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RESPIRATION
Respiration
Gas exchange- also called respiration
 Uptake of molecular oxygen from the environment and the
discharge of CO2
 Respiration is not only exclusive to this concept; presence of
cellular respiration
 Aerobic respiration
 Anaerobic respiration
Cellular respiration
Chemical breakdown of food to yield ATP
Is a catabolic process
Aerobic Respiration- presence of a complete redox
process due to the presence of O2
 More ATP yield
Anaerobic Respiration- absence of O2
 Less ATP is produced
Glycolysis
Glycolysis- process of breaking down sugar to yield
ATP
Both an aerobic and anaerobic process
Anaerobic- less ATP is produced
 Used by bacteria in producing energy; less efficient
Aerobic-more ATP is produced of more products
that can be broken down through oxidative
phosphorylation
Aerobic Respiration
Present in mitochondria
Anaerobic Respiration
Fermentation- a process that does not use oxygen to
yield products
Two types
 Lactic Acid Fermentation
 Yeast Fermentation
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Present in muscles
 Too much lactic acid can cause cramps
Yeast Fermentation
Also called alcohol fermentation
Ethanol is a by-product of yeast fermentation
Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Gas Exchange in Plants (Photosynthesis)
CO2 is taken in while O2 is released
Factors such as temperature, wind, humidity affect
gas exchange in plants
Different plants employ different strategies in
acquiring CO2 from the environment
Presence of C3, C4 and CAM plants
C3, C4 and CAM
Different group of plants have different strategies in
acquiring CO2for photosynthesis
All pathways start from a single CO2 from the
environment
C3 pathway
The most basic among the three
A basic 6-C compound is broken down into two 3-C
compound
3-C is more stable than the 6-C compound
C4 pathway
C4 plants produce an intermediate 4-C compound
before converting it to the 3-C
Special structure is present in producing the 4-C
compound
 Bundle sheath
Employs spatial adaptation
CAM pathway
Crassulacean acid metabolic pathway
Common in plants under the family Crassulaceae
Difference to the C4 pathway is the used of temporal
adaptation
CO2 is taken at night when the temperature is low
and the stomata are open
Respirationfinal
Animal Respiration
Respiration or gas exchange is necessary to support
ATP production
May involve both respiratory system and circulatory
system
Respirationfinal
Animal Respiration
Respiratory medium- oxygen source
 Air for terrestrial animals
 Water for aquatic animals
 Oxygen in water is less concentrated compared to air
 Oxygen exists in a dissolved form
 Many factors affect oxygen concentration in water such as
temperature
Respiratory Surface
Respiratory Surface- part of an animal where gas
exchange occurs
Gas exchange occurs entirely through diffusion
Diffusion rate- directly proportional to the SA where
it occurs
 Inversely proportional to the square to which molecules must
move
Respiratory Surface
Therefore, respiratory surface have thin walls and
have a large SA
Also, water is needed by all living cells to maintain
its plasma membrane
Thus, respiratory surfaces are moist, dissolving first
CO2 and O2 in water
Respiratory Surface
Respiratory surface structure:
 Depends on the size of the organism
 Depends on the organism’s habitat
 Depends on its metabolic demands
 Endotherm has a larger SA of respiratory surface than a similar-
sized ectotherm
Protists and Some Simple Animals
Gas exchange occurs at the entire length of
unicellular organisms
Same for simple animals such as poriferans,
cnidarians and flatworms
Cell in their body is close enough to the respiratory
medium
More Complex Animals
Respiratory Surface- does not have direct access to
the respiratory medium
Respiratory surface- thin, moist epithelium
 Separates the respiratory medium from blood and capillaries
Cutaneous Respiration
Animals such as earthworms and amphibians use the
entire length of their body to respire
Skin is the respiratory organ
Should always be moist, near bodies of water and/or
damp
Why?
Cutaneous Respiration
Animals that respire through the skin are usually
small, long and thin, or flat
High SA to V ratio
The Most Common Respiratory Organs
If an animal lacks sufficient body SA for exchange of
gases the solution is an extensively folded respiratory
organ
Most common are tracheal system, gills and lungs
Gills: Respiratory adaptations of aquatic animals
Gills- outfolding of the body suspended in water
Can be internal or external
Shape varies
 Sea stars- gills have simple shape and distributed all over the
body
 Annelids- flaplike gills that extended from each segment or
long feathery gills found on the head or tail
 Clams, fish- gills are found in one local region
Gills
Total surface area is often larger than that of the
body
Water as a respiratory medium
Advantage
 Cell membranes of respiratory surface are always moist
Disadvantage
 Less concentration of O2
 High temp, high salinity= low O2 conc
Ventilation
Process of increasing contact between the
respiratory medium and respiratory surface
Solution to the low O2 conc in water
Without ventilation a region of high O2 conc and
high CO2 conc can occur
Ventilation
Crayfish and lobster- use paddlelike appendages in
driving water over the gills
Fish- gills are ventilated through the passage of
water through the mouth and to the gills
 May require large amount of energy
Fish Ventilation
High volume of water is needed to ventilate the gills
thereby increasing the energy used
Arrangement of gill capillaries decrease energy use
Blood moves opposite the direction of the water
The process is called countercurrent exchange
Countercurrent exchange
There exists a diffusion gradient that favors the
movement of O2 from water to blood in the
capillaries
Very efficient: can remove up to 80% of O2 dissolved
in water
Is also important in temperature regulation and
other physiological processes
Countercurrent exchange
Countercurrent exchange
Equilibrium is reached,
Diffusion stops
Equilibrium is not reached,
Diffusion constantly occuring
Terrestrial Respiratory Structures: Tracheal
Systems and Lungs
Air as a respiratory medium
 High concentration of O2
 Diffusion of O2 and CO2 is faster, ventilation is not much
needed
 Partial pressure of gases dictates the rapid transfer of the two
gases involve
Air as a respiratory medium
 When ventilation is needed, less energy is needed to pump air
 Air is much lighter than water
 Less volume of air is needed to obtain equal amount of O2 from
H2O
 Disadvantage: Respiratory epithelium should always be moist
 Solution: highly folded respiratory structure
Tracheal Systems
Tracheal Systems
Made up of air tubes that branch throughout the
body; not folded
Largest tubes: called tracheae; open to the outside
Spiracles- outside opening
Tracheoles: finer branch of tracheae, directly
connected to cell surface
Tracheal System
Gas exchange is through diffusion across the moist
epithelium at the terminal ends of the system
Circulatory system is not involved
Diffusion is enough to support cellular respiration
Larger insects with higher energy demands ventilate
through rhythmic body movements
Tracheal System
Flying insect has high metabolic demand
Wings act as bellows in pumping air through the
tracheal system
Flight muscle cells are packed with mitochondria,
tracheal tubes supply ample amount of O2
Lungs
Confined to one location
Gap between respiratory medium and transport
tissue is bridged by the circulatory system
Have dense net of capillaries under the epithelium
that forms the respiratory surface
Evolved in spiders, terrestrial snails, vertebrates
Lungs
Bronchiole
Lungs
Amphibians small lungs, rely mainly through skin
Reptiles, birds, mammals rely mainly on their lungs
Turtles: exception: supplement lung breathing
through epithelial surface through the mouth and
anus
Some fish have lungs: lungfishes
Size and complexity of lungs: correlated to an
animal’s metabolic rate
African Lungfish
Mammalian Respiration
Mammalian Lung Structure: spongy, honeycombed
with moist epithelium
Branching ducts convey air to lungs
Air enters through the nostrils
Filtered by hairs and cilia
Air is warmed, humidified and sampled for odors
Mammalian Respiration
Air moves from the nasal passage to the pharynx and
then to the larynx
The act of swallowing moves the larynx upward
tipping the epiglottis over the glottis
Glottis- opening of the windpipe
Larynx- adapted as voicebox
Syrinx- vocal organ of birds
 Found at the base of the trachea
 Produce sound without the vocal chords found in mammals
Mammalian Respiration
Sound: produced when voluntary muscles stretch
and vibrate during the process
High-pitched sound: tight, rapid vibration
Low-pitched sound: less tense, slow vibration
Mammalian Respiration
From the trachea: forks into two bronchi
Shaped like an inverted tree
Finer branches are called bronchioles
Epithelial lining is covered with mucus and beating
cilia
Mucus traps contaminant, while, the cilia moves this
to the pharynx where it can be swallowed
Mammalian Respiration
Bronchioles: dead-end into cluster of air sac called
alveolus
Gas exchange occurs through the thin epithelium of
alveoli
SA: 100 M2
in humans
Ventilating the Lungs
Terrestrial organisms also rely on ventilation
 Maintains high O2 and low CO2 at the gas exchange surface
Process of ventilating the lungs is called breathing
 Breathing- alternate process of inhalation and exhalation
Two types
 Positive pressure breathing
 Negative pressure breathing
Positive pressure breathing
Frogs ventilate their lungs through positive pressure
breathing
In a breathing cycle:
 Muscles lower the oral cavity floor (becomes enlarge and draws
air through the nostrils)
 Closing of the mouth and nostril (oral cavity floor rises and
forces air into the trachea)
 Air is force out/exhaled (elastic recoil of lungs and muscular
contraction of chest)
Negative Pressure Breathing
Works like a suction pump (air is pulled rather than
pushed)
Negative pressure is produced due to action of chest
muscle
 Relaxation of chest muscle pushes air; contraction pulls air in
Expansion of lungs is possible due to its double-
walled sac
 Inner sac adheres to the lungs
 Outer sac adheres to the chest cavity walls
 Space in between is filled with fluid
Surface Tension
Surface tension- responsible for the behavior of the
lungs
The lungs slide past each other but cannot be pulled
separately
The surface tension couples the movement of the
lungs to the movement of the rib cage
Breathing
Inhalation- Contraction of muscles (rib muscles and
diaphragm)
 Increases volume of chest cavity
 Decreases alveolar air pressure
 Rib cage expands (ribs pulled upward; breastbone pushed
forward)
Gas moves from an area of higher partial pressure to
low partial pressure
Air moves from the URT to alveoli of LRT
Breathing
Exhalation- relaxation of muscles
 Rib muscles and diaphragm relax
 Lung volume is reduced
 Inc in alveolar air pressure
Shallow breathing- rib muscle and diaphragm are
responsible
Deep breathing- muscles of the back, neck and chest
are responsible
Some animals employ visceral pump- adds to the
piston like action of the diaphragm
Breathing
Tidal volume- volume of air inhaled and exhaled in
each breath
 Ave human tidal volume is 500 ml
Vital capacity- max tidal volume during forced
breathing
 3.4 L female; 4.8 L male
Residual volume- air left in the lungs during
exhalation
 Lungs hold more air than the vital capacity
Breathing
Age or disease decrease the elasticity of the lungs
 Residual volume increases at the expense of vital capacity
 Max O2 conc in the alveoli decreases
 Gas exchange efficiency is decreased
Ventilation in birds
More complex than mammals
Presence of air sacs
Do not function directly in gas exchange; acts as
bellows
Lungs and air sacs- ventilated during breathing
Presence of parabronchi rather than alveoli
 Air moves in one direction
 Air is completely exchanged
 Max O2 conc is higher in birds than in mammals
Regulation of Breathing
Breathing – controlled by the medulla oblonagata
and the pons
This ensures that respiration is coordinated with
circulation
Medulla oblongata- major control center of
breathing
Control center in the pons works synergistic with the
control center of the medulla oblongata
Regulation of Breathing
Negative feedback- helps maintain breathing
Stretch sensors- found in the lungs send impulses to
the medulla (inhibits the breathing control center)
Medulla- monitors CO2 level of the blood
 CO2 conc is detected through slight change in blood and tissue
fluid pH
 Carbonic acid lowers pH
 Drop in pH increases rate of rate and depth of breathing
Oxygen Concentration
Oxygen Concentration- have little effect to breathing
control center
Severe depression of O2 conc stimulates O2 sensors
in the aorta and carotid arteries to send alarm
signals
Breathing rate is increased by the control centers
Increase in CO2 conc is a good indicator of decrease
in O2 conc
Hyperventilation
Excessive deep, rapid breathing inc CO2 conc in the
blood
Breathing centers temporarily stops working
Impulses to the rib muscles and diaphragm are
inhibited
Breathing resumes when CO2 conc inc
Different Factors Affect Breathing
Nervous and chemical signals affects rate and depth
of breathing
Most efficient if it works in tandem with the
circulatory system
E.g. Exercise: inc cardiac output-inc breathing rate
 Enhances O2 uptake and CO2 removal
Respiratory pigments: transports gases and
buffers the blood
Low solubility of O2- problem if O2 is transported
via the circulatory system
 E.g. Normal human consume 2L of O2 per minute
 Only 4.5 ml of O2 can dissolve into a L of blood in the lungs
 If 80% dissolved O2 would be delivered, 500 L of blood should
be pumped per minute (a ton per 2 mins)
 Unrealistic!!!!
 Special respiratory pigments are used
Respiratory Pigments
Transports O2 instead of dissolving into a solution
Inc O2 that can be carried in the blood (~200 mL O2
per L in mammalian blood)
Decreases cardiac output (20-25 L per min)
Respiratory Pigments
Binds O2 reversibly
 Loads O2 from respiratory organ; unloads in other parts of the
body
Hemocyanin- found in hemolymph of arthropods
and many mollusks
Copper- acts as the oxygen-binding component
Hemoglobin- respiratory pigment of all vertebrates
Hemoglobin
Consists of four heme subunits
Iron acts as the binding site of O2
Loading and unloading of O2 depends on the
property of each subunits called cooperativity
Affinity is dependent to the conformation of each
subunit
 Binding of one O2 molecule to one subunit induces the inc in
affinity of other subunits
 Unloading of one O2 molecule decreases the affinity of other
subunits
Dissociation Curves of Gases
Cooperativity of heme subunits is shown in a
dissociation curve
Steep slope- slight change in Po2causes substantial
loading or unloading of O2
Because of cooperativity, slight drop in Po2causes a
relatively large inc in O2 to be unloaded
Respirationfinal
The Bohr Shift
A shift to the right of the oxygen hemoglobin
dissociation curve
Brought about by increase CO2 or low blood pH
Decrease in affinity of hemoglobin to O2
Greater efficiency of O2 unloading
Carbon Dioxide transport
Hemoglobin- also transports CO2 not only O2
 Assists in buffering the blood
Blood released by respiring cells:
 7%- transported in the solution of blood plasma
 23% - bind to amino group of hemoglobin
 70% - transported in the blood in the form of carbonic acid
Carbon Dioxide Transport
CO2- converted in the red blood cells into
bicarbonate
 Reacts first with water to form carbonic acid (carbonic
anhydrase)
 Dissociates into H+
and bicarbonate
 H ions- attach to different sites in the Hb and other proteins
 Bicarbonate ions- diffuse into the plasma
 Movement of blood through the lungs reverses the process
favoring the conversion of bicarbonate to CO2
Deep-diving air breathers
Stockpile oxygen- O2 is reserved in the blood and
muscles (e.g. Weddell seal)
High percentage of myoglobin
Dec heart rate and O2 consumption
20-min dive- O2 in myoglobin is used up
 Energy is erived from fermentation rather than respiration

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Respirationfinal

  • 2. Respiration Gas exchange- also called respiration  Uptake of molecular oxygen from the environment and the discharge of CO2  Respiration is not only exclusive to this concept; presence of cellular respiration  Aerobic respiration  Anaerobic respiration
  • 3. Cellular respiration Chemical breakdown of food to yield ATP Is a catabolic process Aerobic Respiration- presence of a complete redox process due to the presence of O2  More ATP yield Anaerobic Respiration- absence of O2  Less ATP is produced
  • 4. Glycolysis Glycolysis- process of breaking down sugar to yield ATP Both an aerobic and anaerobic process Anaerobic- less ATP is produced  Used by bacteria in producing energy; less efficient Aerobic-more ATP is produced of more products that can be broken down through oxidative phosphorylation
  • 6. Anaerobic Respiration Fermentation- a process that does not use oxygen to yield products Two types  Lactic Acid Fermentation  Yeast Fermentation
  • 7. Lactic Acid Fermentation Present in muscles  Too much lactic acid can cause cramps
  • 8. Yeast Fermentation Also called alcohol fermentation Ethanol is a by-product of yeast fermentation Saccharomyces cerevisiae
  • 9. Gas Exchange in Plants (Photosynthesis) CO2 is taken in while O2 is released Factors such as temperature, wind, humidity affect gas exchange in plants Different plants employ different strategies in acquiring CO2 from the environment Presence of C3, C4 and CAM plants
  • 10. C3, C4 and CAM Different group of plants have different strategies in acquiring CO2for photosynthesis All pathways start from a single CO2 from the environment
  • 11. C3 pathway The most basic among the three A basic 6-C compound is broken down into two 3-C compound 3-C is more stable than the 6-C compound
  • 12. C4 pathway C4 plants produce an intermediate 4-C compound before converting it to the 3-C Special structure is present in producing the 4-C compound  Bundle sheath Employs spatial adaptation
  • 13. CAM pathway Crassulacean acid metabolic pathway Common in plants under the family Crassulaceae Difference to the C4 pathway is the used of temporal adaptation CO2 is taken at night when the temperature is low and the stomata are open
  • 15. Animal Respiration Respiration or gas exchange is necessary to support ATP production May involve both respiratory system and circulatory system
  • 17. Animal Respiration Respiratory medium- oxygen source  Air for terrestrial animals  Water for aquatic animals  Oxygen in water is less concentrated compared to air  Oxygen exists in a dissolved form  Many factors affect oxygen concentration in water such as temperature
  • 18. Respiratory Surface Respiratory Surface- part of an animal where gas exchange occurs Gas exchange occurs entirely through diffusion Diffusion rate- directly proportional to the SA where it occurs  Inversely proportional to the square to which molecules must move
  • 19. Respiratory Surface Therefore, respiratory surface have thin walls and have a large SA Also, water is needed by all living cells to maintain its plasma membrane Thus, respiratory surfaces are moist, dissolving first CO2 and O2 in water
  • 20. Respiratory Surface Respiratory surface structure:  Depends on the size of the organism  Depends on the organism’s habitat  Depends on its metabolic demands  Endotherm has a larger SA of respiratory surface than a similar- sized ectotherm
  • 21. Protists and Some Simple Animals Gas exchange occurs at the entire length of unicellular organisms Same for simple animals such as poriferans, cnidarians and flatworms Cell in their body is close enough to the respiratory medium
  • 22. More Complex Animals Respiratory Surface- does not have direct access to the respiratory medium Respiratory surface- thin, moist epithelium  Separates the respiratory medium from blood and capillaries
  • 23. Cutaneous Respiration Animals such as earthworms and amphibians use the entire length of their body to respire Skin is the respiratory organ Should always be moist, near bodies of water and/or damp Why?
  • 24. Cutaneous Respiration Animals that respire through the skin are usually small, long and thin, or flat High SA to V ratio
  • 25. The Most Common Respiratory Organs If an animal lacks sufficient body SA for exchange of gases the solution is an extensively folded respiratory organ Most common are tracheal system, gills and lungs
  • 26. Gills: Respiratory adaptations of aquatic animals Gills- outfolding of the body suspended in water Can be internal or external Shape varies  Sea stars- gills have simple shape and distributed all over the body  Annelids- flaplike gills that extended from each segment or long feathery gills found on the head or tail  Clams, fish- gills are found in one local region
  • 27. Gills Total surface area is often larger than that of the body
  • 28. Water as a respiratory medium Advantage  Cell membranes of respiratory surface are always moist Disadvantage  Less concentration of O2  High temp, high salinity= low O2 conc
  • 29. Ventilation Process of increasing contact between the respiratory medium and respiratory surface Solution to the low O2 conc in water Without ventilation a region of high O2 conc and high CO2 conc can occur
  • 30. Ventilation Crayfish and lobster- use paddlelike appendages in driving water over the gills Fish- gills are ventilated through the passage of water through the mouth and to the gills  May require large amount of energy
  • 31. Fish Ventilation High volume of water is needed to ventilate the gills thereby increasing the energy used Arrangement of gill capillaries decrease energy use Blood moves opposite the direction of the water The process is called countercurrent exchange
  • 32. Countercurrent exchange There exists a diffusion gradient that favors the movement of O2 from water to blood in the capillaries Very efficient: can remove up to 80% of O2 dissolved in water Is also important in temperature regulation and other physiological processes
  • 34. Countercurrent exchange Equilibrium is reached, Diffusion stops Equilibrium is not reached, Diffusion constantly occuring
  • 35. Terrestrial Respiratory Structures: Tracheal Systems and Lungs Air as a respiratory medium  High concentration of O2  Diffusion of O2 and CO2 is faster, ventilation is not much needed  Partial pressure of gases dictates the rapid transfer of the two gases involve
  • 36. Air as a respiratory medium  When ventilation is needed, less energy is needed to pump air  Air is much lighter than water  Less volume of air is needed to obtain equal amount of O2 from H2O  Disadvantage: Respiratory epithelium should always be moist  Solution: highly folded respiratory structure
  • 38. Tracheal Systems Made up of air tubes that branch throughout the body; not folded Largest tubes: called tracheae; open to the outside Spiracles- outside opening Tracheoles: finer branch of tracheae, directly connected to cell surface
  • 39. Tracheal System Gas exchange is through diffusion across the moist epithelium at the terminal ends of the system Circulatory system is not involved Diffusion is enough to support cellular respiration Larger insects with higher energy demands ventilate through rhythmic body movements
  • 40. Tracheal System Flying insect has high metabolic demand Wings act as bellows in pumping air through the tracheal system Flight muscle cells are packed with mitochondria, tracheal tubes supply ample amount of O2
  • 41. Lungs Confined to one location Gap between respiratory medium and transport tissue is bridged by the circulatory system Have dense net of capillaries under the epithelium that forms the respiratory surface Evolved in spiders, terrestrial snails, vertebrates
  • 42. Lungs
  • 44. Lungs Amphibians small lungs, rely mainly through skin Reptiles, birds, mammals rely mainly on their lungs Turtles: exception: supplement lung breathing through epithelial surface through the mouth and anus Some fish have lungs: lungfishes Size and complexity of lungs: correlated to an animal’s metabolic rate
  • 46. Mammalian Respiration Mammalian Lung Structure: spongy, honeycombed with moist epithelium Branching ducts convey air to lungs Air enters through the nostrils Filtered by hairs and cilia Air is warmed, humidified and sampled for odors
  • 47. Mammalian Respiration Air moves from the nasal passage to the pharynx and then to the larynx The act of swallowing moves the larynx upward tipping the epiglottis over the glottis Glottis- opening of the windpipe Larynx- adapted as voicebox Syrinx- vocal organ of birds  Found at the base of the trachea  Produce sound without the vocal chords found in mammals
  • 48. Mammalian Respiration Sound: produced when voluntary muscles stretch and vibrate during the process High-pitched sound: tight, rapid vibration Low-pitched sound: less tense, slow vibration
  • 49. Mammalian Respiration From the trachea: forks into two bronchi Shaped like an inverted tree Finer branches are called bronchioles Epithelial lining is covered with mucus and beating cilia Mucus traps contaminant, while, the cilia moves this to the pharynx where it can be swallowed
  • 50. Mammalian Respiration Bronchioles: dead-end into cluster of air sac called alveolus Gas exchange occurs through the thin epithelium of alveoli SA: 100 M2 in humans
  • 51. Ventilating the Lungs Terrestrial organisms also rely on ventilation  Maintains high O2 and low CO2 at the gas exchange surface Process of ventilating the lungs is called breathing  Breathing- alternate process of inhalation and exhalation Two types  Positive pressure breathing  Negative pressure breathing
  • 52. Positive pressure breathing Frogs ventilate their lungs through positive pressure breathing In a breathing cycle:  Muscles lower the oral cavity floor (becomes enlarge and draws air through the nostrils)  Closing of the mouth and nostril (oral cavity floor rises and forces air into the trachea)  Air is force out/exhaled (elastic recoil of lungs and muscular contraction of chest)
  • 53. Negative Pressure Breathing Works like a suction pump (air is pulled rather than pushed) Negative pressure is produced due to action of chest muscle  Relaxation of chest muscle pushes air; contraction pulls air in Expansion of lungs is possible due to its double- walled sac  Inner sac adheres to the lungs  Outer sac adheres to the chest cavity walls  Space in between is filled with fluid
  • 54. Surface Tension Surface tension- responsible for the behavior of the lungs The lungs slide past each other but cannot be pulled separately The surface tension couples the movement of the lungs to the movement of the rib cage
  • 55. Breathing Inhalation- Contraction of muscles (rib muscles and diaphragm)  Increases volume of chest cavity  Decreases alveolar air pressure  Rib cage expands (ribs pulled upward; breastbone pushed forward) Gas moves from an area of higher partial pressure to low partial pressure Air moves from the URT to alveoli of LRT
  • 56. Breathing Exhalation- relaxation of muscles  Rib muscles and diaphragm relax  Lung volume is reduced  Inc in alveolar air pressure Shallow breathing- rib muscle and diaphragm are responsible Deep breathing- muscles of the back, neck and chest are responsible Some animals employ visceral pump- adds to the piston like action of the diaphragm
  • 57. Breathing Tidal volume- volume of air inhaled and exhaled in each breath  Ave human tidal volume is 500 ml Vital capacity- max tidal volume during forced breathing  3.4 L female; 4.8 L male Residual volume- air left in the lungs during exhalation  Lungs hold more air than the vital capacity
  • 58. Breathing Age or disease decrease the elasticity of the lungs  Residual volume increases at the expense of vital capacity  Max O2 conc in the alveoli decreases  Gas exchange efficiency is decreased
  • 59. Ventilation in birds More complex than mammals Presence of air sacs Do not function directly in gas exchange; acts as bellows Lungs and air sacs- ventilated during breathing Presence of parabronchi rather than alveoli  Air moves in one direction  Air is completely exchanged  Max O2 conc is higher in birds than in mammals
  • 60. Regulation of Breathing Breathing – controlled by the medulla oblonagata and the pons This ensures that respiration is coordinated with circulation Medulla oblongata- major control center of breathing Control center in the pons works synergistic with the control center of the medulla oblongata
  • 61. Regulation of Breathing Negative feedback- helps maintain breathing Stretch sensors- found in the lungs send impulses to the medulla (inhibits the breathing control center) Medulla- monitors CO2 level of the blood  CO2 conc is detected through slight change in blood and tissue fluid pH  Carbonic acid lowers pH  Drop in pH increases rate of rate and depth of breathing
  • 62. Oxygen Concentration Oxygen Concentration- have little effect to breathing control center Severe depression of O2 conc stimulates O2 sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries to send alarm signals Breathing rate is increased by the control centers Increase in CO2 conc is a good indicator of decrease in O2 conc
  • 63. Hyperventilation Excessive deep, rapid breathing inc CO2 conc in the blood Breathing centers temporarily stops working Impulses to the rib muscles and diaphragm are inhibited Breathing resumes when CO2 conc inc
  • 64. Different Factors Affect Breathing Nervous and chemical signals affects rate and depth of breathing Most efficient if it works in tandem with the circulatory system E.g. Exercise: inc cardiac output-inc breathing rate  Enhances O2 uptake and CO2 removal
  • 65. Respiratory pigments: transports gases and buffers the blood Low solubility of O2- problem if O2 is transported via the circulatory system  E.g. Normal human consume 2L of O2 per minute  Only 4.5 ml of O2 can dissolve into a L of blood in the lungs  If 80% dissolved O2 would be delivered, 500 L of blood should be pumped per minute (a ton per 2 mins)  Unrealistic!!!!  Special respiratory pigments are used
  • 66. Respiratory Pigments Transports O2 instead of dissolving into a solution Inc O2 that can be carried in the blood (~200 mL O2 per L in mammalian blood) Decreases cardiac output (20-25 L per min)
  • 67. Respiratory Pigments Binds O2 reversibly  Loads O2 from respiratory organ; unloads in other parts of the body Hemocyanin- found in hemolymph of arthropods and many mollusks Copper- acts as the oxygen-binding component Hemoglobin- respiratory pigment of all vertebrates
  • 68. Hemoglobin Consists of four heme subunits Iron acts as the binding site of O2 Loading and unloading of O2 depends on the property of each subunits called cooperativity Affinity is dependent to the conformation of each subunit  Binding of one O2 molecule to one subunit induces the inc in affinity of other subunits  Unloading of one O2 molecule decreases the affinity of other subunits
  • 69. Dissociation Curves of Gases Cooperativity of heme subunits is shown in a dissociation curve Steep slope- slight change in Po2causes substantial loading or unloading of O2 Because of cooperativity, slight drop in Po2causes a relatively large inc in O2 to be unloaded
  • 71. The Bohr Shift A shift to the right of the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve Brought about by increase CO2 or low blood pH Decrease in affinity of hemoglobin to O2 Greater efficiency of O2 unloading
  • 72. Carbon Dioxide transport Hemoglobin- also transports CO2 not only O2  Assists in buffering the blood Blood released by respiring cells:  7%- transported in the solution of blood plasma  23% - bind to amino group of hemoglobin  70% - transported in the blood in the form of carbonic acid
  • 73. Carbon Dioxide Transport CO2- converted in the red blood cells into bicarbonate  Reacts first with water to form carbonic acid (carbonic anhydrase)  Dissociates into H+ and bicarbonate  H ions- attach to different sites in the Hb and other proteins  Bicarbonate ions- diffuse into the plasma  Movement of blood through the lungs reverses the process favoring the conversion of bicarbonate to CO2
  • 74. Deep-diving air breathers Stockpile oxygen- O2 is reserved in the blood and muscles (e.g. Weddell seal) High percentage of myoglobin Dec heart rate and O2 consumption 20-min dive- O2 in myoglobin is used up  Energy is erived from fermentation rather than respiration