Writing research articles in English, by Adrian Wallwork

English for Writing
Research Papers
Five guidelines to massively
improve your chances of
publication
With easy-to-follow rules and tips, and with examples taken from real papers,
the book covers how to:
• prepare and structure a manuscript that will be recommended by referees
for publication
• use a reader-oriented style
• write each section of a paper
• highlight the most important findings
• write concisely and without ambiguity
• avoid plagiarism
• choose the correct verb forms
The book also includes around 700 useful phrases for use in any kind of
research paper.

• English for Presentations at International Conferences
• English for Academic Correspondence and Socializing
• English for Research: Usage, Style, and Grammar

Education
ISBN 978-1-4419-7921-6

Adrian Wallwork
English for Writing Research Papers

lwork

ENGgLISH
for WritinPapers
Research

Adrian
Wallwork

Good writing skills are key to a successful career in academia. English for
Writing Research Papers was written specifically for researchers and professors
of all disciplines whose first language is not English and who wish to have their
work published in an international journal.
With easy-to-follow rules and tips, and with examples taken from real papers,
the book covers how to:
• prepare and structure a manuscript that will be recommended by referees
for publication
• use a reader-oriented style
• write each section of a paper
• highlight the most important findings
• write concisely and without ambiguity
• avoid plagiarism
• choose the correct verb forms
The book also includes around 700 useful phrases for use in any kind of
research paper.
Adrian Wallwork is the author of more than 20 ELT and EAP textbooks. He
has trained several thousand PhD students and researchers from 35 countries to
write research papers. Through his editing agency, he and his partners have been
revising and editing research papers since 1985. This guide is thus also highly
recommended for providers of editing services, proofreaders, and trainers in
English for Academic Purposes.
Other books in the series:

• English for Presentations at International Conferences
• English for Academic Correspondence and Socializing
• English for Research: Usage, Style, and Grammar

Education
ISBN 978-1-4419-7921-6

allwork

Adrian W

1

Other books in the series:

1

Adrian Wallwork is the author of more than 20 ELT and EAP textbooks. He
has trained several thousand PhD students and researchers from 35 countries to
write research papers. Through his editing agency, he and his partners have been
revising and editing research papers since 1985. This guide is thus also highly
recommended for providers of editing services, proofreaders, and trainers in
English for Academic Purposes.

al
Adrian W

Wallwork

Good writing skills are key to a successful career in academia. English for
Writing Research Papers was written specifically for researchers and professors
of all disciplines whose first language is not English and who wish to have their
work published in an international journal.

Wallwork

Adrian Wallwork

ENGgLISH
for WritinPapers
Research

A
PDF
of
this
seminar
will
be
on
my
blog:

adrianwallwork.wordpress.com

under
English
courses/downloads

GUIDELINE #1
Who should you have in mind when you
are writing your paper?

Who is the most important reader
of your paper?
The referee.

Spain’s
record
for
publishing

3
Spanish
ins>tutes
in
top
200
ins>tutes
that

have
published
papers
in
Nature

(Portugal
0,
Italy
1,
France
5,
Germany
17,
UK

20)

Research has found that there is
a correlation between
poor English and non-acceptance of articles.
Many top journals are based in US and GB.

List four things that you think represent ‘poor
English’ and/or ‘poor writing skills’ that would cause
a paper to be rejected by
a US or GB referee / reviewer.

REASONS FOR PAPERS TO BE REJECTED 1)
“There are 80 words in this sentence – my brain
is going to explode”

3-4 badly
constructed long
sentences may
make a whole
article
incomprehensible.

2) “Where are your findings?”
Referee cannot
understand the importance
of your findings / results
because you have not
highlighted them clearly.

3) “Whose are these findings –
yours or another author’s?”
Referee cannot
understand if you are
referring to your findings
or findings already
established in the
literature.

4)
Ambiguity

If you take your dog in the car don't let him hang
out of a window while driving.
Like Maria, he had dark brown hair, with
enormous black eyebrows, a moustache and a
short beard.

What do Spanish Referees
complain about the most?

Moral of the story
Papers are NOT normally rejected for a few
grammar or vocabulary mistakes.
Papers ARE rejected for just two or three long
sentences / paragraphs

FIVE EASY GUIDELINES

•  1 Write from reader’s / referee’s point of view
•  2 Reduce word count to the minimum
•  3 Use short sentences
•  4 Avoid ambiguity
•  5 Highlight your findings and clearly
differentiate your findings from those already
in the literature

If you follow my five guidelines you will
DOUBLE the chances of your manuscript
being accepted.

DOUBLE, even TRIPLE, the chances of your
manuscript being accepted.


QUADRUPLE
the chances of your manuscript being
accepted.
OK, I am little optimistic perhaps!

We all have different perspectives
Trend today in English:
seeing things from the reader’s point of view rather
than your point of view

Moral of the story

In your papers, emails,
presentation slides, and
applications for jobs
always think about the
audience.

What do they want to:
•  know?
•  read first?
•  hear first?

Think in terms of them
them them NOT me me
me

How can I make it
easier for them?

Guideline
1

Write
for
the
referee
/
reader

Guideline
2

Write
short
sentences

Very
Simple
Sentence

One
part
only

English
is
oQen
considered
to
be
the

simplest
language.

Simple
Sentence

Two
parts

Of
all
the
languages
in
the
world,

English
is
oQen
considered
to
be
the

simplest.

Complex
Sentence

Too
many
ideas

Of
all
the
languages
in
the
world,

including
those
that
are
now
dead

languages,
for
example
La>n
and

Sanskrit,
English,
which
is
now
spoken

by
around
400
million
na>ve
speakers

and
1.1
billion
non-‐na>ve
speakers,
is

considered
by
most
people
to
be
the

simplest.

Where
is
key
informa>on?
In

italics?
Or
normal
script

English,
which
is
the
interna4onal

language
of
communica4on,
is

now
studied
by
1.1
billion
people.

English,
which
is
now
studied
by

1.1
billion
people,
is
the

interna>onal
language
of

communica>on.

Rule
for
wri>ng
a
sentence

1  Subject
in
ﬁrst
part

2  Key
info
in
second
part

1)
Subject
2)
Key
info

English,
which
is
the
interna4onal

language
of
communica4on,
is
now

studied
by
1.1
billion
people.

English,
which
is
now
studied
by
1.1

billion
people,
is
the
interna>onal

language
of
communica>on.

Do
NOT
separate
the
subject

from
the
key
informa4on

English,
which
owes
its
origins
to
the

Anglo
Saxons
(a
tribe
who
lived
in
what

is
now
Denmark
and
Northern

Germany)
and
is
the
interna>onal

language
of
communica>on,
in
part
due

to
the
importance
of
the
USA,
rather

than
the
Queen
of
England,

is
now

studied
by
1.1
billion
people.

Don’t
hide
the
subject
in
the

middle
of
the
phrase

Owing
its
origins
to
the
Anglo
Saxons
(a

tribe
who
lived

in
what
is
now
Denmark

and
Northern
Germany),
English
is
the

interna>onal
language
of
commun-‐
ica>on,
in
part
due
to
the
importance
of

the
USA,
rather
than
the
Queen
of

England,
and
is
now
studied
by
1.1

billion
people.

Think
how
you
could
divide
up
this

sentence
into
four
short
sentences.

Owing
its
origins
to
the
Anglo
Saxons
(a

tribe
who
lived

in
what
is
now
Denmark

and
Northern
Germany),
English
is
the

interna>onal
language
of
commun-‐
ica>on,
in
part
due
to
the
importance
of

the
USA,
rather
than
the
Queen
of

England,
and
is
now
studied
by
1.1
billion

people.

Solu>on

English
owes
its
origins
to
the
Anglo

Saxons,
who
were
a
tribe
from
what
is

now
Denmark
and
Northern

Germany.
//
It
has
become
the

interna>onal
language
of

communica>on.
//
This
is
in
part
due
to

the
importance
of
the
USA,
rather
than

the
Queen
of
England.
//

English
is
now

studied
by
1.1
billion
people.

Remove
relaCve
clauses

English, which owes its
origins to the Anglo
Saxons, is …

English
owes
its

origins
to
the
Anglo

Saxons.

Remove
brackets
(and
consider
removing

content
of
brackets)

English, which
owes its origins to
the Anglo Saxons
(a tribe who lived in
what is now
Denmark and
Northern Germany)

English
owes
its

origins
to
the
Anglo

Saxons.

Remove
linker
*
and
begin
a
new
sentence.

Don’t
worry
about
repeaCng
the
same
word
twice.

…. a tribe who lived
in what is now
Denmark and
northern Germany)
and is the
international
language of
communication,

…a tribe from what
is now Denmark
and northern
Germany.

English has

become the
international
language of
communication.

* A linker is a connecting word: moreover, in particular, consequently

Remove
comma
(,)
and
begin
a
new
sentence

… is the
international
language of
communication, in part due
to the importance of
the USA, rather
than the Queen of
England, is now
studied by 1.1
billion people.

…
is
the

interna>onal

language
of

communica>on.

This
is
in
part
due
to

the
importance
of

the
USA,
rather
than

the
Queen
of

England.
English
is

now
studied
by
1.1

billion
people.

Having
shorter
sentences
also
makes
it
easier
to

change
their
order

English owes its origins to
the Anglo Saxons, who
were a tribe from what is
now Denmark and Northern
Germany. // It has become
the international language
of communication. // This is
in part due to the
importance of the USA,
rather than the Queen of
England. // English is now
studied by 1.1 billion
people.

English
is
now
studied
by

1.1
billion
people.
It
owes
its

origins
to
the
Anglo
Saxons,

who
were
a
tribe
from
what
is

now
Denmark
and
Northern

Germany.
//
It
has
become
the

interna>onal
language
of

communica>on.
//
This
is
in

part
due
to
the
importance
of

the
USA,
rather
than
the

Queen
of
England.

Summary:
How
to
make
short
sentences
from
a
very

long
sentence.
Start
a
new
sentence
if
there
are/is:

• 
• 
• 
• 
• 

brackets

which

and

more
than
two
commas

a
link
word
(in
addi4on,
furthermore)

Guideline
1

Write
for
the
referee

Guideline
2

Write
short
sentences

Guideline
3

Minimum
number
of
words

(avoid
redundancy)

Researchers vs
Normal People
Imagine you ask a researcher the question

“What time is it?”

A typical researcher will say:
"On the basis of the consideration that
the sun would appear to be at its
highest peak in the sky, it would be
reasonable, given such circumstances,
to hypothesize, all other things being
equal, that the time, with respect to
Greenwich, is midday."

A normal person would say:

“12 o’clock”

Which style of writing is easier to
understand and more enjoyable to
READ?
a) “12 o’clock”
b) "On the basis of the consideration that the
sun would appear to be at its highest peak in
the sky …”

Which style do you use? Why?
a) “12 o’clock”
b) "On the basis of the consideration that the
sun would appear to be at its highest peak in
the sky …”

In a survey at Stanford
University, 86.4% of
students admitted they used
complicated language in
their papers to make
themselves sound more
intelligent.

Remove the fog: cut redundant words

It was yellow in
colour and round in
shape.

Remove the fog: cut redundant words
1.  It was yellow in colour and round in shape.
2.  This will be done in the month of December.
3.  The research activity carried out in our department.
4.  The activity aimed at the extrapolation of X is not trivial.
5.  We did X. This choice meant that …
6. The summary statements presented above represent the
authors’ current perceptions in relation to the results.
Since the work is ongoing, these statements should only
be viewed as conclusions to the extent that it is the
author’s intention and aim to embellish them in the light
of subsequent events.

Cut redundant words
1.  It was yellow in colour and round in shape.
2.  This will be done in the month of December.
3.  The research activity carried out in our department.
4.  The activity aimed at the extrapolation of X is not trivial.
5.  We did X. This choice meant that …
6.  The summary statements presented above represent
the authors’ current perceptions in relation to the
results. Since the work is ongoing, these statements
should only be viewed as conclusions to the extent that
it is the author’s intention and aim to embellish them in
the light of subsequent events.

Why is eliminating redundant words
useful?
It was yellow in colour and round in
shape / form.
We did X. This choice / choose meant
that …
The activity aimed at / to the
extrapolation of X is not trivial.

Why is eliminating redundant words
useful?
It was yellow in colour and round in shape /
form.
We did X. This choice / choose meant that …
The activity aimed at / to the extrapolation of X
is not trivial.

Why cut redundant words?
It was yellow in colour and round in shape / form.
We did X. This choice / choose meant that …
The activity aimed at / to the extrapolation of X is not
trivial.

•  If you cut redundant words it is
impossible make mistakes with them!
•  They add no value for the reader.
•  They are not concrete.

Which is correct?

1a) We found useful to consider the
cases separately.
1b) We found it useful to consider ...
2a) It is worth to note that x = y.
2b) It is worth noting that x = y.

Which is correct?

We found useful to consider …
We found it useful to consider ...
It is worth to note that x = y.
It is worth noting that x = y.

Are you 100% sure???!!!

Are the sentences in blue
correct?

We found useful to consider …
We found it useful to consider √
We considered ...
It is worth to note that x = y.
It is worth noting that x = y. √
Note that x = y.

Eliminating words

Reduces the number of choices
you have to make, thus reduces
the time you have to spend
thinking.
Reduces the chances of you
making mistakes, thus reduces
correction time.
Saves the reader time and
reduces possible boredom.

Using simple constructions does not mean you
have a low intelligence quota!

Prefer verbs to nouns

X was used in the calculation of Y.

X was used to calculate Y.

All sentences in red are examples of
BAD English

Prefer a verb to a verb + noun construction

This allows the analysis of X to be performed.
This allows you to analyse X.
This allows X to be analysed.
A comparison was made between X and Y.
X and Y were compared.
X showed a better performance than Y.
X performed better than Y.

Why is using verbs a good idea?

A comparison was made / done /
effected / carried out between X and Y.

X and Y were compared.

Be concise in the
title of your paper
but not too concise

After reading a
title of a paper
only 1 in 500
people …
?

So you think they are going to
read your paper?
1 in 3 Americans read gossip on blog websites
1 in 6 people read 12 or more books a year
1 in 100 people read a newspaper

ONLY 1 in 500 people read a paper
after reading the title
1 in 10,000 people read poetry

What is the problem with this title?

An innovative Spanish PhD
student scientific English
didactic methodology

When you start reading it, it seems
to have one meaning. But when you
finish it, it has another meaning.

student …

It is a string of :
adjectives + nouns that act as
adjectives + nouns


Rewrite the title. Include some
prepositions and a verb.


Good titles have a verb and some prepositions.
An innovative Italian PhD student scientific English


An innovative methodology
for teaching scientific English
to Spanish PhD students

Good titles put the adjective next to the noun it
refers to.

NO! An innovative Spanish PhD
student scientific English didactic
methodology

YES! An innovative methodology for
teaching scientific English to Spanish
PhD students

Moral of the story
If readers can t understand your title,
there is a 98.76532% chance they won t
read your paper.

Using
Google
to
check
your
English

Google:
summary

This
word
or
exact
phrasing:
these
informa>ons
are

Language:
English

Domain:
.ac,
.edu

Author
(Google
Scholar
only):
Smith

Being concise: Summary

Remove redundant words
(and even whole sentences, paragraphs, sections)
For a period of six months
For six months
Reduce number of words
This gives us the possibility to do x
This allows us to do x
Use verbs instead of nouns
We made an analysis of x
We analysed x

Why be concise?

Abstracts
CVs
Applications for grants
Research proposals
Emails

Slides in presentations
Posters at conferences
Twitter
Learning to be concise is not an option, it is essential.

You will not write like a child!
Being concise does not mean that you
cannot be expressive or cannot be eloquent.
You can!
Are native English academics concise?
Most are not.
But the difference between them and you is
that they don’t make mistakes!

Believe me. You need to be concise

Just because it was not concise:

“Must be rewritten completely”

Referees can be real bastards!

But the author could easily have been
avoided the problem

Abstract

Tomato
(Solanum
lycopersicum
L.)
is
a
worldwide-‐culCvated
vegetable
crop

which
is
affected
by
many
viruses
that
cause
significant
economic
losses.

Therefore,
Their
detec>on
and
iden>fica>on
is
of
cri>cal
importance
to
plant

virologists
in
general
and,
in
parCcular,
to
scienCsts
and
others
involved
in
plant

protec>on
acCviCes
and
quaran>ne
and
cer>fica>on
programs.

Instead publication was delayed 3 months. Also, the
author had to pay me €220 to revise his manuscript –
when he could have done the revision HIMSELF
before the first submission.
P.S. Obviously, the author had NOT followed my English course!

Note also that this is an Abstract

Abstract

Tomato
(Solanum
lycopersicum
L.)
is
a
worldwide-‐culCvated
vegetable
crop

which
is
affected
by
many
viruses
that
cause
significant
economic
losses.

Therefore,
Their
detec>on
and
iden>fica>on
is
of
cri>cal
importance
to
plant

virologists
in
general
and,
in
parCcular,
to
scienCsts
and
others
involved
in
plant

protec>on
acCviCes
and
quaran>ne
and
cer>fica>on
programs.

If the reader sees a lot of redundancy in the Abstract,
then he/she will probably stop reading.
In your Abstract every word must add VALUE.
You do not have much space in an Abstract, so don’t
waste a single word.

1)
Write
for
the
referee

2)
Write
short
sentences

3)
Avoid
redundancy)

Guideline
4

Highlight
your
ﬁndings
and

diﬀerenCate
them
from
the
literature

Guideline
5

Avoid
ambiguity

Which part of the paper is the most
difficult to write? Why?
Abstract
Introduction
Methodology (Materials and Method)
Results
Discussion
Conclusion

Which part of the paper is the most
difficult to write? Why?
Abstract
Introduction
Methodology (Materials and Method)
Results

Discussion
Conclusion

With
the
person
siSng
next
to

you
decide
the
main
purposes
of

the
Discussion

In Discussion / Conclusions it is essential to:

1) be clear what you did and what
other authors have done
2) highlight your unique contribution
3) discuss limitations of your findings
4) state what the applications and
implications of your research are

Differentiating yourself from other authors
NO!! It was found that …
•  ?

•  ? They found X.
•  They found X.

•  They found XThey
found X

YOU
THEM YOU
They found X.

We found X.
Our findings show that ...

Use ACTIVE and WE to distinguish
between you and other authors
1. 

2. 

3. 

GOOD! In 2008, we confirmed
that complex sentences aggravate
the reader [25].
GOOD! In 2007, Carter
suggested that complex
sentences could also lead to high
levels of stress for the reader [36].
OK! In 2007, it was suggested
that complex sentences could also
lead to high levels of stress for the
reader [Carter, 36].

4. 

BAD! In 2007, it was suggested
that complex sentences could also
lead to high levels of stress for the
reader [25].

5. 

DISASTER! In 2007, it was
suggested that complex
sentences could also lead to high
levels of stress for the reader.

1. 

We clearly indicates that you are
referring to your own work.

2. 

The author is the subject of the
verb, so it is clear to the reader.

3. 

The passive form means that the
reader is not sure until the end of
the sentence if it was you or
another author. A long literature
review full of passive sentences is
very heavy for the reader.

4. 

This is ambiguous. Readers
cannot know who made the
suggestion unless they go to Ref.
25 and see if it was you or
someone else.

5. 

There is no reference. Readers
cannot be sure if you made the
suggestion or someone else.

Not making the distinction clear between what
YOU did and what OTHERS have done
causes more confusion for the reader than
any grammatical or vocabulary mistake

For
each
verb
in
bold,
try
to
understand
if
the
verb
refers
to
something
Kim

(the
author)
did
or
found,
or
to
something
another
author
(AA)
did
or
found.

Bilingual
children
(1)
were
found

to
show
a
greater
adaptability
to
new

situa>ons
(e.g.
change
of
school,
change
of
diet)
and
demonstrated
a
greater

ease
in
communica>ng
confidently
with
adults
[Simons,
1995].
As
result
of
an

extensive
search
for
bilingual
children
in
ten
European
countries,
149
children

(2)
were
iden3fied
(Table
1).
It
(3)
has
been
found
that
those
children
with

parents
of
the
same
na>onality
but
who
lived
in
a
foreign
country
(for

example,
a
child
with
English
parents
living
in
Italy)
(4)
have
a
greater
level
of

adaptability
than
those
children
with
parents
of
different
na>onali>es
living

in
the
na>ve
country
of
one
of
the
parents.

Original
Bilingual children were

found to show a greater adaptability to new situations and

demonstrated a greater ease in communicating confidently with adults [Simons, 1995].
As result of an extensive search for bilingual children in ten European countries, 149
children were identified (Table 1).

Revised
Bilingual children show a greater adaptability to new situations and
demonstrated a greater ease in communicating confidently with adults
[Simons, 1995]. Simons

investigated children from the US

and Canada. On the other hand, the focus of our study
was Europe and as a result of an extensive search for bilingual
children in ten European countries, 149 children were identified (Table
1).

impersonal forms vs we
Simons investigated children from the US and
Canada, whereas we studied children in Europe. We
conducted an extensive search for bilingual children
in ten European countries and identified 149 children
(Table 1). We found that those children with parents
…

Results: present simple vs simple past

present: to talk about
established scientific fact
past: your findings that you
describe in your paper.

It is well known that if green is
mixed with red, brown is
produced.
We found that when we mixed
green and red, white was
produced.
NO!!! We found that when we
mixed green and red, white is
produced.

Don’t
tell

The large difference in mean
size between X and Y is
particularly interesting.
Interesting for who?

Show

X showed a massive
increase, almost ten times
that of Y.

This is one ridiculously long
paragraph containing all kinds of
information about everything that
you can possibly imagine and
conceive. This is one ridiculously
long paragraph containing all kinds
of information about everything that
you can possibly imagine and
conceive. Here are my findings you
will be lucky if you can see them
here buried in the midst of this
ridiculously long paragraph
containing all kinds of information
about everything that you can
possibly imagine and conceive. And
now I will continue with this
possibly imagine and conceive. So
here we go again with this

This is now a much shorter
paragraph. This is now a much
shorter paragraph. This is now a
much shorter paragraph. This is
now a much shorter paragraph.
shorter paragraph.
much shorter paragraph.
Here are my findings, which you
can now see quite clearly.
Note how this paragraph is also
quite short. In fact, it is shorter
than the previous and following
paragraphs.

Highlighting your findings
"   Begin a new paragraph
"   Use different language
"   Avoid too many note that ,
interestingly – show rather than say
"   If possible, use we and active form
"   Use shorter than normal sentences
"   Keep the paragraph short

Do any of you drink Carlsberg?
Probably the best beer in the world

Probably the best beer in the world
Early Carlsberg adverts had these slogans:

Lager at its best.
Unrivalled quality and ﬂavour.
The world s best.
Why did Carlsberg decide to use probably ?
http://carlsberg.com/#/Commercials/historic+ads

Hedging and Sitting on the Fence

Emphasizing your contribution

Too modest

Too arrogant

Too weak

It may be the case that
these findings could
possibly find an
application in …
These findings would
seem to suggest that in
certain circumstances
there might be a
possiblity to ..

Too strong

These findings will
certainly be useful for …
Our findings prove that ..
Other researchers
should use these
findings to …

The right balance
X would seem to
indicate that …

We hope that other
researchers will …

We believe that these
results show that …

Our findings suggest
that ..

To the best of our
knowledge this is
the first time that …

Other researchers may
benefit from …

But don’t put probably in front of every
affirmation you make!

Level of certainty when discussing
results
100%
Must
will (certainly)
90%
should
will probably
50%
may
could

0%
will not
cannot

How can you be so sure about what you say?
There are no studies on ...
Have you actually checked every single paper in the
world?
The literature has not discussed ...
Are you 100% certain about this?
This is the first time that this method has been applied
to ...
What about that recent study in China?
Results often conflict with each other ...
Have you investigated all the results?

I want my paper published, so I am
more modest and open to other
interpretations
As far as we know, there are no studies on ...
To [the best of] our knowledge, the literature has not
discussed …
We believe that this is the first time …
Results often appear to conflict with each other ...

Don’t offend anyone when
describing their limitations

Don’t give the finger to
another author: he/she
might be the refereee

Describe the limitations of your
research + all possible objections.

Summary

Write
for
the
reader
not
for
yourself

Simple,
short,
clear
and
unambigous

‘Sell’
your
methods
and
results

Reduce
what
you’ve
wrihen
by
25%

How to end a seminar using boring
scientific English
On the basis that I have now concluded
everything that I wish to say on this
particular occasion, and, moreover, due to
the consideration that the time allocated to
this particular session is drawing near to its
scheduled completion, I believe, given all
the above factors, that we have reached the
point at which we can bring this seminar to a
suitable and appropriate termination.

How to end a lesson using
error-free English

Writing research articles in English, by Adrian Wallwork

Writing research articles in English, by Adrian Wallwork

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