1. What Reading Teachers Should Know about ESL Learners
Author(s): Mary J. Drucker
Source: The Reading Teacher, Vol. 57, No. 1 (Sep., 2003), pp. 22-29
Published by: International Reading Association
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Reading Teacher.
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2. MARY J. DRUCKER
What reading teachers should know
about ESL learners
Good teaching is teaching for all. These speakers of English and continue by offering sug
gestions and strategies that can support students as
strategies will help English-language learners,
they strive to acquire English-language skills. The
but they will help typical learners as well. order of the factors
presented is not hierarchical.
Any one may be more important than the others,
According to figures released by the U.S. on the specific circumstance. I have in
depending
Census Bureau, the foreign-born population cluded a Table give you an idea of when
that will
of the United States was 31.1 million in (before, during, or after a student reads) and for
2000. This figure is 57%more than the 1990 figure whom these activities have proven useful in the
and 11.1% of the total population. of using an ap
represents past. You may see the possibility
Classrooms across the United States have English at a different time in your lesson, or for
proach
Language Learners (ELLs) who are learning to learners at different levels than those that I sug
speak, read, and write in their new language. These gest. Feel free to adapt strategies for your particular
students offer a rich resource of diversity that can situation if your learners differ in age or need, as
enhance classroom At the same time,
dynamics. they surely will.
they present a special challenge to classroom teach Imust add one pedagogical note here. You may
ers and reading specialists alike. Out of nearly 3 to wonder, as you read, if a strategy de
begin
million public school teachers surveyed by the scribed as being helpful for one category (devel
National Center for Education Statistics, 41% report cultural for example) be
oping schema, might
teaching limitedEnglish proficient (LEP) students, equally useful in another, such as helping a student
while only eight or more hours
12.5% have received The answer is a re
gain academic proficiency.
of training (NCELA Newsline Bulletin, 2002). linked to various cat
sounding yes. The strategies
There are some similarities between reading are illustrative, not prescriptive.
egories They
in a first language and reading in a second one.
represent best practices and so are often able to
Accomplished readers in their first language tend
support students' reading development in a number
to use many of the same strategies that successful
of different areas.
native English-language readers do?skimming,
guessing in context, reading for the gist of a text?
when they are reading in a second language. But it
would be a mistake to think that learning to read Conversational versus
in a second language is simply a mapping process academic proficiency
during which the reader uses the same set of strate as a second
the same manner.
An English language (ESL) learn
gies in precisely er may appear able to handle the demands of func
tioning in an English-only classroom because she
or he is competent in a variety of school settings?
Support for students talking with a friend in the corridor, playing ball on
In this article, I list some of the factors that can the playground, or speaking with the teacher one
the reading process for nonnative on one. Itmight seem natural to assume that a child
complicate
? 2003 International Reading Association (pp. 22-29)
22

3. Suggested strategy implementation
English language level When to implement
Young English- Beginning Transitional Advanced Before During After
Strategy language learners readers readers readers reading reading reading
Previewing
Choral reading
Shared reading
Paired reading
Books with tapes
Multicultural literature
Language experience
Interactivewriting
Total physical response
Narrow reading
Read aloud
learning English as a second language becomes contextual cues. You can help by providing con
fully fluent quickly. But researchers have found text for your students before they begin reading text
that, although ELLs can develop peer-appropriate that may prove challenging for them. One helpful
conversational skills in about two years, developing technique is previewing reading sections before
academic proficiency in English can take much students read. Chen and Graves (1998) provided a
here refers to the model for previewing that can easily be used in
longer. Academic proficiency
to use language classrooms with ELLs. It is also an excellent strat
ability not only for reading and
writing but also to acquire information in content egy for native speakers whose reading skills are not
areas. In most cases it takes an English-language yet on a par with their conversation skills.
learner as long as five to seven years to perform as Previewing works well with students in grades 3
well academically as native English-speaking peers through 12.
Start by making a few statements or asking
(Collier & Thomas, 1999; Cummins, 1989). This
some rhetorical questions that hook the students'
lag occurs because the initial gap between native
and ELLs continues to persist. "Native interest. Then, relate the passage students are going
speakers
to read to something that is familiar to them. Next,
English speakers are not sitting around waiting for
provide a brief discussion question that will engage
ESL students to catch up. They are continuing to
the students and, after that, provide an overview of
make 1 year's progress in 1 year's time in their
and in every school
the section they are about to read. Name the selec
English language
development
& Thomas, tion, introduce the characters, and describe the plot
subject" (Collier 1999, p. 1). English
(up to, but not including, the climax). Last, direct
language learners have to gain more language pro the students to read the story and look for particular
ficiency each year than their native-speaking peers information. Chen and Graves (1998) provided the
in order to catch up and close the gap.
following example based on "Gift of the Magi" by
O. Henry: "Now, read the story and find out why
What you can do in the classroom Delia went into this shop, what she did there, and
In conversation, the setting, body language, fa what happened later to the young couple on this
cial expressions, gestures, intonation, and a vari Christmas Eve"
(p. 571).
ety of other cues help English-language learners Providing so much preparation prior to reading
understand meaning. Academic English has fewer is one way to ensure that students are receiving
What reading teachers should know about ESL learners 23

4. comprehensible input (Krashen, 1981). Compre spondences) versus shallow ones
(having mainly
hensible input is spoken or written language that regular sound-letter correspondences) might cause
is delivered at a level the child can understand. At difficulty for some nonnative readers of English
the same time, the level should be enough of a chal (Grabe, 1991; Paulesu et al., 2001; Wade-Woolley,
lenge that the child needs to stretch just a bit above 1999). Paulesu et al. examined the connection be
his or her current abilities. Krashen called this im tween dyslexia and cultural conventions in orthog
portant level "I + 1,"with "I" standing for input. raphy. The researchers found that although dyslexia
McCauley andMcCauley (1992) suggested is a genetic disorder, its occurrence appears un
choral reading as a means of providing compre evenly distributed across languages. For example,
hensible input for ESL students. Choralreading the prevalence of dyslexia in Italy is about half that
involves the recitation of a poem or short text, of the United States. Beginning with the accepted
along with motions and gestures that help the chil assumption that there was a causal link between
dren dramatically act out the meaning. The many deficits and brain abnor
phonological processing
repetitions of reading a selection provide an op researchers looked at the orthography of
mality,
portunity to recycle the language, and the dramat various in relation to their phonetic ma
languages
ic gestures and motions provide contextual clues terial. They concluded that dyslexies in languages
about the poem's meaning. Choral reading is ap such as Italian that have a shallow orthography may
propriate for students in kindergarten through sixth be less affected in their ability to read. The dyslex
grade. For students in kindergarten or first grade, ia, in effect, remains hidden. In deep orthography
choral reading can be enhanced through the use of languages such as English, literacy impairments
rebus symbols. may be aggravated.
What you can do in the classroom
Orthography and phonology Shared reading provides English-language
and reading are closely connected. learners with an opportunity to hear language while
Listening
At its most basic level, reading is the phonological observing its corresponding phonological repre
sentation. McCarrier, and Fountas
decoding of written text, and written text is the rep Pinnell, (2000)
resentation of sounds heard when is defined shared reading as "you and your students
language
spoken. Ehri and Wilce (1985) separated native read[ing] together from a single, enlarged text" (p.
into groups ac 18). Naturally, the writing should be large enough
English-speaking kindergartners
to their ability to read words. Prereaders to be seen from a distance, and the text should be
cording
had not yet learned to read at all; two other groups positioned so that it is in clear view of all of the
had learned to read only a few words or several dif children. Aside from its obvious support for learn
The children were ers of English who need help in word-by-word
ferent words. taught to read
words with two different kinds of spellings: simpli matching, shared reading also helps children learn
fied spellings that corresponded to sounds and vi left-to-right directionality (McCarrier et al.). This
that did not extra dividends for ELLs whose native
sually distinctive words with spellings may give
at all to their sound. Prereaders with orthography differs from English's left-to-right,
correspond
no previous reading experience were able to read top-to-bottom directionality. Shared reading can be
the visual spellings more easily than the phonetic used in the early elementary years, from kinder
spellings. The other children, with some experience garten through third grade. As always, choosing
reading, were more
able to learn the phonetic reading materials with an appropriate reading lev
spellings. In other words, children who had begun el is a criticalfactor. For kindergarten and first
learning how to read had already started moving to grade students, rebus symbols can be used in place
ward an orientation incorporating sound/symbol of some or most of the text.
correspondence. Li and Nes (2001) found that paired reading
Researchers have also noted that differences was also useful in helping ESL students read more
between languages with deep orthographic struc fluently and accurately. They paired ELLs with a
tures (having many irregular sound-letter corre "skilled reader" who read a portion of text aloud
24 The Reading Teacher Vol. 57, No. 1 September 2003

5. while the language learner read along. The lan Consider the following passage offered by Eskey
guage learner then reread the same text aloud. The (2002): "It was the day of the big party. Mary won
researchers found that paired reading was an dered if Johnny would like a kite. She ran to her
effective intervention that improved the students' bedroom, picked up her piggy bank, and shook it.
fluency in reading aloud, as well as their pronun There was no sound" (p. 6). Eskey asked us to con
ciation. Paired reading works well with students sider a series of questions about the reading:
who have developed some independent social skills
when the story took place?past, present, or
and task follow-through. In general, students in
3 through 8 can pair-read future;
grades successfully.
students require more structure. what Mary wondered;
Younger
Studies of learning-disabled students have the meaning of would;
found that children benefit from the simultaneous
the definition of kite;
listening and reading of audiotaped stories (Conte
& Humphreys, the definition of piggy bank;
1989; Janiak, 1983). Rasinski
(1990) found that listening while reading was ef the nature of the party in the text;
fective in improving reading fluency. Casbergue ifMary and Johnny are adults or children;
and Harris (1996) noted that audiobooks "provide a
how the kite is related to the party;
means for engaging youngsters who are not habitu
ated to print" why Mary shook her piggy bank; and
(p. 4).
Although the typical ESL student is not learn what Mary's big problem was.
ing disabled, the sound/symbol correspondence in
these studies is interesting. Consider providing The point that Eskey made with this exercise
ELLs with books and corresponding audiotapes. is that the first five questions posed can be an
Books and tapes work well with any student who swered by directly searching the text, as long as the
can independently read text (grades 2 through 12). reader knows the vocabulary and English struc
For kindergarten and first-grade students, books tures. The second five questions, however, are far
and tapes provide an opportunity to hear the sounds more difficult to answer unless the reader possess
of English as well as learn basic es the schema of a child's
literacy practices birthday party in the
like page turning, tracking left to right, and mak United States. The questions cannot be answered
ing meaningful connections between words and il without this specific cultural information. A native
lustrations. The can be recorded the is easily able to con
tapes by speaker of English, however,
teacher or by other students in the class. Providing struct a correct interpretation of the text.
exposure to books and corresponding tapes gives Other studies have noted the importance of cul
language learners an opportunity to simultaneously tural differences and schema. Carrell (1987) studied
hear the sounds and see the corresponding graphic 52 ESL students: 28 Muslim Arabs and 24 Catholic
representation. The word simultaneous is the key Each student read two different
Hispanics. texts,
here. Students need many opportunities to both one with aMuslim orientation and the other with a
hear the spoken word and see its graphic represen
Catholic orientation. The researcher found that the
tation. Children who have listened to and read a
students better remembered and comprehended
story many times can be encouraged to read aloud
those texts most similar to their native cultures.
along with the tape while listening to the story.
Droop and Verhoeven (1998) studied third
graders becoming literate in Dutch both as a first
and second language. The children read three dif
Cultural differences and schema ferent kinds of texts: texts that referred to Dutch
Schema a texts that referred to the cultures of the im
theory holds that comprehending culture,
text involves an interaction between the reader's migrant children, and neutral texts. It is not sur
background knowledge and the text itself (Carrell prising that the researchers found that the children
& Eisterhold, 1983). In other words, comprehen had better reading comprehension and reading effi
sion requires more than linguistic knowledge. ciency with texts that were culturally familiar.
What reading teachers should know about ESL learners 29

6. What you can do in the classroom Illustrations should realistically depict indi
viduals of different ethnicities.
When possible, choose texts that will match
the cultural schemata and background Stories should be appealing.
knowledge
of your English-language learners. Folk tales that
are translations of stories children may have heard Another way to be certain that students fully
in their native language are especially helpful.
share the context of the material they are reading
Students will be able to relate more easily to books is through the Language
Experience Approach
that depict characters that are similar to them. Two (LEA; Rigg, 1981). Language learners of all ages
concept books for kindergarten and first-grade chil enjoy this approach, but in a classroom containing
a Dragon and Round Is a Mooncake native English LEA is generally more
dren, Red Is speakers
successful with in grades
students 1 through 3.
(Thong, 2000, 2002), have delightful illustrations
of Asian children
and simple language introducing LEA involves having students tell the story of an
colors and shapes. The Ugly Vegetables (Lin, 1999) experience they have had. The teacher acts as
is a picture book suitable for grades 1 through 4. It scribe, writing down the words so that the students
tells the story of a young Chinese can see what they look like. If the students have had
girl who feels
different from her American friends because of the a shared experience, such as a field trip or a visitor
her mother to the classroom, parts of the story come from all of
strange vegetables grows in their gar
den. When the vegetables the students a story has been
in the class. After
ripen, her mother makes
a delicious in the neighborhood completed, the teacher can copy it onto a large
soup that everyone
and the girl learns to value her culture as a sheet of chart paper so that students can practice
enjoys,
result. reading it together. The rationale for using LEA can
Another be summed up in these lines:
picture book good for first through
third grade, The Iguana Brothers (Johnston, 1995), What Ican think about Ican talk about.
tells the tale of two lizard siblings in English, with
What Ican say Ican write.
an occasional word in Spanish. The Spanish vo
What Ican write Ican read.
cabulary can be easily understood through context
Ican readwhat Iwrite
by native English speakers. However, the Spanish
and what other people write forme to read.
language and culturally appropriate illustrations
may provide native Spanish speakers with a cul (R.Van Allen & G. Halvoren, as cited inCantoni-Harvey,
tural context that makes the meanings that much 1992, p. 178)
more accessible.
Multicultural is a positive
literature addition
Interactive writing (McCarrier et al., 2000), in
to the classroom which children share the pen with their teacher,
for all students in all grades, from
also allows children to share in the writing of a text
kindergarten through high school. Native speakers
that grows from their own experiences. In interac
of English "need to be familiar with quality litera
can give the reader a realistic tive writing, the teacher and the children negotiate
ture which look at
the meaning of the text together and work together
those many cultures" (McDonald, 1996, p. 1). In
to produce it; the children are invited to contribute
increasingly diverse U.S. classrooms, it is critical
to the writing of the text on the basis of their
for books to reflect the cultural backgrounds of all
instructional needs.
students. Shioshita (1997) has culled information
from several sources on how to select quality mul The idea is to help children attend to powerful examples
ticultural literature and offers the following tips: that can enable them to learnsomething about the writing
process that they can incorporate into their own writing.
Books should be accurate and contain current
As children gain control of the process, the examples and
information. areas of focus shift. (McCarrieret al., p. 11)
Books should not reinforce stereotypes, but
rather they should reflect the experiences of Interactive writing has been successful in the early
individuals. grades, generally first through third.
26 The Reading Teacher Vol. 57, No. 1 September 2003

7. Labeling tends to be more successful with students
Vocabulary who have a greater ability to work independently,
On a very basic level, vocabulary is critical to
the reading process. Fluent first-language readers generally grade 4 through high school. We can also
explain meanings, or add synonyms for words that
have large recognition vocabularies. There have
seem to cause (or seem likely to cause) difficulty for
been numerous studies attempting to quantify the
some of the students, as challenging words appear
actual number of words second-language readers
need to know in order to comprehend a text. It is not during the shared reading exercise described earlier.
that some researchers have found that Schunk (1999) suggested a different approach
surprising
learners need approximately the to vocabulary acquisition. She found that elemen
second-language
same number of words in their lexicon as first tary school children (kindergarten throughgrade 5)
who in singing as a form of language re
language readers (Goulden, Nation, & Read, 1990). engaged
This need presents a particular challenge because of hearsal, paired with sign language, improved on re
the large amount of prerequisite information ELLs ceptive identification of targeted vocabulary. This
must learn in order to be at a reading level compa is reminiscent of a language
approach teaching
rable to their peers. W. Nagy & P. Herman (as cited known as total physical
methodology response
inBell, 1998) found that students between 3rd and (TPR). TPR is "built around the coordination of
12th grade learn up to 3,000 new words each year. and action; it attempts to teach
speech language
Classroom teachers are simply unable to teach this
through physical (motor) activity" (Richards &
amount of vocabulary item by item.
Rodgers, 1998, p. 87). Encouraging children to act
In addition, many of the standard vocabulary
out songs such as "Itsy Bitsy Spider" and having
teaching approaches have been ineffective with
them play games associated with language like
ESL learners. Freeman and Freeman (2000) noted
that although ELLs
SimonSays are other examples of this approach.
enjoy vocabulary exercises,
Having children physically act out songs, poems,
they have trouble applying the information they or readings?all forms of TPR methodology?is an
memorize in context. According to Yeung (1999),
effective way to support vocabulary development.
a separate
Given glossary, when readers encounter an un Schmitt and Carter (2000) suggested narrow
familiarword, they need to leave the text, turn to the vo
reading as an effective method for developing vo
cabulary list, temporarily store itsmeaning, and then
revert to the text and try to incorporate themeaning into cabulary. In narrow reading, learners read authen
the text. (p. 197) tic writing about the same topic in a number of
different texts. By doing this, students are exposed
Yeung posited that the difficulty with providing to a common body of vocabulary. In this way, these
students with preteaching vocabulary exercises or words are recycled and ultimately integrated with
glossaries creates a cognitive load that splits the the learner's There is not clear agree
vocabulary.
learner's attention. He found that when definitions ment about the number of times that a language
are placed next to the challenging lexical items, learner must encounter a new lexical term before it
students were able to learn the meanings
better of is actually learned, but Zahar, Cobb, and Spada
unfamiliar words. He suggested that in this inte
(2001) found that estimates range between 6 and
grated format, students' attention is not split, and
20 times, depending on the context in which expo
the cognitive load is lowered.
sure to the word occurs. Depending on the materials
available, students in grades 2 or 3 all the way up
What you can do in the classroom school can engage in narrow reading.
through high
Although we cannot edit the materials our stu Schmitt and Carter (2000) suggested the fol
dents use so that vocabulary definitions are inte
lowing kinds of narrow-reading activities to sup
grated with the text, it is possible to encourage
port vocabulary acquisition.
students to write word meanings on labels that are
placed in the margins or as near the challenging Collect newspaper storieson a continuing
item as possible. This may help to reduce the cog topic for students to read. Be certain each
nitive load and enhance vocabulary acquisition. story is one that will to them.
appeal
What reading teachers should know about ESL learners 27

8. Ask to bring in magazines
students on sub environment for all students. Williams (2001)
jects they like. Have them read several arti suggested asking yourself, "Would I want to be a
cles from the magazines. student inmy classroom?" (p. 754).
Use the Internet?there is a wide of The strategies listed are not in
in this article
variety
texts available on almost tended to be prescriptive solutions for particular
any topic.
books for the students to read. The vo
issues in literacy development. They are a few of
Assign that can be useful for
many possible approaches
cabulary in any given novel tends to recycle.
all students, both native speakers of English as well
Have students read texts written by a single as English-language learners in the classroom. Like
author. native speakers, "Second language learners benefit
from reading programs that incorporate a range of
Finally, do not underestimate the power of
contexts, both social and functional, and in which
read-alouds in supporting vocabulary development. and is used as a means
reading begins, develops,
Freeman and Freeman (2000) pointed to a study in of communication" (Nichols et al., 2000, p. 2).
which teachers read aloud a story to students three It is also important to remember the concept of
times a day for a week. Group vocabulary scores Krashen's I + 1 (1981), mentioned earlier. Texts
rose by 40%. "The key was finding interesting must be at a level appropriate to the student's abili
books and coaching teachers to use reading tech
ty. Recall also that academic language proficiency
niques such as pointing to pictures, gesturing, and takes much longer to develop than conversational
paraphrasing...to be sure students understood the "In other words, encourage students to
proficiency.
story" (p. 123). read at their reading level?not at their oral profi
ciency level"
(Williams, 2001, p. 751). There is
nothing like reading to promote reading. "Read
aloud to students every day. This practice supports
Many possible approaches well as literacy devel
In classrooms that are becoming language development...as
increasingly
opment" (p. 751).
diverse,culturally relevantteaching is an important to
of literacy instruction. Culturally rele Finally, give students plenty of opportunities
component read independently. learn to read, and to
vant is "the kind of teaching that is de "People
teaching read better, by reading" (Eskey, 2002, p. 8).
signed not merely to fit the school culture to the
Students learn to read well when they are engaged
students' culture but also to use student culture as the
in reading materials that are not only at an appro
basis for helping students understand themselves
priate level but also interesting and relevant to
and others, structure social interactions, and concep
them.
tualize knowledge" (Ladson-Billings, 2000, p. 142).
Effective literacy instruction is not simply a
collection of strategies and approaches that will
Drucker teaches education courses at Utica
learners succeed in main College of Syracuse University in Utica, New
help English-language
stream classrooms. The environment
York (1600 Burrstone Road, Utica, NY 13502
in which
4892, USA). E-mail mdrucker@utica.edu.
ELLs study and learn is at least as important as the
methods, strategies, and approaches you may References
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What reading teachers should know about ESL learners 29