Teaching and Learning of Science

COURSE GUIDE W ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION
You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
HBSC1103 Teaching and Learning of Science is one of the courses offered by the
Faculty of Education and Languages at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This
course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Teaching majoring in
Science (with Honours) programme. This module aims to impart the
fundamentals of the teaching and learning of science. This module should be able
to form a strong foundation for teachers to plan effective science lessons.
As an open and distance learner, you should be acquainted with learning
independently and being able to optimise the learning modes and environment
available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure you have the right
course materials and understand the course requirements as well as how the
course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x X COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
Study Activities Study Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial
discussions 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online Participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain how children view science and what the nature of science is;
2. Demonstrate knowledge of basic concepts of childrenÊs ideas in science,
where do they come from and how they influence learning in science;
3. Describe how developmental and learning theories have contributed to
childrenÊs learning in science;
4. Demonstrate a knowledge of the constructivist approach to learning; and
5. Describe the inquiry approach in teaching science in primary school.

COURSE GUIDE W xi
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 8 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 begins with a discussion on the concept of what science is, the nature of
science, the scientific method and scientific literacy. Lastly the discussion is about
the relationship between science and technology.
Topic 2 introduces the behavioural views of learning. The theories of Pavlov,
Thorndike and Skinner and their contributions to teaching and learning will be
discussed.
Topic 3 introduces the cognitive learning theories. Later the Piaget and Bruner
learning theories are discussed in detail. Then the application of these theories
will be discussed.
Topic 4 also discusses cognitive learning theories. AusubelÊs Deductive Learning
Theory, GagneÊs Theory of Mastery Learning and the Multiple Intelligences
Theory will be discussed.
Topic 5 examines the inquiry approach in the teaching of science. The
advantages, the types of inquiry and the conditions necessary for the successful
implementation of inquiry learning will be discussed. Questioning skills for
inquiry learning will be discussed at the end of the topic.
Topic 6 describes constructivism. Alternative conceptions and implications to
science learning are also explained. Constructivist learning approaches such as
the Learning Cycles Model, Predict-ObserveăExplain (POE) Model and
NeedhamÊs Five Phase Model in the teaching of science are discussed.
Topic 7 describes three approaches in teaching science ă science, technology and
society, contextual, and problem-based learning. For each approach, the concept,
its characteristics and how to teach using the approach will be discussed.
Topic 8 discusses teaching and learning methods such as experiments,
discussions, simulations, projects and visits; and how they are used to enhance
science learning.

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TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE
Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations
throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-sections.
It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various
locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful
textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References

COURSE GUIDE W xiii
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge is required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myVLE.
REFERENCES
Abruscato, J. (2004). Teaching children science: A discovery approach (5th ed.).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Driver, R. (1983). The pupil as scientist. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Driver, R., Guesne, E., & Tiberghien, A. (1985). ChildrenÊs ideas in science.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Driver, R., Leach, J., Miller, R., & Scott, P. (1996). Young peopleÊs images of
science. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Esler, W. K., & Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th
ed.).Washington: Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Fleer, M., & Hardy. T. (2001). Science for children: Developing a personal
approach to teaching (2nd ed.). Sydney: Prentice Hall.
Martin, D. J. (2006). Elementary science methods: A constructivist approach.
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Martin, R., Sexton, C., & Gerlovich, J. (2002). Teaching science for all children-
Methods for constructing understanding. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Skamp, K. (2004). Teaching primary science constructively. Southbank, Victoria:
Harcourt Brace.

Table of Contents
Course Guide ix-xiii
Topic 1 Teaching and Learning Science 1
1.1 What is Science? 3
1.1.1 Science as a Process 5
1.1.2 Science as a Product 6
1.1.3 Science as Attitudes 7
1.2 The Nature of Science 8
1.3 The Scientific Method 10
1.4 Science and Technology 16
1.4.1 What is Technology? 16
1.4.2 Relationship between Science and Technology 17
Summary 18
Key Terms 19
References 19
Topic 2 Behaviourist Developmental Theories 21
2.1 Behavioural Views of Learning 22
2.2 PavlovÊs Theory 24
2.2.1 Pavlov and Classical Conditioning 25
2.2.2 Common Processes in Classical Conditioning 27
2.2.3 Applications of PavlovÊs Theory in the
Teaching of Science 28
2.3 ThorndikeÊs Theory 30
2.3.1 ThorndikeÊs Laws 31
2.3.2 Applications of ThorndikeÊs Theory in the
2.4 SkinnerÊs Theory 33
2.4.1 Skinner and Operant Conditioning 34
2.4.2 Reinforcement 35
2.4.3 Punishment 37
2.4.4 Reinforcement Schedules 37
2.4.5 Applications of SkinnerÊs Theory in the
Summary 41
Key Terms 43
References 43

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Topic 3 Cognitive Developmental Theories 1 45
3.1 Cognitive Learning Theory 46
3.2 Cognitive Learning Theory Exponents 47
3.2.1 PiagetÊs Learning Theory 47
3.2.2 Identifying the Stages of Development 49
3.2.3 Applications of PiagetÊs Theory in Teaching Various
Children at Stages of Development 51
3.3 BrunerÊs Theories 56
3.3.1 Discovery Learning 57
3.3.2 Inductive Thinking 59
3.3.3 Stages of Cognitive Growth 61
3.3.4 Application of BrunerÊs Theories in the
Summary 66
Key Terms 66
References 67
Topic 4 Cognitive Learning Theories 2 69
4.1 AusubelÊs Deductive Learning 70
4.1.1 Meaningful Learning 71
4.1.2 Advance Organiser 72
4.2 Application of AusubelÊs Deductive Thinking
in Science Teaching 74
4.3 GagneÊs Mastery Learning 78
4.3.1 GagneÊs Categories of Learning 79
4.3.2 GagneÊs Hierarchy of Intellectual Skills 81
4.3.3 GagneÊs Nine Instructional Events 83
4.4 Application of GagneÊs Mastery Learning
4.5 Multiple Intelligences Theory 86
4.6 Application of Multiple Intelligences Theory
Summary 91
Key Terms 92
References 93
Appendix 1 94
Topic 5 Inquiry Learning 96
5.1 Inquiry and Discovery 98
5.1.1 Inquiry Cycle 99
5.1.2 Advantages of Inquiry Learning 102
5.2 Types of Inquiry Learning 104
5.3 Conditions for Inquiry Learning 108

TABLE OF CONTENTS W v
5.4 Questioning Skills for Inquiry Teaching 110
5.4.1 Types of Questions 110
5.4.2 Ways to Facilitate Questioning from Students 115
Summary 117
Key Terms 118
References 118
Topic 6 Constructivism 120
6.1 What is Constructivism? 121
6.1.1 Characteristics of a Constructivist Classroom 123
6.2 Alternative Conceptions: Science Learning Implications 124
6.3 Constructivist Teaching Approaches 128
6.3.1 5-E Learning Cycle Model 128
6.3.2 Predict-Observe-Explain (POE) Model 129
6.3.3 Needham's Five Phase Model 131
Summary 133
Key Terms 134
References 134
Topic 7 Teaching Approaches in Science 136
7.1 Science, Technology and Society Approach 137
7.1.1 Concept of STS 138
7.1.2 Background of STS Approach 139
7.1.3 Characteristics of STS Approach 140
7.2 Contextual Approach in Teaching and Learning of Science 142
7.2.1 Definitions and Concepts of CTL Approach 143
7.2.2 CTL Forms of Learning 146
7.3 Problem-Based Learning (PBL) 152
7.3.1 What is PBL? 152
7.3.2 PBL characteristics 153
7.3.3 PBL and Inquiry 155
Summary 160
Key Terms 161
References 162
Topic 8 Teaching and Learning Methods 164
8.1 Experiments 166
8.1.1 Discussion of Experimental Results 168
8.2 Discussion 170
8.2.1 Whole Class Discussions and Small
Group Discussions 170
8.3 Simulation 172
8.3.1 Types of Simulation Methods 172

v i X TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.4 Projects 175
8.4.1 Factors to Consider while Carrying Out Projects
in the Science Classroom 175
8.4.2 The Process of Doing a Project 176
8.5 Visits and use of External Resources 178
8.5.1 Planning a Visit or Field Trip 178
8.5.2 Virtual Field Trips 180
Summary 181
Key Terms 183
References 184
Answers 185

Topic
1
Teaching and
Learning
Science
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the three major components of science;
2. Describe the nature of science;
3. List the steps in a scientific method;
4. Explain the meaning of scientific literacy; and
5. Differentiate between science and technology.
INTRODUCTION
Why is it important for us to learn and understand what science is? Look at the
advertisement in Figure 1.1. What does scientifically tested mean?

2 TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING SCIENCE
Figure 1.1: An example of a bread advertisement
If we know science, we would not be fooled by this advertisement. We would
know how to evaluate information and make wise decision when it comes to our
health.
Before we go any further, do you think knowing science and knowing about
science are the same? They are different. Knowing science deals with the
theories, laws, generalisations, experiments and facts in science (Lee, Y. J. et al.,
2004). In the meantime, knowing about science or scientific literacy can be
described as thinking critically and reflectively about the cultural practices of
science, the philosophy, the motivations, influences and frameworks behind the
sciences.
As a science teacher, you certainly need to master both components in order to
facilitate effective teaching of this subject. Apart from that, you need to know
about the nature of science, so that, you can prepare relevant science-related
experiences for the development of science concepts and understanding.
ACTIVITY 1.1
Recall how science was taught when you were in primary school. Take
time to list down the characteristics of the science lesson. Share it with
your classmates.

TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING SCIENCE 3
WHAT IS SCIENCE?
What comes to your mind when someone mentions the word 'science'? Do you
picture someone in a white lab coat? Someone watching stars using a telescope?
A gardener tending to flowering bushes? Someone baking a cake? In spite of
these differences, all of them are related to science (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Images of science
Sources: http://www.majalahsains.com/
http://suddenvalley.com
http://www.astronomy2009.org
http://foodthought.org
1.1

Many people would associate science with a person in a white lab coat doing an
experiment but what about the person looking at the stars by using the telescope?
The gardener and the baker? The person looking at the stars by using the
telescope is studying what makes up the star, while, the gardener is monitoring
the growth of the plants. Meanwhile, the baker is trying to control the situation
so that the cake will rise beautifully. They are all doing science.
Science has many facets. Different individual would define science differently.
The layperson might define science as a body of scientific information, the
scientist might view it as procedures by which hypotheses are tested and a
philosopher might regard science as a way of questioning the truthfulness of
what we know. All of these views are valid, but each of them represents only a
partial definition of science.
If you explore the meaning of science, you may find the following definitions:
Science is everywhere, using it all the time, scary, can be lethal, discovery,
exploration, learning more, theories, hypothesis, interesting, exciting,
expensive, profitable, intelligent, status (Fleer Hardy, 1996)
Knowledge about the structure and behaviour of the natural and physical
world, based on facts you can prove (Oxford Dictionary)
Systematic knowledge which can be tested and proven for its truth (Kamus
Dewan)
Science is a set of attitudes and a way of thinking on facts (B. F. Skinner, 2005)
Science is the system of knowing about the universe through data collected
by observation and controlled experimentation. As data are collected,
theories are advanced to explain and account for what has been observed
(Carin Sund, 1989)
From the various definitions given above, you can conclude that science consists
of three major elements:
Processes (or methods)
Products
Human attitudes
Figure 1.3 shows the relationship among the three elements.

Figure 1.3: The relationship among the major elements of science
Now, let us read about each element in detail.
1.1.1 Science as a Process
Scientific knowledge does not come out from thin air. The body of knowledge is
produced through the observations and experimentation being done by the
scientist. This process has many different aspects and stages. For example, the
astronomer will first observe carefully and maybe take measurements while
gazing at the stars. Then, with the knowledge of the laws of physics, he or she
will provide the basis of our understanding of our universe.
Scientific skills are the tools used in doing the processes of science. Students will
conduct the processes just like the scientist. Students observe objects and
phenomena around them to understand the natural world. They will use
empirical procedures and analyse the data to describe the science concepts. The
science processes could also involve the formation of hypothesis, planning,
collecting data and data interpretation before making a conclusion.

1.1.2 Science as a Product
The product of science is the body of knowledge of science facts, concepts, laws
and theories. Figure 1.4 shows the relationships and the hierarchical order of the
science products.
Figure 1.4: The science products
Now, let us look at Table 1.1 which explains each component in detail.

Table 1.1: The Science Products
Science Products Descriptions
Science Facts
A scientific fact is the specific statement about existing objects or
actual incidents. We use senses to observe the facts.
There are two criteria that are used to identify a scientific fact:
(a) It is directly observable; and
(b) It can be demonstrated at any time.
Science Concepts
A concept is an abstraction of events, objects, or phenomena that
seem to have certain properties or attributes in common. Birds,
for example, possess certain characteristics that set them apart
from reptiles and mammals.
Science Laws And
Principles
Principles and Laws also fall into the general category of a
concept but in a broad manner. These higher order ideas are
used to describe what exists through empirical basis. For
example, BernoulliÊs principle and Newton laws of motion.
Science Theories
Scientists use theories to explain patterns and forces that are
hidden from direct observation. The Kinetic theory explains
how the molecules in a solid, liquid and gas move.
1.1.3 Science as Attitudes
The third element in science is attitudes and values. Scientists are persons trained
in some field of science who study phenomena through observation,
experimentation and other rational, analytical activities. They use attitudes, such
as being honest and accurate in recording and validating data, systematic and
being diligent in their work.
Thus, when planning teaching and learning activities, teachers need to inculcate
scientific attitudes and values to the students. For example, during science
practical work, the teacher should remind students and ensure that they carry
out their experiments in a careful, cooperative and honest manner.
Teachers need to plan well for effective inculcation of scientific attitudes and
noble values during science lessons. They should examine all related learning
outcomes and suggested teaching-learning activities that provide opportunities
for the inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values. This can be referred to
in any School Science Curriculum Specification.

SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Re-read the definitions of science given by various sources. In
your own words, explain the meaning of science.
2. Is the statement „the earth rotates on its axis‰ a scientific concept,
principle or theory?
3. What are the three major elements of science?
ACTIVITY 1.2
With your partner, draw a mind map that summarises your definition
of science.
THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
1.2
In this subtopic, we will briefly discuss the nature of science. It refers to the main
principles and ideas which provide a description of science methods and inquiry
as well as the characteristics of scientific knowledge or products. You should
read and understand all of these. Otherwise, it will result in your students
learning distorted views about how science is conducted.
Some points regarding the nature of science are as follows:
(a) Scientific knowledge is not absolute but tentative
The scientific knowledge we know today, may not be true in the future.
Change is inevitable because new observations may disprove the current
knowledge. For example, previously we learn that there are nine planets in
our solar system but now the scientist communities have agreed that there
are only eight planets.
(b) Scientific knowledge is durable
Although scientific knowledge is tentative, most scientific knowledge is
durable. As technology improves, new findings are added to the field and
this will lead to the modification of current ideas. Eventually the ideas
become more refine, precise and widely accepted by the scientific
community. So, we seldom see strong theories being rejected altogether.

(c) Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions
Science cannot answer all questions. Issues relating to moral, ethical,
aesthetic, social and metaphysical questions cannot be answered by science
method. Why? The reason is ideas and answers relating to science must be
supported by concrete evidence. Hence, there is no scientific method to
prove that belief on moral issues or metaphysical questions can be false.
(d) Scientists are particularly objective
Scientists are no different in their level of objectivity as other professions.
They have to be very careful and thorough when carrying out experiments,
collecting data, analysing the results and making a valid conclusion based
on the results. However scientists are human beings too and they can make
mistakes. So when they conduct experiments, the results may not always
give a valid explanation as mistakes can occur due to human error. For
example, when interpreting the data, bias can occur as the scientist may
interpret using his or her values and beliefs which may not be the values
and beliefs of the scientific communities.
(e) The world is understandable
In order to explain the phenomena that happen around us, scientists
presume that the things and events in the universe occur in consistent
patterns. Thus, the phenomena are comprehensible through careful and
systematic study. They also believe that through the use of the intellect, and
with the aid of instruments that extend the senses, people can discover
patterns in all of nature.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
Tick [ ] the correct statements.
(a) Scientific knowledge is static.
(b) Scientific knowledge is durable.
(c) Science cannot provide complete answers to all questions.
(d) Scientists are particularly objective.

1 0 TOPIC 1 TEACHING AND LEARNING SCIENCE
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1.3
The scientific method as shown in Figure 1.5 is a process for experimentation that
is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific
method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature.
Figure 1.5: The scientific method
Source: http://www.experiment-resources.com/what-is-the-scientific-method.html
Now, have a look at the following Table 1.2 that shows the steps of the scientific
method in detail.

Table 1.2: Steps of the Scientific Method
Steps of the Scientific
Method
Descriptions
Ask question You should start the experiment by asking questions about
the problem you want to investigate. Start the questions
with 5W and 1H what, when, who, which, where and how.
Finally you should summarise what you want to investigate
in the form of a testable question. Then only can you get the
answer through the scientific method.
Do background
research
In order to understand the questions that you want to
investigate, you probably need to collect information from
various sources.
This will help you to understand the concepts surrounding
your investigation, thus helping you to plan in solving the
problem.
Construct a
hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work:
If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will
happen.
You should construct the hypothesis in a way to help you
answer your original question.
Test your hypothesis
by doing an
experiment
You then design your investigation to collect enough data.
You must remember to plan your experiment to be a fair
test.
You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only
one factor at a time, while keeping all other conditions
unchanged.
You should also repeat your experiments several times to
minimise error.
Analyse your data
and draw a
conclusion
Here, you analyse the data collected and relate your findings
with your hypothesis.
If the data support your hypothesis then you accept the
hypothesis. If not, then probably you need to re-examine
your hypothesis and start the entire process again.
Communicate your
results
Finally, you want to share your findings with your friends.
You should write your report to include all the various
elements in your experiment.
You should use various tools to display your data such as
data table, graphs and diagram, so that the findings are
clearly communicated to others.

You must remember that the steps in the scientific method described in Table 1.2
are cyclical, meaning that you do not just move from one step to another in a
linear way. The reason for this is that information or thinking always changes.
Thus, scientists sometime need to back up and repeat the steps at any point
during the process. This process is called an iterative process.
The scientific method is not only used to solve scientific problems. It can be
applied in solving problems that you encounter in your everyday life. The
systematic way of solving a problem could help you to make decisions in your
daily life. This is what we called scientific literacy as illustrated in Figure 1.6.
Figure 1.6: A definition of scientific literacy
Source: Skamp (2004)
In other words, scientific literacy means that a person can ask, find or determine
answers to questions derived from curiosity about everyday experiences. It
means that a person has the ability to describe, explain and predict natural
phenomena. A scientifically-literate person should be able to evaluate the quality

of scientific information on the basis of its source and the methods used to
generate it. Scientific literacy also implies the capacity to pose and evaluate
arguments based on evidence and to apply conclusions from such arguments
appropriately (National Science Education Standards, page 22).
Why do you think we need to be scientifically literate? One of the main reasons is
that the society we live in depends on an ever-increasing application of
technology and the scientific knowledge that makes it possible. Decisions that we
make every day have the capacity to affect energy consumption, our personal
health, natural resources and the environment·ultimately the well-being of
ourselves, our community and the world. Individual decisions may not seem to
be critical. However, when they are multiplied by 300 million people nationwide,
or nearly 7 billion around the world, they have the power to change the face of
the planet (Scearce, 2007).
SELF-CHECK 1.3
You want to find out whether the amount of sunlight in a garden
affect tomato size. Use Figure 1.5 and Table 1.2 to help you to plan the
experiment and find the answer.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Do want to find out whether you are scientifically literate? Try
answering the test below. Answer the questions before looking at the
actual answers!
Test Your Scientific Literacy!
Richard Carrier (2001)
Answer each question with 'true' if what the sentence most normally
means is typically true and 'false' if it is typically false.
1. Scientists usually expect an experiment to turn out a certain
way.
2. Science only produces tentative conclusions that can change.

ACTIVITY 1.3
3. Science has one uniform way of conducting research called
„the scientific method.‰
4. Scientific theories are explanations and not facts.
5. When being scientific, one must have faith only in what is
justified by empirical evidence.
6. Science is just about the facts, not human interpretations of
them.
7. To be scientific one must conduct experiments.
8. Scientific theories only change when new information becomes
available.
9. Scientists manipulate their experiments to produce particular
results.
10. Science proves facts true in a way that is definitive and final.
11. An experiment can prove a theory true.
12. Science is partly based on beliefs, assumptions and the non-observable.
13. Imagination and creativity are used in all stages of scientific
investigations.
14. Scientific theories are just ideas about how something works.
15. A scientific law is a theory that has been extensively and
thoroughly confirmed.
16. ScientistsÊ education, background, opinions, disciplinary focus,
and basic guiding assumptions and philosophies influence
their perception and interpretation of the available data.
17. A scientific law will not change because it has been proven
true.
18. An accepted scientific theory is a hypothesis that has been
confirmed by considerable evidence and has endured all
attempts to disprove it.

19. A scientific law describes relationships among observable
phenomena but does not explain them.
20. Science relies on deduction (x entails y) more than induction (x
implies y).
21. Scientists invent explanations, models or theoretical entities.
22. Scientists construct theories to guide further research.
23. Scientists accept the existence of theoretical entities that have
never been directly observed.
24. Scientific laws are absolute or certain.
Source: www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/SciLit.html
Answers to Activity 1.3
1. T 9. T 17. F
2. F 10. F 18. T
3. F 11. F 19. T
4. T 12. T 20. F
5. T 13. T 21. T
6. F 14. F 22. T
7. F 15. F 23. T
8. F 16. T 24. F
How you score:
No wrong answer A+
1 wrong answer A
2 wrong answers A-
3 wrong answers B+
4 wrong answers B
5 wrong answers B-
6 wrong answers C
7 wrong answers D
8 or more wrong answers F

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
1.4
Look at the two ships in Figure 1.7. Can you see the differences? Why did the
ship change from the traditional to the modern?
(a) Traditional ship (b) Modern ship
Figure 1.7: Ships from different ages
Source: http://scrapety.com
http://www.titanic-titanic.com
The answer is as people become more intelligent they use their knowledge to
improve the ship. They improved the engine, the type of the fuel and many other
aspects so that the modern ship performs much more efficiently than the
traditional ship. The use of knowledge to build and improve the modern ship is
one example of technology.
1.4.1 What is Technology?
Did you know the word technology originated from the Greek term technologia
which is made up of techne, meaning „craft‰, and logia, meaning „saying‰? The
definition has evolved throughout history and now the word technology means
different things to different people.
Technology is a term that covers both the products created by human beings and
the methods used to create those products. In simple term, technology refers to
the way of doing something whether a product, such as machine, or a means of
organisation. The products of technology have been around since a long time ago
such as the invention of the wheel. In modern times the products could be as
simple as a pen or more sophisticated like an iPhone.

The term technology is said to encompass a number of „classes‰ of technology as
shown in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3: Classes of Technology
Classes Descriptions
Technology as Objects Tools, machines, instruments, weapons, appliances the
physical devices of technical performance
Technology as Knowledge The know-how behind technological innovations
Technology as Activities What people do their skills, methods, procedures,
routines
Technology as a Process Begins with a need and ends with a solution
Technology as a Socio-technical
System
The manufacture and use of objects involving people and
other objects in combination
Source: http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/watistec.html
The term science and technology always goes hand-in-hand, just like the horse
and the carriage. So, is there a relationship between science and technology?
1.4.2 Relationship between Science and Technology
In general, science can be regarded as the enterprise that seeks to understand
natural phenomena and to arrange these ideas into ordered knowledge.
Meanwhile, technology involves the design of products and systems that affect
the quality of life, using the knowledge of science where necessary.
Science is intimately related to technology and society. For instance, science
produces knowledge that results in useful applications through devices and
systems. We have evidence of this all around us, from microwave ovens, to
compact disc players, to computers.
However, the understanding of technology as the application of science
knowledge has been challenged by many people. Mayr (1976) said „. . . practical
usable criteria for making sharp neat distinctions between science and
technology do not exist.‰
Technology is marked by different purposes, different processes, different
relationship to established knowledge and a particular relationship to specific
contexts of activity. Change in the material environment is the explicit purpose of
technology but that is not the case with science. Science, is concerned with the

understanding of nature to bring about solutions that are more or less effective
from different points of view.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
In your own words, define technology.
ACTIVITY 1.4
In a group of three to four people, select two current inventions that
have been said to improve and benefit mankind. List the positive and
negative effects of using these inventions.
The three elements of science are products, processes and attitudes.
The product of science is the body of knowledge of science which comprises
facts, concepts, laws, principles and theories.
The product of science is as a result of its processes and while the processes are
carried out, the attitudes are practised.
The processes of science can be done using scientific skills.
Science problem can be solved using scientific method.
Nature of science refers to the main principles and ideas which provide a
description of science methods and inquiry as well as the characteristics of
scientific knowledge or products.
The scientific method is made up of a series of steps: ask question, do
background research, construct a hypothesis, test your hypothesis by doing an
experiment, analyse your data and draw a conclusion and communicate your
results.

Science is related to technology.
Technology involves the design of products and systems that affect the quality of
life, using the knowledge of science where necessary.
Nature of science
Science
Science and technology
Science attitude
Science process
Science product
Scientific literacy
Scientific method
Carin, A., Sund, R. B. (1989). Teaching science through discovery (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Esler, W. K., Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th ed.). USA:
Belmont, Wadsworth/Thomson.
Fleer, M., Hardy. T. (1996). Science for children. Australia Harcourt Brace:
Prentice Hall.
Lee, Y. J. et al. (2004). Knowing science and knowing about science: Teaching
primary science. Prentice Hall : Singapore.
Martin, D. J. (2006). Elementary science methods: A constructivist approach.
Methods for constructing understanding. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Mayr, O. (1976). The science-technology relationship as a historiographics
problem. Technology and Culture 17.
Science Buddies. (2011). Steps of the scientific method. Retrieved April 20, 2011,
from http://www.sciencebuddies.org/mentoring/project_scientific_
method.shtml
Shuttleworth, M. (2009). What is the scientific method? Retrieved April 21, 2011,
from http://www.experiment-resources.com/what-is-the-scientific-method.
html
Skamp, K. (2004). Teaching primary science constructively. Southbank, Victoria:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Washington.

The UK Technology Education Centre. What is technology? Retrieved April 22,
2011, from http://atschool.eduweb.co.uk/trinity/watistec.html
University of California Museum of Paleontology. Understanding science: What
is science? Retrieved April 20, 2011, from http://undsci.berkeley.
edu/article/whatisscience_01
Wolfs, F. L. H. (2004). Introduction to scientific method. Retrieved April 20, 2011,
from http://teacher.nsrl.rochester.edu/phy_labs/AppendixE/ AppendixE.
html.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
INTRODUCTION
Imagine there are two scenarios. In Scenario A, a teacher praises a student for his
excellent science project. While in Scenario B, a teacher praises a student for
giving a correct answer. What similarity can you see in both of these situations as
illustrated in Figure 2.1?
Scenario A Scenario B
Figure 2.1: Two classroom scenarios
Topic
2
Behaviourist
Developmental
Theories
1. Describe the behavioural views of learning;
2. Apply PavlovÊs theories in the teaching of science;
3. Apply ThorndikeÂs theories in the teaching of science; and
4. Apply SkinnerÊs theories in the teaching of science.

2 2 TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES
The scenarios in Figure 2.1 show the application of the principles of behavioural
approach to learning. Did you notice that there is an observable behaviour in
both of these situations?
In scenario A, the observable behaviour is a teacher praising a student for doing
an excellent science project. Meanwhile, in scenario B, the observable behaviour
is a teacher praising a student for giving a correct answer. There is also feedback
from the teacher, such as, „I am proud of you. Your science project was
excellent!‰ and „Very good!‰. Do you know that these are the essential elements
of behavioural approach to learning? The behaviourist theories emphasise the
study of observable measurable behaviours in order to influence learning.
In this topic, you will first be introduced to learning theories and behavioural
views of learning. You will then learn about the contributions of three
behaviourists namely Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner. For each of these
behavioural scientists, you will study their early experiments and the underlying
principles in each of their theories. Finally, you will explore the applications of
each of their theories in the teaching of science.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Observe a science lesson conducted by a teacher in your school. How
does the teacher reinforce good behaviours of the students? Write down
all the different feedback the teacher gives to the students. Do you think
the feedback that the teacher gives can bring about change in the
behaviour of the students? Discuss among your coursemates.
BEHAVIOURAL VIEWS OF LEARNING
2.1
First of all, let us have a look at what a learning theory is.
A learning theory is a set of principles which aim to explain the process of
learning.
Do you know why is it important for teachers to know about learning theories? It
is because, learning theories help us to understand how pupils learn and why
certain techniques encourage learning more than others. Learning theories can be
divided into four main schools of thought as shown in Figure 2.2. In this topic,

TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 23
you will be learning about behavioural learning theories. Cognitive learning
theories will be covered later in other topics.
Figure 2.2: Classification of learning theories
For your information, behavioural learning theories were the earliest theories of
learning that were introduced. There are two main groups of behaviourist
theories as can be seen in Figure 2.2:
(a) Classical conditioning theories
(b) Operant conditioning theories
Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner are behavioural scientists who have made major
contributions in the field of behavioural learning. PavlovÊs theory is known as
classical conditioning theory, while Thorndike and SkinnerÊs theories are known
as operant conditioning theories.
This behavioural approach emphasises observable behaviours that can be
measured. Learning and behaviour are described in terms of stimulus and
response relationships (S-R). You will be learning more about the relationship
between stimulus and response as you read further.
Behaviourists describe individuals as being conditioned by the environment.
What does conditioning mean?

Conditioning is a process of teaching, where the learner associates behaviour
or the response with a stimulus (McInerney McInerney, 2006).
Conditioning occurs through interactions with the environment while learning is
said to have occurred when there is an observable change in behaviour.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
In your own words, describe the behavioural views of learning.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Behaviourism has its own set of specialised terms to describe the
learning process. It is worthwhile to be familiar with these terms. Can
you find the meaning of the following key behaviourist terms:
(a) Stimulus;
(b) Response; and
(c) Conditioning?
PAVLOV’S THEORY
2.2
Now, let us study PavlovÊs classical conditioning theory and its application in the
teaching of science. Have you heard of the famous experiment that is shown in
Figure 2.3?

Figure 2.3: PavlovÊs experiment on classical conditioning
Source: http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html
This experiment was carried out by the Russian scientist, Ivan Pavlov (1849-
1936), to find out if a dogÊs behaviour could be conditioned. His theory is known
as classical conditioning.
2.2.1 Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning is one of the first theories of behaviourism. Pavlov showed
the simple relationship between a stimulus and a response in teaching
(conditioning) an animal to modify its behaviour (McInerney McInerney,
2006). In his experiment, Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate to the sound of a
bell by linking a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus.
In order to better understand classical conditioning, let us look at the
observations studied by Pavlov on his dog as illustrated in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Schematic representation of classical conditioning
Source: http://www.simplypsychology.org/pavlov.html
In reference to Figure 2.4, let us have a look at Table 2.1 for more information on
each phase in classical conditioning.
Table 2.1: Phases in Classical Conditioning
Phase Description
Before conditioning
(Figure 2.4 (1 and 2))
A dog salivates when presented with food. Pavlov called the food
an unconditioned stimulus (UC) resulting in an unconditioned
response (UR) (salivation). A neutral stimulus such as the ringing
of a bell did not bring about any response.
During conditioning
(Figure 2.4 (3))
To condition the response behaviour, Pavlov rang a small bell at
the same time as the meat was presented. He carried out many
practice sessions where the bell and meat were presented together.
After conditioning
(Figure 2.4 (4))
The dog eventually learned to salivate when the bell was rung
without the meat. The bell which originally had no meaning for
the dog, took on meaning and became the conditioned stimulus
(CS) because of repeated pairing or association with the food
which then became the conditioned response (CR) that is
salivation.

This early research demonstrated that a stimulus that readily leads to a response
can be paired with a neutral stimulus in order to bring about learning. This is the
essence of classical conditioning. We sometimes learn new responses as a result
of two stimuli being presented at the same time. As seen in Figure 2.4, it starts
with two things that are already connected with each other, which are, food and
salivation. Then, paired with a third thing, which is the bell with the conditioned
stimulus, which is the food over several trials. Eventually, this third thing may
become so strongly associated, that it has acquired the power to produce a new
behaviour. The animal is „conditioned‰ to respond to the third thing or stimulus.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Classical conditioning is often used in advertisements. In groups,
study advertisements on television or in print. Describe how classical
conditioning is used to sell the product. Use the following terms in
your description: unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,
neutral stimulus, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response.
2.2.2 Common Processes in Classical Conditioning
PavlovÊs work also identified three other processes in classical conditioning, as
shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Other Processes in Classical Conditioning
Other Processes Description
Generalisation Pavlov used bells of different tones. The dog still salivated even
though the tones of the bells were different. The dog responded even
though the tones of the bells were different or nearly the same. The
dog is capable of stimulus generalisation and is able to generalise
across different tones.
Discrimination The dogs could also respond to one tone of the bell and not to others
that were similar. Pavlov did this by making sure the food was only
presented with only that one tone and not others. He called this
stimulus discrimination. The dog is able to differentiate among
different tones.
Extinction Extinction occurs when a conditioned stimulus (bell) is presented
repeatedly but is not followed by the unconditioned stimulus (food).
The conditioned response (salivating) gradually fades away and
disappears. Pavlov continued ringing the bell and not following with the
food. The dog gradually did not salivate. Extinction had taken place.

ACTIVITY 2.4
In groups, discuss the situations in your science class where you can
use the following processes to facilitate learning:
(a) Generalisation;
(b) Discrimination; and
(c) Extinction.
2.2.3 Applications of Pavlov’s Theory in the Teaching
of Science
PavlovÊs theory helps to explain why children behave the way they do in certain
circumstances. Many childrenÊs attitudes are learnt through classical
conditioning. For example, some children learn to dislike science or mathematics,
not because the subject is difficult but because the subject has been paired with
fear producing stimuli such as strict teachers.
Once you understand the process of classical conditioning, you will be able to
understand the importance of creating a healthy classroom environment. For
example, if you treat your students with warmth and care each time during their
science lesson, the students will begin to associate the science class with a warm
and caring teacher. Your warm and caring attitude are the unconditioned stimuli.
The science class becomes the conditioned stimulus which the students have
associated with the warmth of the teacher. The unconditioned response is the
initial response to the teacher. The students develop a positive emotional
response to science. This is the conditioned response and the whole process is
illustrated in Figure 2.5.

Figure 2.5: Process of classical conditioning
Now, let us study the applications of PavlovÊs classical conditioning theory in
science classrooms. Think of how you can use them in your science lesson.
Applying PavlovÊs Classical Conditioning Theory
in a Science Classroom
1. Provide a safe and warm environment so that the science classroom will
be associated with a positive emotion or attitude.
2. Associate positive and pleasant events with learning tasks. For example,
make science experiments fun by having a relaxed and comfortable
atmosphere in the science room or laboratory.
3. Help students to risk anxiety-producing situations voluntarily and
successfully. For example, pair an anxiety-provoking situation, such as
performing in front of a group, with pleasant surroundings and a non-threatening
atmosphere. This helps the student learn new associations.
Instead of feeling anxious and tense in these situations, the student will
stay relaxed and calm.
4. Help students recognise differences and similarities among situations,
so they can discriminate and generalise appropriately. For example,
assure students who are anxious about taking a major examination that
this test is like all other tests that they have sat for.
5. Use motivation to produce positive behaviour.
Source: Woolfolk (2001)

SELF-CHECK 2.2
1. What are the main principles in PavlovÊs theory?
2. Discuss with examples how you can use PavlovÊs theory to
teach science.
THORNDIKE’S THEORY
2.3
Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) introduced a theory of learning called
connectionism. His theory viewed learning as forming „connections‰ between a
stimulus (S) and a response (R). He conducted experiments with various animals.
He placed a hungry animal in a puzzle box and food outside the box. He then
observed how it learnt to get out. He believed that learning occurred through
trial and error. His classic experiment with a hungry cat is shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6: ThorndikeÊs puzzle box
Source: http://www.csus.edu/indiv/w/wickelgren/psyc001/
ClassLectureThreeOperant.html
The puzzle box as shown in Figure 2.6 had a lever which opened the door. After
much trial and error, the cat learned to associate pressing the lever (stimulus)
with opening the door (response). This S-R connection when established resulted
in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from box).
The same cat was placed in the box over and over again. Each time the cat was
placed back in the box, it took a shorter time to get out. The cat had made
connection between its behaviour and the reward. Thorndike concluded that cats

learn faster if they are rewarded for their behaviour and that learning is
incremental, that is, it occurred in small steps.
Can you see any differences between ThorndikeÊs theory and PavlovÊs classical
conditioning theory? Did you notice that the learner in classical conditioning is
seen to be passive and responding to the environment?
In the case of PavlovÊs dog, it responded to the stimulus of food. Whereas the
learner in ThorndikeÊs theory is seen actively responding to the environment.
The cat pressed the lever (response) to get to the food (stimulus). This means that
the learner plays an active part in the changes of behaviour. The learner also
operates on the environment by responding to the stimulus. This is known as
operant conditioning. Thorndike established the basis for operant conditioning
but the person thought to be responsible for developing the concept is Skinner.
We will learn about SkinnerÊs theory later.
2.3.1 Thorndike’s Laws
Based on his experiments, Thorndike proposed three laws as can be seen in
Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: ThorndikeÊs Laws
ThorndikeÊs Laws Description
Law of Effect Law of effect is the most famous of his laws. Any act that
produces a satisfying effect in a given situation will tend to be
repeated in that situation. For example, if a response (e.g.
answering a science question) is followed by a rewarding
experience (e.g. student gets right answer and is praised by the
teacher), the response will be strengthened and become a habit.
Law of Exercise The more frequent the S-R connection, the stronger it will be.
For example, the connection between a stimulus (e.g. getting
the right answer) and response (e.g. doing a science question) is
strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is
discontinued.
Law of Readiness Readiness to do an act is satisfying. Individuals learn best when
they are physically, mentally and emotionally ready. If
students are ready, they will make more progress in learning.

2.3.2 Applications of Thorndike’s Theory in the
Teaching of Science
Thorndike stressed the importance of stimulus-response connections. So, the task
of the teacher is to arrange the classroom and learning activities to enhance
connections between a stimulus and a response.
The following shows the various ways you can apply ThorndikeÊs theory in a
science classroom
Applying ThorndikeÊs Theory
in a Science Classroom
1. Give rewards or reinforcement for positive behaviour. This will
establish the stimulus-response connection.
2. Use drill practices to associate between a stimulus and a response. This
will strengthen the S-R connection.
3. Use routines to help students „practice‰ desired behaviours until they
become a habit. For example, give step-by step routines on how to write
science reports.
4. Get students ready to learn by creating interest in science with
interesting demonstrations and activities.
5. Make sure studentsÊ basic needs are satisfied. If students are hungry,
tired or troubled, they will have little interest in learning.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Discuss the implications of ThorndikeÊs theories on the teaching
and learning of science.

ACTIVITY 2.5
For each of the ways of applying ThorndikeÊs theory given before,
suggest examples you can use in your science lessons. Carry out your
suggestions in your science classes. Record your observations and
conclusions.
SKINNER’S THEORY
2.4
Have you ever tried to train your pet? How did you do it? Look at Figure 2.7
which shows trained animals performing.
Figure 2.7: Animals performing tricks
Source: http://drsophiayin.com/resources/cattricks, http:
http://www.insidethemagic.net/2011/04/highlights-one-ocean-makes-a-big-splash-at-seaworld-
orlando-debut-wetting-guests-with-shamu-size-fun/
The complex tricks performed by the cat and the dolphins shown in Figure 2.7
are the result of many hours of training. The training or conditioning that is
carried out is based largely on the principles of behavioural learning theories.
„Of all the theories of behavioural learning, operant conditioning probably
has the greatest impact on science teachers.‰ (Hassard, 1992).

As was mentioned earlier in this topic, Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) is
responsible for formulating the operant conditioning theory. Like Pavlov and
Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned
behaviour. Skinner thought that behaviour (R) is controlled by a stimulus (S) and
he called it operant behaviour.
Do you still remember what operant behaviours are? Yes. Operant behaviours
are behaviours that operate on the environment to receive reinforcement. That is
why SkinnerÊs theory is also known as operant conditioning.
2.4.1 Skinner and Operant Conditioning
SkinnerÊs early studies were on animals like rats and pigeons. He devised an
apparatus called the Skinner box as shown in Figure 2.8.
Figure 2.8: SkinnerÊs box
Source: http://www.appsychology.com/Book/Behavior/operant_conditioning.htm
A hungry rat was placed in this box. The box contained a small brass lever that, if
pressed, delivered a pellet of food. Once it was left alone in the box, the rat
moved about exploring. At some point in time, it pressed the lever and a small
food pellet was released. The rat ate this and soon pressed the lever again. The
food pellet reinforced pressing of the lever.

Can you identify the stimulus and response in the example above? Yes, you are
right. The stimulus is the food pellet and the response is the pressing of the lever.
Which one occurred first the stimulus or the response? Yes, the response
occurred first, that is, the rat carried out the response (pressing lever) to get the
stimulus (food pellet). The rat operated on its environment. Can you see how the
rat in SkinnerÊs box is different from PavlovÊs dog?
What happens if the rat is not given any more food pellet? Skinner disconnected
the food dispenser. When the rat pressed the lever, no food was released. The rat
pressed the lever less and less and finally stopped. That is, the operant response
has undergone extinction with non-reinforcement just as in classical
conditioning.
Skinner progressively reinforced behaviour that came close to the goal behaviour
that is, pressing of the lever to get food. He called this shaping. In this way, the
animal is gradually taught to perform quite complex behaviour.
SkinnerÊs work resulted in the development of a number of principles of
behaviour that have direct implications on teaching. Reinforcement which is the
key principle in SkinnerÊs theory will be explored in more detail in the next
section.
2.4.2 Reinforcement
In psychology, reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens the behaviour
it follows. Consequences are simply environmental events that follow the
behaviour. This can be summarised as shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Reinforcement
Consequences to a large extent will determine whether a person will repeat the
behaviour that led to the consequences. The type of consequences given and also
the timing of the consequences are important in determining if the behaviour is
to be strengthened or repeated. We will now look at different types of
reinforcement and reinforcement schedules.

There are two types of reinforcement as can be seen in Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10: Types of reinforcement
The differences between both of these types of reinforcement are given in
Table 2.4.
Table 2.4: Differences between Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement
A pleasant consequence increases the
probability of that behaviour occurring in
the future.
Taking away something negative to
increase the probability of that behaviour
occurring again.
The pleasant consequence can be verbal
praise, good grades, tokens, motivating
words, winning certificates, earning
privileges, facial expressions or a feeling of
increased accomplishment or satisfaction.
Unpleasant consequences are removed
such as nagging or extra homework.
Example:
A student gives the correct answer as in
situation B in Figure 2.1. The teacher
praises the student. The student tries
harder to give the correct response the next
time.
Example:
A teacher announces to the class that they
have no homework for that day because
they have done an excellent science project.
Students work harder for the next science
project.

ACTIVITY 2.6
Study Table 2.2 again. Give another two examples of each of the
positive and negative reinforcement that you can use in your science
classroom. Discuss your answers in groups.
2.4.3 Punishment
Now, have a look at Figure 2.8 again. If every time the rat touches the lever, it
receives an electric shock it will eventually learn to stop pressing the lever. This
is punishment and can be summarised as in Figure 2.11.
Figure 2.11: Punishment
For example, a student gives the wrong answer and is punished by the teacher.
The teacher makes the student stand in front of the class. The student will then
try not to give the wrong answer the next time. The undesirable response is
reduced. What do you think of punishing students this way?
Generally, reinforcement is preferred over punishment in modifying behaviour
because punishment can bring about undesired emotional effects in the students.
Can you suggest another way you can try to solve the teacherÊs problem above?
2.4.4 Reinforcement Schedules
What do you know about reinforcement schedules?
Reinforcement schedules refer to the pattern and frequency in which a
particular response is reinforced.

In the beginning stages of conditioning, Skinner reinforced the animal each time
it turned the lever. This is called a continuous reinforcement schedule. After a
number of trials, the animal slowly learns the desired behaviour. At this point,
reinforcement is moved to an intermittent reinforcement schedule. An
intermittent schedule allows for behaviour to be repeated but without constant
reinforcement. This is shown in Figure 2.12.
Figure 2.12: Reinforcement schedules
As can be seen in Figure 2.12, there are two types of intermittent schedules:
(a) Interval Schedule
In the interval schedule, reinforcers are given based on the amount of time
that passes between responses.

(b) Ratio Schedule
In the ratio schedule, reinforcers are given based on number of responses
the learner gives between reinforcements. Interval and ratio schedules may
be fixed or variable.
Now, let us read the following case study and try to solve Encik HamdanÊs
problem.
Case Study
Lisa is a student in Encik HamdanÊs class. She is always very excited during
the science lessons and just shouts out answers without raising her hand.
Encik Hamdan wants to reinforce LisaÊs appropriate behaviour that is raising
her hand to answer the questions with points that she can use to exchange for
play time. Look at the following reinforcement schedules. Identify which type
of schedule it is and decide which schedule or combination of schedules will
be the most effective to use with Lisa:
(a) Schedule A
Give Lisa points each time she raises her hands.
(b) Schedule B
Give Lisa points every third time she raises her hand.
(c) Schedule C
Give Lisa points after she raises her hand a variable number of times.
2.4.5 Applications of Skinner’s Theory in the Teaching
of Science
After learning about the principles of SkinnerÊs theory, let us look at how we can
apply it effectively in a science classroom. Study the following guidelines on
how you can apply SkinnerÊs theory in a science classroom.

Applying SkinnerÊs Theory
in the Science Classroom
1. Reinforce positive behaviours. For example praise students when they
complete their work well.
2. Determine what behaviours you want. For example, carrying out
science process skills correctly Reinforce these behaviours when they
occur.
3. Tell students what behaviours you want. Science teachers deal with a
complex classroom environment which involves safety issues.
Specifying behaviours that you expect in the classroom will ensure
responsible and independent learners.
4. Create „chains of desired student behaviours‰ by establishing
reinforcement for those desired behaviours. For example, give students
gold stars for each time they clean up after an experiment.
5. Reinforce expected behaviour as soon as it happens. For example, stars
or tokens are given as soon as students collect work materials and begin
experiments.
6. Give praise and other rewards to students who even get desired
behaviours partially right (SkinnerÊs shaping). This is rewarding them
for effort. Eventually, as students can do the desired behaviour correctly
you can remove the rewards. For example, writing science reports
neatly. When they exhibit these behaviours, reinforce them and tell
them why.
7. Reinforcement is best used at variable intervals (SkinnerÊ schedules). For
example, give rewards for following the rules for science group
discussions at intervals. You can also take pictures of students doing
projects and show these pictures once in a while to motivate students.
8. Develop your science lesson from simpler to more complex tasks. Give
reinforcements at every concept learnt and continue to more complex
ones.

SELF-CHECK 2.7
What are the main principles in PavlovÊs, ThorndikeÊs and SkinnerÂs
theories? Present your answers in the form of a mind map.
ACTIVITY 2.7
1. In groups, complete the following table to show what you have
learnt about SkinnerÊs operant conditioning theory.
Essentials of operant conditioning Explanation with examples
Operant
Shaping
Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Reinforcement schedule
2. Discuss among your classmates what are any other ways can
SkinnerÊs theory be applied in the science classroom.
Behaviourism refers to the study of observable and measurable behaviour.
In behaviourism, learning and behaviour are described in terms of stimulus and
response relationships.
A stimulus is an event that activates behaviour; a response is an observable
reaction to a stimulus.
Behaviourists describe individuals as being conditioned by the environment.

There are two main groups of behaviourist theories: classical conditioning and
operant conditioning.
Classical conditioning, first described by Ivan Pavlov, is a theory that explains
how we sometimes learn new responses as a result of two stimuli being
presented at the same time.
Three other processes in classical conditioning are generalisation, discrimination
and extinction.
In operant conditioning, as presented by Skinner and Thorndike, the learner
actively „operates‰ on their environment to reach certain goals.
Thorndike stressed that learning involves stimulus-response connections.
He formulated three laws of learning: law of effect, law of exercise and law of
readiness.
SkinnerÊs theory focussed on operants or behaviours that are affected by what
happens after the reinforcement (consequences).
Reinforcement is the process of using a reinforcement to strengthen behaviour.
There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative reinforcement.
Reinforcement schedules are the pattern and frequency in which a particular
response is reinforced.
The principles of the theories of Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner can be used in
the teaching of science.
The teacherÊs job is to create a science learning environment in which certain
behaviours (the acquisition of knowledge, concepts and skills) are increased and
reinforced.

Behaviourism
Classical conditioning
Conditioned responses
Conditioned stimulus
Conditioning
Connectionism
Consequences
Continuous reinforcement schedule
Discrimination
Extinction
Generalisation
Intermittent reinforcement schedule
Negative reinforcement
Operant
Operant conditioning
Positive reinforcement
Punishment
Reinforcement
Reinforcement schedule
Response
Shaping
Stimulus
Unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus
Abruscato, J. (2000). Teaching children science A discovery approach. USA:
Allyn Bacon.
Borich, G. D., Tombari, M. L. (1996). Educational psychology: A contemporary
approach. New York: Allyn Bacon.
Culatta, R. (2011). Behavioral theories of learning. Retrieved May 8, 2011,
from http://www.innovativelearning.com/educational_psychology/
behaviorism/webquest.html
EmTech. (2007). Learning theories. Retrieved May 7, 2011, from
http://www.emtech.net/learning_theories.htm
Hassard, J. (1992). Minds on science Middle and secondary school methods.
USA: Harper Collins.
Mclnerney, D. M., Mclnerney, V. (2006). Educational psychology-constructing
learning. Australia: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Northern College. (2003). Learning theories Classical conditioning. Retrieved
April 27, 2011, from http://www.northern.ac.uk/learning/NC
Material/Psychology/lifespan%20folder/Learningtheories.htm
Utah State University. (2000). Positive interaction procedures. Retrieved May 8,
2011, from http://www.usu.edu/teachall/text/behavior/LRBIpdfs/
Positive.pdf
Woolfolk, A. ( 2001). Educational psychology. USA: Allyn Bacon.

Topic
3
Cognitive
Developmental
Theories 1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the main features of cognitive learning theories;
2. Describe PiagetÊs theory;
3. Apply PiagetÊs theory in the teaching of science;
4. Describe BrunerÊs theories; and
5. Apply BrunerÊs theories in the teaching of science.
INTRODUCTION
In the last topic, you have learnt about behaviourist learning theories. What do
you think are the main limitation to these theories? According to behaviourist
theories, the respond that we show as a result of repetitive stimuli given to us is
called learning.
As can be seen in Figure 3.1, this theory assumes that a learner is essentially
passive in responding to environmental stimuli. The behaviour is shaped
through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement
and negative reinforcement will increase the possibility that the prior behaviour
will recur. Positive reinforcement indicates the application of a stimulus, while
negative reinforcement indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is
therefore defined as a change in behaviour in the learner. This however reduces
complex human behaviour to simple cause and effect. Actually, there are a lot of
factors that can influence learning other than just respond to the given stimulus.
We will learn about this in this topic.

4 6 TOPIC 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 1
Figure 3.1: Behaviourist Learning Theory
Source: http://tanvirdhaka.blogspot.com/
In this topic, we will learn about cognitive learning theory and how we can apply
this theory in the teaching of science.
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
3.1
As a result of the limitation of behaviourist theory, a group of psychologists
propose a new approach to explain the process of learning. This new approach is
called the cognitive learning theory.
Figure 3.2: Cognitive learning theory
Source: http://psybibs.revdak.com
This approach recognises the vital role of the human brain in the process of
learning. Cognitive experts believed that a lot of thought processes happen in our
brain that help us to interpret, organise, store and receive information before we
could respond to the stimulus. These are called cognitive processes (see
Figure 3.2).
As we learn, our cognitive structures in our brain are changed or modified. These
structures enable us to interpret, store and retrieve information. Thus, according
to Ormrod (1999), there are two main features underlying this cognitive
approach:
(a) That the memory system is an active organised processor of information.
(b) That prior knowledge plays an important role in learning.

TOPIC 3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 1 47
Kohler, Tolman, Lewin, Piaget and Bruner are among the psychologists who
contributed to the cognitive learning theory. Atherton (2011) summarised
cognitive theory as theories that are interested in how people understand
material. In order to fully understand this, we should also include the study on:
(a) Aptitude and capacity to learn;
(b) Learning styles; and
(c) Constructivism as these three aspects influences how people learn.
But we are not going to discuss them in this topic as the focus in this topic is
introducing you to the cognitive learning theories, specifically Piaget and Bruner
learning theories..
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Explain the difference between behavioural and cognitive theory.
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY
EXPONENTS
3.2
Just imagine that you are at your desk with a pen in your hand and staring at an
empty book. You are wondering the best approach for a lesson on „Basic needs of
living things‰ for Year 4 students. What is your basis for planning the lesson?
Learning theories could be one of the things that you could use to plan an
effective lesson. As a start, let us learn about PiagetÊs learning theory.
3.2.1 Piaget’s Learning Theory
Jean Piaget is a Swiss biologist and psychologist. After working with Alfred
Binet, Piaget developed an interest in the intellectual development of children.
Based upon his observations of his children and their processes of making sense
of the world around them, he eventually developed a four-stage model of how
the mind processes the new information it encountered. These four stages are
illustrated in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: PiagetÊs theory on stages of human development
Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive processes and abilities. In
Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon
actions and later progresses into changes in mental operations.
As seen in Figure 3.3, each stage is characterised by new abilities and ways of
processing information. Piaget believes that, all children pass through these
stages in this order and that no child can skip a stage, although different children
pass through the stages at different rates. The same individuals may perform
tasks associated with different stages at the same time, particularly at points of
transition into a new stage (Slavin, 2006).
You would have probably learned this theory in detail in your psychology
course. If not, you can gather a lot of information from various resources to read
and understand fully about this theory. This is necessary because soon we are
going to look at how to apply this theory in a science classroom.

3.2.2 Identifying the Stages of Development
There are four stages of human development as mentioned by Piaget. This means
that as a teacher, the first thing that you need to do is to identify at what stage
your students are. This is important because it allows you to plan suitable and
appropriate teaching and learning activities for your students.
Do you know how to identify your studentÊs stage of development? One way is
to look at the characteristics of your student and compare them to the list given
in Figure 3.3. You could also conduct simple experiments as Piaget had done
when he was doing his research. Take time to do Activity 3.1 to understand the
experiments that could be used to identify your students' stage of development.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Study the following situations. Determine the stage of development
described by the situation.
Situation What
stage?
1 Play with a child and then, disappear behind the paper.
The child becomes distressed at your disappearance.
2 Show a child four marbles in a row, then, spread them
out. The child says that there are now more marbles than
before.
3 If you take four one-inch square pieces of felt, and lay
them on a six-by-six cloth together in the centre, and then,
the same square spread out in the corner, the child says
that the squares cover the same area in both cases.

4 A set of cards have letters on one side and numbers on the
other. If a card has a vowel on one side, then it has an even
number on the other side.
Take a look at the cards below and tell me, which cards do I
need to turn over to tell if this rule is actually true?
5 You have two five inch sticks laid parallel to each other, and
then, move one of them a little. She says the two sticks are still
having the same length even though it now extends beyond
the other.
6 Fill a tall glass of water and a short glass of water of the same
volume and ask which glass has more. The child says the tall
glass.
Source: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/piaget.html
Answers:
1. Sensorimotor period
2. Pre-operational period
3. Concrete operational period
4. Formal operational period
5. Concrete operational period
6. Pre-operational period
By looking at the stages, we could see that generally children in Year 1 and Year
2 could probably be still in the pre-operational stage, while Year 3 till Year 5
students would be in the concrete operational stage. By Year 6, they would start
to be in their formal operational stage. So, what should you do to teach them?

SELF-CHECK 3.2
What are the four stages of human development according to Piaget?
ACTIVITY 3.2
Do you think the classification of ages by Piaget still apply in the
present time? Discuss with your coursemates.
Now, read the following guidelines which could help you to develop suitable
tasks based on PiagetÊs theory. What would your classroom look like if you apply
PiagetÊs theories in your teaching and learning?
3.2.3 Applications of Piaget’s Theory in Teaching
Children at Various Stages of Development
Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures or schemes.
Children learn by observing and try to understand their experiences by
comparing their experiences to their existing schemes in their mind. When
children encounter a new experience in their environment, they will try to
explain their experience based on their cognitive structures or schemes. If their
new experience is similar to their schemes, they will add the new information
into their previously existing schemes. This process is called assimilation.
However, if the new experience is different from their existing schemes
(according to their perception), they would alter their existing schemes or new
schemes may also be developed during this process. When the existing scheme is
modified or altered, then learning has also taken place. The process whereby
children has to modify the new experiences before incoprorating it into their
scheme is called accomodation. This procceses is summarised in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Reaching equilibrium through assimilation and accommodation processes
Source: http://eprints.oum/edu.my/411/1/enriching_nantha.pdf
In short, you as the teacher should present the new knowledge as close as
possible to the childrenÊs prior knowledge. As a result, the children could
assimilate rather than take time to accomodate the new experiences or
information in order for learning to take place.
Bearing in mind on the principles mentioned earlier, you could use the following
guidelines or tips so that your childrenÊs schemes will develop through time. Let
us start with the pre-operational stage, concrete operational stage and finally,
formal operational stage.

Pre-operational Stage (Age 2 - 7 years)
1. Provide natural objects such as leaves, stones, twigs and real animals for
the children to manipulate. This is important at this stage as children
learn through their senses.
2. Provide opportunities for the children to begin grouping things into
classes, such as, living/non-living and animal/plant. When doing this,
they are studying the attributes of the objects and noting the similar and
different attributes at the same time.
3. Provide experience that gives children an opportunity to lessen some of
their geocentricism. For example, have them listen to other childrenÊs
stories about what was observed on a trip to the zoo.
4. Use concrete props and visual aids whenever possible as the aids help
the children to 'seeÊ what you try to explain.
5. Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words. For
example, add one spoonful of salt to the beaker of water. Then stir.
6. Be sensitive to the possibility that children may have different meanings
for the same word or different words for the same meaning. Children
may also expect everyone to understand words they have invented.
7. Plan a lot of hands-on activities so that they have enough practice with
the skills that will serve as building blocks for more complex skills. For
example, make sure you give them plenty of practice in observing as
observation is the most basic science process skill but this is the
foundation for all subsequent skills.
8. Provide a wide range of experiences in order to build a foundation for
concept learning and language. This is important as different children
have different learning styles.

Concrete Operational Stage
1. Reinforce and continue using concrete and hands-on materials. Prepare a
lot of concrete teaching aids to help the children to understand the
concept. For example, give children the opportunities to observe real
animals when you want to explain about physical characteristics of
animals. Bring fish, butterfly or bird to the class so that the students could
use their senses to observe the physical characteristics of these animals.
You should not be satisfied by just bringing in animal pictures and ask
students to study the pictures and learn about the physical characteristics
of animals. They can manipulate ideas mentally, but they need props as
the ideas presented to them continue to become more abstract.
2. Organise the materials and concepts presented. Give short and precise
instructions when you want them to do the activities. The experimental
procedures must consist of only a few steps. If the procedures are long,
break them up into a few sections. Be concise and brief when you are
explaining concepts. The attention span of these students is longer than for
pre-operational children, but they often want to focus on something new.
3. Always allow students to relate their prior experiences before
presenting a new topic. For example, if you want to introduce the
concept of food chain, you should use animals familiar to your students,
so that they know the types of food that those animals eat. Then only,
can they build a food chain. When they have understood the concept of
food chain, you can extend or elaborate with other less familiar animals.
4. Let the children classify or group things. Use graphic organisers like
matrices, charts, diagrams and table to make it easier. This would
improve and develop their logical ability. You could also use crossword
puzzles and word mazes. Give more divergent questions rather than
convergent questions because the former give children more opportunity
to think and stimulate imagination. Give them opportunities to classify
objects and ideas into increasingly complex groupings. Without doing
this, they would never become formal operational.
5. Offer children many experiences to use their acquired abilities with
respect to the observation, classification and arrangement of objects
according to some property. Any science activities that include
observation, collection and sorting of objects should be able to be done
with some ease. You should use activities involving living things and
non-living things that are familiar and concrete to them. You should be
able to successfully introduce many physical science activities that
include more abstract concepts such as space, time and number.

6. Use familiar objects and ideas to explain more complex concepts. They
need practice at logical thinking as well as motivation towards starting
really abstract thinking.
7. Present problems that require logical thinking of a relatively non-abstract
level. They need practice dealing with abstractions. What they
cannot do is abstractions on abstractions.
Formal Operational Stage (Age 11 through Adulthood)
1. Even if at this stage the students can visualise abstract concepts, you
could still continue to use strategies that are effective with concrete
operational thinkers. Why? Reason for this is because at this stage
concrete thinking is still easier. Let say, you ask someone to describe to
you how to go from your school to the shopping mall. Would you be
able to visualise the route or would you get a map so that you could
reach the mall easily without getting lost?
2. Build abstractions upon solidly understood concrete concepts.
Abstractions are essential for complex ideas, but the concrete ideas
would help in the early stage of transition from concrete to formal
operational stage.
3. Give them opportunities to explore hypothetical questions. Students at
this stage could formulate their own hypothesis on problems that they
encounter and plan investigations to test their hypothesis. If you do not
give them opportunities and encouragement, the students would not be
able to progress beyond concrete operational stage to formal operational
stage. In other words, you should give them the opportunities to
experiment on their own rather than conducting experiments that you
have planned.
4. Give them opportunities to solve problems that seem impossible to
solve. Students take pride and build self-confidence when they are able
to solve problems that they could not solve when they were less mature.
5. Integrate concrete concepts with broad concepts and encourage them to
apply concepts in numerous settings. This could be done by
encouraging them to generalise the conclusions from their experiments
by linking the concepts in real life setting. In this way, the learning is
meaningful and more importantly, they will apply their learning in their
lives, as that is the purpose of learning science.

6. Respect and encourage lateral thinking that involves insightful
hypothetical reasoning. Even when they are incorrect, their attempt at
hypothetical thinking may be a productive step in the right direction.
7. Model effective formal operational thinking to them. You are probably
capable of formal operational thinking yourself and children can use
you as a productive model while developing their own skills.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Imagine that you want to introduce the concept of transparent,
translucent and opaque materials to your students. What are some
example of objects that you will use?
ACTIVITY 3.3
1. Select a topic from Year 1, Year 3 and Year 6 from a primary
science curriculum specification and discuss two learning-teaching
activities that suit PiagetianÊs learning theory.
2. Compare the activities for the different steps of human
development. How are they different? Give reasons based on
PiagetÊs theory. Share your answer with your classmates.
BRUNER’S THEORIES
3.3
We teach a subject not to produce little living libraries on that subject, but
rather to get a student to think . . . for himself, to consider matters as an
historian does, to take part in the process of knowledge-getting. Knowing is
a process, not a product.
(Bruner, 1966)
Jerome Bruner is another influential psychologist who introduced many theories
that could be applied in the science classroom. In this subtopic, we are going to
discuss some of his theories and how to apply them in the science classroom.

Bruner introduced many ideas in explaining the process of learning. His work
includes the significance of categorisation in learning, the ideas of readiness for
learning, motivation for learning, intuitive and analytical thinking, inductive
thinking, discovery learning and spiral curriculum. We are not going to discuss
all of his ideas. Instead, we are only going to discuss his theory on discovery
learning, inductive thinking and the three stages of cognitive growth.
3.3.1 Discovery Learning
The notion of discovery learning had been discussed by Rousseau, Pestalozzi and
Dewey. Nevertheless, modern discovery learning environments were initiated by
Jerome Bruner (Mukerji, 2002). He believes that for learning to be meaningful,
students must actively be engaged in identifying principles and rules for
themselves, rather than relying on the teacher's explanations. Therefore, learning
environments must provide situations, in which students are called upon to
question, explore or experiment. In typical discovery learning environments,
information and examples are presented to students and the students work with
the information and examples until they discover the interrelationships.
As a result, students may be more likely to remember concepts and knowledge
discovered on their own. Models that are based upon discovery learning
includes:
(a) Guided Discovery
The student receives problems to solve, but the teacher provides hints and
directions about how to solve the problem to keep the student on track.
Guided discovery may require more or less time depending on the task, but
tends to result in better long term retention and transfer as the students are
involve actively while learning takes place. Unlike true discovery, the
instructor directs what problems the learners will learn and sets the pace
that they will learn at. The students do, however, have to figure out how to
solve the problems that they are given. Generally, the students first
discover specific topics and then move to more general ones.
(b) Problem-based Learning
Problem-based learning (PBL) is an approach that challenges students to
learn through engagement in a real problem. It challenges students to seek
solutions to real-world (open-ended) problems by themselves or in groups,
rather than learn primarily through lectures or textbooks. You are going to
learn this approach in detail later.

(c) Simulation-based Learning
Simulation is a technique to replace and amplify real experiences that
mirror substantial aspects of the real world in a fully interactive fashion.
Simulation makes imitated situations available to the learner to practice and
refine necessary skills, rather than having them jump right into the real
experience. It also provides an immersive learning experience, where skills,
process, and knowledge can all be enhanced in a way reality cannot.
(d) Case-based Learning
Using a case-based approach engages students in discussion of specific
situations, typically real-world examples. This method is learner-centered,
and involves intense interaction between the participants. Case-based
learning focuses on the building of knowledge and the group works
together to examine the case. The instructor's role is that of a facilitator and
the students collaboratively address problems from a perspective that
requires analysis. Much of case-based learning involves learners striving to
resolve questions that have no single right answer.
(e) Incidental Learning
Incidental learning describes the process in which a child's knowledge is
gained from interactions with the environment. This learning process lacks
a formal structure or objectives, and is guided by real-world experiences.
Through incidental learning, children learn fundamental skills that they
will use throughout life.
Discovery learning is a learning method that encourages students to ask
questions and formulate their own tentative answers, and to deduce general
principles from practical examples or experiences (Thorsett, 2002). It is a learning
situation in which the principal content of what is to be learned is not given but
must be independently discovered by the student. In other words, discovery
learning can be defined simply as a learning situation in which the principal
content of what is to be learned is not given, but must be independently
discovered by the learner, making the student an active participant in his
learning.
Ormrod (2000) defines discovery learning as an approach to instruction through
which children interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating
objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments.
There are certain principles that you need to follow if you want to use discovery
learning in your class and make it work. Among others, the instructions:
(a) Must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student
willing and able to learn (readiness).

(b) Must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral
organisation).
(c) Should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and/or fill in the gaps (going
beyond the information given).
If the principles are not adhered to, it would only:
(a) Cause confusion to the student if no initial framework is available.
(b) Lead to inefficiency and be time consuming.
(c) Result in student frustration.
(d) Make you fail to detect problems and misconceptions.
ACTIVITY 3.4
In a group, discuss the meaning of:
(a) Guided discovery;
(b) Problem-based learning;
(c) Simulation-based learning;
(d) Case-based learning; and
(e) Incidental learning.
3.3.2 Inductive Thinking
Bruner believes classroom learning should take place through inductive
reasoning. This reasoning is done by forming generalisations based on the
specific examples given. This is an important cognitive strategy in discovery
learning environments. It encourages students to actively use their intuition,
imagination and creativity. It also relies more on providing students with a range
of experiences, which gradually increase their familiarity with new concepts
before attempting to draw them together into a coherent understanding of the
new concept. If you are going to teach concepts inductively means you do not
define or explain the concept in the beginning of the lesson. You should provide
various activities so that the students will use their reasoning to gradually
understand the concept that you want the students to form. This can be seen in
Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5: Inductive approach to instruction
For example, if the students are presented with enough examples of triangles and
non-triangles (as shown in Figure 3.6), they will eventually find out what the
basic properties of a triangle must be.
Figure 3.6: Forming a concept a triangle
Source: http://academics.rmu.edu/~tomei/ed711psy/c_bruner.htm

Do you realise that discovery learning encompasses the scientific model?
Children identify problems, generate hypotheses, test each hypothesis against
collected data and apply conclusions to new situations. Due to this reason,
discovery learning should be used in the teaching and learning of science as it fits
to the nature of science itself. We have already discussed about scientific method
and the nature of science in Topic 1 of this module.
ACTIVITY 3.5
Discuss the concept of discovery learning by using a mind map.
3.3.3 Stages of Cognitive Growth
In the previous subtopic, we have identified the stages of cognitive development
suggested by Piaget. According to him, we progress from sensorimotor to pre-operational,
concrete operational and finally formal operational. Like Piaget,
Bruner believes in stages of instruction based on development. There are three
stages according to BrunerÊs theory as can be seen in Table 3.1 below.
Table 3.1: The Three Stages of Cognitive Growth According to Bruner's Theory
Stage Description
Enactive (birth
to age 3)
In this stage, children learn by observing and manipulating real or
concrete objects. For example, if you want to teach about flowers,
you must let children observe real flowers so that they can see, touch
and smell the flowers. Knowledge is acquired through senses. This is
also true if you want to teach a new skill. Let say you want to teach
students on how to use a thermometer. Get a thermometer and let
them touch and observe the apparatus.
Iconic (age 3 to
8)
In this stage, knowledge is represented by using models and
pictures. So, if you want to teach them about flowers, you can use
pictures of flowers for the children to list the components of a flower
and classifying flowers based on their characteristics. If you want to
teach about how the lungs work, you could use a model to explain
how the size of lung changes when we breathe in and out. In short,
you do not need to show them the real object as cognitively they are
ready to understand the concepts with the help of pictures or
models.

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