
Grindelane diterpenoids make up most of
the resin (to 20% of the dry weight).
Grindelic acid, camporic acid,
17-carboxygrindelic acid
many other diterpenoids
The diterpenoids appear to have insect
repellant/insecticidal & antibiotic activity
Used as a traditional medicine (until 1960)
wide range of ailments: asthma, bronchitis;
Balsamic scent – fairly strong
antispasmodic , urinary tract disinfectant;
topical preparations to soothe burns, insect
bites, skin rashes, poison ivy rash.
© Project SOUND
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Labdane terpinoids: typical preformed
compounds affecting a wide range of pests
Stored where likely to be needed
Resin ducts of trichomes of leaves
In special plastids in epidermal or other near-
surface cells
A variety of biological activities:
Antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal
Found in many plant Anti-inflammatory activities and modulation of
parts (above/below- immune cell functions – may induce long-term
ground) immunity
Significant effects on basic cell processes:
Interfere with biochemical pathways of cell
death and the cell cycle phases
May explain why they affect wide range of cell
types in pests (insects, microbes) and in humans
© Project SOUND
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Have you ever noticed how birds know
when the fruits are ripe?
http://www.gardenguides.com/633-barren-bushes-treat-
hungry-birds.html
© Project SOUND
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Many fruit-berry plants use critters to
spread their seeds
Berries attract the critter
Critter eats the fruit –yum!
Critter moves around while
seeds pass through the
digestive tract
Seed are deposited – with
a load of fertilizer – in a
new place away from the
parent plant
Cedar Waxwing gobbling up Toyon fruits
How do the birds know the
fruits are ripe?
http://www.ibabuzz.com/garybogue/2009/04/15/cedar-waxwings-they-will-eat-no-toyon-berry-
before-its-time/ © Project SOUND
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Toyon in nature
Formerly common in the
South Bay:
Semi-dry slopes
Back dune areas (old sand)/
coastal prairie
Canyons sides
Likes some seasonal moisture
Found on sandy or rocky soils
Strong branching root
system
Re-sprouts after a fire
This is the “red-berried
shrub” that you see on native
hillsides everywhere in
winter
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But it’s the berries that made it famous
Formed in late summer
Turn bright red in Nov.
Beloved by birds – this is a
great plant to attract
Doves
Cedar Waxwings
Songbirds
Squirrels also like them
Makes nice holiday
decorations
Berries toxic if many are
eaten (particularly the unripe,
uncooked berries)
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Rose’s dirty little secret…poison
The highly cyanogenic nature of
rosaceous stone fruits (e.g.
almonds, peaches, cherries) has
long been known.
The fleshy portions of the ripe
fruits are basically innocuous – so
we eat them
The seeds, which accumulate the
cyanogenic disaccharide (R)-
amygdalin, have been responsible
for numerous cases of acute
cyanide poisoning of humans and
domesticated and wild animals
http://barefootintheorchard.blogspot.com/2011/07/fridays-photos-stone-fruit.html © Project SOUND
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Yikes, cyanide?
Cyanogenic glycosides are hydrolyzed by
enzymes (b-glycosidases) with the
release of hydrogen cyanide.
Cyanide is one of the quickest acting
poisons – stops production of energy, so
heart, nervous system, breathing stop
Why aren’t the plants killed?
The glycosides are stored in vacuoles
within plant cells, while the hydrolytic
http://www.ag.ndsu.edu/publications/landing-
pages/livestock/cyanide-poisoning-v-1150
enzymes are found in the cytosol – fine
until something injures the cells
Plants also have a way to produce the
energy molecules (ATP) even when
exposed to cyanide
© Project SOUND
http://leavingbio.net/cell%20structure_files/Cell%20Structure_files/image007.jpg
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Plants use several strategies to protect
themselves against their own toxins
Enzymes to quickly break down the toxins
Other ways around the toxic effects
Sequestration of toxic chemicals – lock away in a safe place
Storage as non-toxic precursor chemicals – that can be
readily formed into toxins as needed
Compartmentalization
Storing precursors and enzymes in separate compartments –
only released with cell/tissue damage
Storing precursors and enzymes in separate tissues -
© Project SOUND
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Heteromeles – just a rose by another name?
The cyanogenic glycoside content of Toyon -
as well as its resultant toxicity to insects and
other herbivores - is well described.
The cyanogenic potential is highest in the
newly developing leaves.
The cyanic glycosides in the pulp of immature
fruits protect them from premature bird
predation
During the long seed maturation process,
cyanogenic glucosides are gradually shifted
from pulp to seed, while pulp carbohydrates
increase and fruits turn from green to red.
http://curls-eyelashes.blogspot.com/2012/12/why-coat-apple-fruits.html
The birds read the cues and eat the fruit
Toyon is the ‘pome’ branch of the Subsequent seed predation is prevented by
Rose Family along with quince, pear, the localization of cyanogenic glycosides in
apple hawthorn, pyracantha, the seeds. It can be used (as needed) or
cotoneaster, pomegranate, and others converted to other Nitrogen compounds.
© Project SOUND
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Cyanide: some herbivores more vulnerable
Substantial evidence that cyanogenic
glycosides are primarily involved in
defence against generalist herbivores
including mammals, insects and
molluscs
Rumen microorganisms produce the
hydrolysis enzymes. Ruminants are
therefore more susceptible to the
http://www.urbanoutdoorskills.com/NEWS/2011_ToyonJam.jpg
toxic effects of cyanide
Most larger animals can detoxify in
limited amounts
Heat releases HCN – cooking and
dyeing
http://sunnysavagedesigns.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/medicinal-
clothing-sunny-savage-designs-natural-dye-toyon-hollywood-bioregional- © Project SOUND
slow-fashion-eco.jpg
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Leaves of some Chaparral plants are
indigestible as well as water-conserving
Most woody chaparral plants allocate
significant energy resources to forming
chemical compounds that deter herbivores or
pathogens from feeding.
One of the most important such compounds is
tannin. Up to twenty percent of the dry
‘What doesn’t kill weight of leaf tissues in some shrubs may be
me will starve me’ composed of tannins.
Oak, manzanita and toyon have tannin-rich
leaf tissues.
Mechanism of action: binds proteins to form
non-biodegradable products – that’s why the
leaves don’t degrade very quickly
© Project SOUND
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Flowers that glow in
the silvery light
Blooms:
Spring; usually Mar-Apr or even
May our area
Long bloom season
Flowers:
Typical lupine/pea shape
On stalks above the foliage
Often appear almost an
iridescent blue/purple – in part
due to contrast with silvery
foliage
Banner spot turns from white to
pink when pollinated
Seeds: pods explode (dehisc)
flinging the seeds from parent plant
© Project SOUND
http://www.manhattanbeachbotanicalgarden.org/springbloomerspage2manhattanbeachbotanical
garden.html
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Silvery Dune Lupine makes a
nice mid-size shrub
Nice as a smaller foundation
plant
Floral fragrance – plant where
http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3175/2673277265_678df36ea6.jpg
you can enjoy
Quite hardy – fine for parking
strips, roadways
Nice addition to rock garden
Wonderful for the ‘evening
garden’ with its silvery foliage
Not the best of plants for eating
http://norenes5percent.blogspot.com/2006_03_01_archive.html
© Project SOUND
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Many herbivores avoid Silver Bush lupine
Plant produces bitter-tasting toxins – the
nitrogen-containing Quinolizidine alkaloids
These toxins can negatively affect livestock,
causing birth defects and decreasing weight
http://www.nps.gov/goga/images/20
080328170300.jpg
especially in young, unexperienced cattle,
sheep, horses
Deer and rabbits avoid it
Deter insects leaf herbivores: aphids,
beetles, thrips
The larva of the federally-endangered
mission blue butterfly feed on Lupinus
albifrons, becoming toxic and giving it a
bitter taste to deter predators [similar to
Monarch & Milkweeds].
© Project SOUND
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Like Toyon, Lupines also protect their
seeds with chemical poisons
Aklaoids :
found in a wide variety of plants, animals, and
fungi
Many have medicinal and toxic properties.
Quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) are known as
lupine alkaloids because they mainly occur in
lupinus species. Example: lupinine
Produced in green tissues; transported via
phloem, stored in all organs of the plant, but
particularly in reproductive organs/ seeds
Defense against pathogens and predators
© Project SOUND
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Quinolizidine alkaloids (QAs) protect
lupines throughout life
Available pre-formed in seeds –
protect seeds from insect herbivory
Released into the rhizosphere at
germination – protect roots of young
seedlings from fungal and bacterial
pathogens
Induced by biotic stresses in older
plants – mobilized in times/places
where needed
http://www.unine.ch/bota/lamun/ang/pictures/projects/logoface.jpg © Project SOUND
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© Project SOUND
http://urbanext.illinois.edu/soil/SoilBiology/images/A-3.jpg
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Wavy-leaf Soap Plant - Chlorogalum
pomeridianum var. pomeridianum
West coast from S. OR to
N. Baja
In southern CA commonly
found:
Grasslands
Open hillsides
Sheltered places in coastal
sage scrub, chaparral
Member of the Lily family
http://www.swsbm.com/Maps/Chlorogalum.gif
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The Lily Family (Liliaceae)
http://www.wcosf.org/php/d1f.php?sci_name=Chlorogalum%20pomeridianuml
Strap-like leaves with parallel veins
(grass-like)
Flowers in ‘3’s
Bulb-forming
Includes many edible native plants (onions,
http://www.vernalpools.org/Mather/list/pages/chlpom.htm wild hyacinths (brodeas), Mariposa Lilys)
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Soap Plant
requirements
Light: full sun to
part-shade
Soils: any local
(well-drained best)
Water:
tolerates average
to low watering
http://www.pacificbulbsociety.org/pbswiki/index.php/Chlorogalum
Requires dry period
in late summer/fall
Nutrients:
benefits from
organic mulch
http://plants.montara.com/ListPages/FamPages/Lilia2.html
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The Amole bulb: For the plant
Storage organ for plant
useful organ, indeed Reproductive organ for plant
Potential food source for animals
Many uses for humans:
Edible: must slow bake to remove
bitter saponins
http://plants.montara.com/ListPages/FamPages/Lilia2.html Makes good shampoo/soap; can
even dry for stored soap
Medicinal: for cramps and
rheumatism; an antiseptic rub for
treating wounds, infections and sores;
and an internal remedy for treating
stomachache and gas.
To stun fish
Hairy covering makes good brush
Saponins are responsible for Baked ‘juice’ used as glue
some of these uses
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High-molecular-weight compounds with
a fat-soluble nucleus (either a steroid
Saponins: a group of or triterpenoid structure) and one or
related chemicals more side chains of water-soluble
sugars
Despite their fairly large structural
diversity these compounds share some
unique biological properties:
The ability to lyse cells (erythrocytes)
To ability foam when agitated in water
Triterpene saponins are more widely
Saponins are glucosides (or
glycosides): plant compounds
distributed in nature, primarily in
containing glucose (or another dicots; steroidal saponins are less
sugar) combined with other non- common and usually found in monocots,
sugar molecules. particularly among members of such
families as Liliaceae, Dioscoreaceae,
Agavaceae, Alliums
© Project SOUND
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Saponins: why do they foam?
The ability of a saponin to foam is
caused by the combination of the non-
polar sapogenin and the water soluble
side chain present on the molecule.
The foams tend to be stable and have
been used in fire extinguishers as the
http://www.instructables.com/id/A-Homemade-
Organic-Herbal-Shampoo/step6/Blend/
foaming agent.
Yucca root soap They are also used to produce foam in
beer and are responsible for the natural
foam in root beer.
They have been used as the foaming
agent in toothpaste and are employed by
local people where the plants occur as a
shampoo and laundry detergent.
http://www.indianweaving.com/wool.html © Project SOUND
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