1. Summer 2012

2. Discrete Combination of Language
(Pinker, 2007)
Sentences/Phrases
(I love dogs.)
Words (dogs)
Morphemes
(dog-s)

3. This week, we will:
◦ Differentiate between descriptive and prescriptive
grammar
◦ Explore a theory of syntax (SS & DS)
◦ Distinguish between syntactic structures
and their functions.
◦ Explore the impact of syntax on language teaching
◦ Discuss syntactic challenges associated with
academic English
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4. Key Concepts
 Descriptive &  Lexico-syntax
prescriptive  Cloze procedures
grammar  GTM & ALM
 Phrase structure  Passive voice
 Modals
 Comparatives
 Logical connectors
 Verb phrases
 Relative clauses
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5.  Greek origin— “putting together” or
“arrangement”
 Earlier Approach: attempt to produce
accurate description of the sequence in the
linear structure
 Recent Approach: greater focus on the
underlying rule system that we use to
generate sentences (Chomsky)

6. Grammar: the analysis of the syntactic
structure of phrases and sentences
 Two Sociohistorical Perspectives
◦ Descriptive Grammar
◦ Prescriptive Grammar
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7. Descriptive Grammar vs. Prescriptive
Grammar
 Descriptive Grammar: A system, which
describes how a language is actually spoken.
 Prescriptive Grammar: prescribes how one
“ought” to talk reflecting the grammarian’s
views of what is acceptable.
e.g., Never begin a sentence with “because”.

8. Grammar from a Descriptive Viewpoint
 Rather than stating that one sentence
structure is “correct” and another is
“incorrect,” linguists describe how people
compose and use sentences in real life.
 For example, ending a sentence with a
preposition, when writing, is not considered
incorrect from a descriptive viewpoint (i.e.,
“Who do you want to eat with?”)

9.  Linguists rely on native speakers’ use of
language in order to determine what sentence
structures are grammatically acceptable or
not as opposed to the rules set forth in
grammar books.
For example:
 He was tall, dark, and handsome.
 He was handsome, dark, and tall.

10.  Premise: if students are able to memorize
grammar rules, then they’ll be able to apply
them when writing
 How useful is it to teach grammar in a prescriptive
manner?
 Grammar workbooks, dictionaries
 “Correct” vs. “incorrect”

11.  “Rather than trying to develop a set of rules
for students to learn, linguistics attempt to
make explicit the subconscious rules people
use to produce and understand language”
(Freeman & Freeman, 2004, p. 219).
 Descriptive, not prescriptive

12. ◦ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NfN_gcjGoJo&NR=1
◦ “I shot an elephant in my pajamas.”
Who is in the speaker’s pajamas? The
speaker or the elephant?
The words do not have a double
meaning, but the sentence does. (p.
219)

13.  Some sentences are ambiguous, not because
of words having multiple meanings, but
because the sentence has 2 different
structures.

14. Sentences can look different
but have the same meaning.
◦ The man read the book.
◦ The book was read by the man.
(insert be, reverse subj. and obj., and add by
phrase)
The sentence expresses the same
meaning even though the words
appear in a different structure order.
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15. Phrase Structure: Hierarchical
components, constituent analysis
A simple sentence: “You will help Mary.”
SNP—AUX—VP
A sentence (S) consists of a noun phrase
(NP), an auxiliary verb (AUX), and a verb
phrase (VP). The arrow is translated as
“can be expanded into.”
Let’s take each section and review!
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16. Noun Phrase
(NP)
The term noun phrase refers to a
group of words which act like a
noun.
Words can go before the noun
e.g., The flower girl
and/or after the noun.
e.g., The Maid of honor
They modify the meaning of the noun.
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17. Auxiliaries (AUX)
SNP—AUX—VP
English has a complex system for auxiliary
verbs (can, could, should, will, would, might
etc.).
e.g., She might drive.
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18. Verb Phrases (VP)
SNP—AUX—VP
The rule states that a VP must have a verb
and can have one or more adverb phrases.
Skunks can spray badly.
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19. Tree Diagrams
1. One of the common ways to create a
visual representation of syntactic
structure.
2. When we diagram a sentence, we are
organizing the underlying structure of
phrases and sentences.
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20. “Syntax is the study of the principles and
processes by which sentences are
constructed in particular languages.
Syntactic investigation of a given language
has as its goal the construction of grammar
that can be viewed as a device of some sort
for producing the sentences of the language
under analysis.”
-Noam Chomsky, Syntactic Structures, 1971
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21. Symbols used in syntactic description:
N = Noun (boy, balloon) NP = Noun Phrase ( A red balloon)
V = Verb (see, know) VP = Verb Phrase (“saw it”)
Adj = Adjective (small, helpful)
Adv = Adverb (recently,
Prep = Preposition (on, with) PP = Prepositional Phrase ( on the bus)
Det/Art = Determiner/Article
(my, the, a/an)
Pro = Pronoun (it, you)
PN = Proper Noun (Mary,
Kansas)
Aux = Auxiliary verb (can, will)
Conj = Conjunction (and, but)

22. Exercise 1: Let’s label each branch
of the tree with appropriate symbol

23. Exercise 2: Let’s create a sentence that
fits in the structure shown below
S
NP VP
N V Adv
Det
P
Adj N

24. Using Syntactic Clues
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
 What can we determine about this
sentence?
◦ From a decoding perspective?
◦ From a comprehension perspective?
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25. Decoding Perspective
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
“Known” words (can be defined by a
dictionary and are recognizable).
◦ Can be pronounced using phonemic
awareness and phonics skills.
◦ Using this view, I would assume that if I
encountered this sentence, I should be able
to know what it means.
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26. Comprehension Perspective
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
◦ Graphophonics: I have encountered these
words previously and have an idea of their
meaning.
◦ Syntax: The use of the words follows a
familiar syntactic pattern and I can
understand the morphological structure.
◦ Semantics: Using this third cueing system, I
can see that this sentence has no meaning.
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27.  What are some strategies that you can employ to
call students’ attention to the syntactic structure of
English?
In what ways can you effectively teach the following
set of structures? In your small group, come up
with a mini lesson. Be creative.
(1)Mr. Phat expects Mr. Thin to paint himself.
(2)Mr. Thin believes Mr. Phat will paint himself.

28. Strategies to teach syntactic structures
continued
(3) Visiting linguists can be boring (linguists
who is visiting = boring).
(4) Visiting linguists can be boring (to visit
linguists = boring).
(5) Kyle paid the bill. (active)
(6) The bill was paid by Kyle. (passive)

29. Lexico-Syntax
 Part of knowing a word means knowing
how it functions within a sentence.
 This term, lexico-syntax, is a way to
show the link between words and
syntactic patterns. (F&F, p. 242)
e.g.. “The linguist went to the lecture”.
 Strategy for syntactic cues—cloze
procedures.
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30. Example Cloze Activity
Once upon a time, there was a _________
princess and a __________ queen. They
were both very _______ and ________.
One day, they decided to find a
____________ castle that they both could live
in together. They _______ to a distant land
and found a _________ castle. They both
lived happily ever after. The End.
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31. Example Cloze Activity
Once upon a time, there was a _tall_
princess and a _huge_ queen. They were
very _loud_ and _boisterous_. They decided
to find a _smaller_ castle that they both
could live in together. They traveled to a
distant land and found a _gargantuan_
castle. They both lived happily ever after.
The End.
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33. Grammar Translation Method
(GTM)
 Method Emphases:
◦ Explicit teaching of target language, grammar rules
◦ Vocabulary as lists of isolated, decontextualized words
◦ Translation of literary texts
◦ Text analyses for grammar, without context
◦ Little attention to pronunciation
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34. Problems with the
Grammar Translation Method
 An unnatural method
◦ Violates natural progress of students from listening,
to speaking, to reading and writing
 R/W emphases neglect speech
◦ Raises anxieties about oral communication
 Exact translations are not always possible
◦ Not all messages in L1 precisely translate to L2
 Learned rules preempt language acquisition
◦ and language use in natural/realistic context.
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35. Audio-Lingual Method (ALM)
 Syntax-driven and widely used method
of behavioral psychology and structural
linguistics.
 Method Emphases:
◦ Dialogues and drills of English sentence
patterns (syntax).
◦ Utilized only basic syntax patterns of English.
◦ No explicit teaching of English
syntax patterns.
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36. Problems with the
Audiolingual Method
 Assumed that language could be learned vs. acquired
◦ Students could successfully navigate the syntax
exercises
 But never acquired the meaning of the sentences
 Focus of method limited to surface structures
◦ Students learned the surface structures in repetition
 But, did not acquire the skills to construct their
own deep structures of the target language.
.
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37. Content-Based
Language Teaching Methods
 Emphases:
◦ The targeting of language acquisition vs. learning.
◦ Focus on comprehensible input.
◦ Teach language through content.
◦ Capacity-building among students for Cognitive
Academic Language Proficiency [CALP].
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38. Academic Language:
Issues of Vocabulary and Syntax
 Five Syntactic Challenges:
◦ Passive Voice
◦ Comparatives and logical connectors
◦ Modals
◦ Verb phrases containing prepositional
phrases
◦ Relative clauses
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39. Passive Voice
 Active Voice:
◦ “The doctor diagnosed the problem”.
 The subject, the doctor, is conducting the action.
 Passive Voice:
◦ “The problem was diagnosed by the doctor”.
 Subject of the sentence, the problem, is not
conducting the action.
 Challenge: Passive voice occurs infrequently in
conversational English but frequently in
academic texts.
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40. Comparatives and Logical Connectors
 Comparatives:
◦ There are fewer planets than asteroids in the solar
system.
 Challenge: Comparative words (e.g., fewer, than)
are essential to comprehension but are often very
separated in academic syntax.
 Logical Connectors:
◦ The meteorologist encountered not only high winds
but also hail in approaching the wall cloud.
 Challenge: Multiple sentence clauses and
connecting words (e.g., not only and but) essential
to comprehension are often widely separated in
the syntax of academic English.
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41. Modals
 Should, would, could, might
 E.g., “The botanist should have selected a different
species for study”.
◦ Challenge: Such words indicate subtle shades
of meaning that are not always familiar to CLD
students.
 E.g., obligation, necessity, and possibility
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42. Verb Phrases
Containing Prepositional Phrases (PP)
 E.g., “Contaminated water percolates into the soil after
each efflux of a septic tank”.
◦ Challenge:
 The first PP indicates where the water percolates.
 The second PP indicates when the water percolates.
 Processing of such a sentence requires that
the CLD reader assimilate many related ideas
from a single sentence.
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43. Relative Clauses
 E.g., “The student located a problem with the
equation that had not been noticed by others in
the class”.
◦ Relative Clause
 that had not been noticed by others in the
class
◦ Challenge:
 Such clauses pack additional information
into sentences of academic English that are
often already difficult for CLD and other
students to comprehend and synthesize.
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44. Relative clause constructions can
overload learners’ working memory

45. Academic English: Target & Challenge
RECAP
 Five Syntactical Challenges for CLD
Students:
◦ Passive Voice
◦ Comparatives and logical connectors
◦ Modals
◦ Verb phrases containing prepositional
phrases
◦ Relative clauses
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46. Strategies for Success with Syntax
 Focus your language interactions in the classroom on:
◦ Academic English acquisition through content learning
◦ Students’ Development of CALP skills
 Monitor the syntactic capacities of CLD and other students.
 Know what syntactical structures tend to challenge them.
 Scaffold and adapt instruction to address problem challenges
in syntax, especially among CLD students whose first
language is not English.
 Evaluate and reflect upon of the effectiveness of instructional
adaptations in promoting syntactic knowledge and academic
language acquisition.
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