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“BIG RUN, OR SMART GUN”:
HOW RACIALLY-BASED SPORTS
FRAMES INFLUENCE SUBSEQUENT
AUDIENCE BEHAVIORS AND ATTITUDES
TOWARDS ATHLETES
Gregory A. Cranmer
Nicholas D. Bowman
Zac W. Goldman
BACKGROUND
RGIII was „the
next physical
specimen‟, never
mind his 3.67 GPA
and eight
consecutive Honor
Roll appointments
while at Baylor
Andrew Luck was
often characterized
as the “Stanford
Man” –
smart, leader of
men – despite his
amazing physical
talents
Cranmer, G., Bowman, N. D., Chory, R., & Weber. K. (in press).Color-Blind: Race as an
Antecedent Condition in Brawn and Brain Framing of Heisman Finalists in Newspaper
Coverage. Manuscript forthcoming in Howard Journal of Communications.
PURPOSE
• Past work (Cranmer et al, in press) shows the
prevalence of the “White Brain” and “Black
Brawn” frame in print coverage
• This study seeks to examine the influence
these frames on audience members‟
behaviors and character judgments regarding
athletes.
THEORETICAL LENS
• framing theory (Goffman, 1974)
– [Selection of] “some aspects of a
perceived reality [that] make them
more salient … in such a way as
to promote a particular [stance]”
– Effects are explicitly
suggested, rarely tested (politics
exempt)
– D‟Angelo (2002) called for
examinations of frames effects on
audience members
LITERATURE
• Mediated sports coverage
commonly features racially biased
frames
– White athletes  Smart, “Brainy”
– Black athletes  Athletic,
“Brawny”
• Roots (at least in US) in (erroneous)
discussions of slavery, genetics
• Past work is content analytic
– content ≠ effect
The black is a better athlete
to begin with because he's
been bred to be that
way, because of his high
thighs and big thighs that
goes up into his back, and
they can jump higher and
run faster because of their
bigger thighs and he's bred
to be the better athlete
because this goes back all
the way to the Civil War
when during the slave trade
… the slave owner would
breed his big black to his
big woman so that he
could have a big black kid
…
HYPOTHESES
• H1a: Frame type will influence observed
behaviors in a video game to be more
brawn-type or brawn-type (respectively).
• H1b: Athlete race will influence observed
behaviors in a video game to be more
brawn-type or brain-type.
HYPOTHESES
• Individuals who play the video game…
• H2b: with more brawn-type orientation will
make more positive character judgments
about the target athlete‟s physical abilities.
• H2b: with a more brain-type orientation will
make more positive character judgments
about the targets athlete‟s mental abilities.
PROCEDURE
Consent Demographics
Article
Manipulation
Manipulation
Check
Tutorial for
Video Game
Gameplay
Character
Judgments
Debrief
Undergraduate
Students (n = 49; 29
Female & 20 Male)
IV: 2 (Athlete Race)
X 2 (Brawn or Brain
frame)
NCAA Football „13
for X-Box 360
DESIGN
• 4 Conditions (2 x 2)
– Frame (Brawn/Brain)
– Athlete Race (Black/White)
• Identical characters (w/ exception of race)
• Identical contexts for each play
(stadium, team, location on field, direction
facing, weather, distance from endzone)
• Identical and balanced playbooks (70 plays
[35 QB running, 35 passing], same number
of runs/pass per formation as well)
MEASUREMENTVARIABLES
• DVs:
– Behavior (10 plays in NCAA Football)
• Passing bias, M = +1.63, SD = 4.08
– Character Judgments (two 5-item, 7-point Likert-type
scales: Brawn, M = 4.29, SD = 1.22; Brain, M = 5.99, SD =
.964, r = .056)
• Control Variables:
– Hours spent consuming sports media (M = 9.08, SD =
12.9)
– Previous experience with game ~ 3:10 weekly
MANIPULATION CHECK
• Frame salience indicated
that audience members
accurately perceived
the brain/brawn
manipulation ( 2(49) =
37.1, p < .001)
RESULTS
• H1a (Frame  Behavior) supported.
• H1b (Race  Behavior) not supported.
Brain Frame Brawn Frame
While athlete +4.27a (SD = 3.54) .000b (4.61)
Black athlete +2.80a,b (SD = 3.43) -.857b (2.68)
F(3,43) = 7.31, p < .001, η2 = .391 (adj. η2 = .287)
RESULTS
• H2a: (Brawn  Physical) supported
– (r = .33, p = .02)
• H2b: (Brain  Mental) supported
– (r = .46, p < .01)
POST-HOC
Frame
Exposure
-- (brawn)
- (brain)
Observed in-
game
Behavior
(-10 = brawn;
+10 = brain)
Brawn
character
judgments (7
= most
positive)
Brain
character
judgments (7
= most
positive)
4.95*
Total: -.320
Direct: .140
Total: 1.63*
Direct: 1.29*
-.093*
.069
adj. R2 = .280*
adj. R2 = .328*
IMPLICATIONS
• Influence of frames
– Frames appear to be driving the observed
effects, particular for brain coverage
– These frames are apparent in „real world‟
coverage of sports
IMPLICATIONS
• Behaviors (gameplay) were more predictive
of character judgment than the manipulation
(article)
– Reification?
– Audience building their own frame to interpret
through (Scheufele, 1999)
WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT?
• Frame effects
– Audience members‟ perceptions and behaviors
regarding minority athletes or minorities in general
• Influence on Sports Culture
– coaching, educational
expectations, sponsorship, advertisements, revenue,
and growth,
• Larger Society
– reinforce, shape/influence culture
FOR MORE INFORMATION
Gregory A. Cranmer
Ph.D. Student
Gcranmer@mix.wvu.edu
P.O. Box 6293
West Virginia University
Morgantown WV, 26506

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“Big run, or smart Gun”: How racially-based sports frames influence subsequent audience behaviors and attitudes towards athletes

  • 1. “BIG RUN, OR SMART GUN”: HOW RACIALLY-BASED SPORTS FRAMES INFLUENCE SUBSEQUENT AUDIENCE BEHAVIORS AND ATTITUDES TOWARDS ATHLETES Gregory A. Cranmer Nicholas D. Bowman Zac W. Goldman
  • 2. BACKGROUND RGIII was „the next physical specimen‟, never mind his 3.67 GPA and eight consecutive Honor Roll appointments while at Baylor Andrew Luck was often characterized as the “Stanford Man” – smart, leader of men – despite his amazing physical talents Cranmer, G., Bowman, N. D., Chory, R., & Weber. K. (in press).Color-Blind: Race as an Antecedent Condition in Brawn and Brain Framing of Heisman Finalists in Newspaper Coverage. Manuscript forthcoming in Howard Journal of Communications.
  • 3. PURPOSE • Past work (Cranmer et al, in press) shows the prevalence of the “White Brain” and “Black Brawn” frame in print coverage • This study seeks to examine the influence these frames on audience members‟ behaviors and character judgments regarding athletes.
  • 4. THEORETICAL LENS • framing theory (Goffman, 1974) – [Selection of] “some aspects of a perceived reality [that] make them more salient … in such a way as to promote a particular [stance]” – Effects are explicitly suggested, rarely tested (politics exempt) – D‟Angelo (2002) called for examinations of frames effects on audience members
  • 5. LITERATURE • Mediated sports coverage commonly features racially biased frames – White athletes  Smart, “Brainy” – Black athletes  Athletic, “Brawny” • Roots (at least in US) in (erroneous) discussions of slavery, genetics • Past work is content analytic – content ≠ effect The black is a better athlete to begin with because he's been bred to be that way, because of his high thighs and big thighs that goes up into his back, and they can jump higher and run faster because of their bigger thighs and he's bred to be the better athlete because this goes back all the way to the Civil War when during the slave trade … the slave owner would breed his big black to his big woman so that he could have a big black kid …
  • 6. HYPOTHESES • H1a: Frame type will influence observed behaviors in a video game to be more brawn-type or brawn-type (respectively). • H1b: Athlete race will influence observed behaviors in a video game to be more brawn-type or brain-type.
  • 7. HYPOTHESES • Individuals who play the video game… • H2b: with more brawn-type orientation will make more positive character judgments about the target athlete‟s physical abilities. • H2b: with a more brain-type orientation will make more positive character judgments about the targets athlete‟s mental abilities.
  • 8. PROCEDURE Consent Demographics Article Manipulation Manipulation Check Tutorial for Video Game Gameplay Character Judgments Debrief Undergraduate Students (n = 49; 29 Female & 20 Male) IV: 2 (Athlete Race) X 2 (Brawn or Brain frame) NCAA Football „13 for X-Box 360
  • 9. DESIGN • 4 Conditions (2 x 2) – Frame (Brawn/Brain) – Athlete Race (Black/White) • Identical characters (w/ exception of race) • Identical contexts for each play (stadium, team, location on field, direction facing, weather, distance from endzone) • Identical and balanced playbooks (70 plays [35 QB running, 35 passing], same number of runs/pass per formation as well)
  • 10. MEASUREMENTVARIABLES • DVs: – Behavior (10 plays in NCAA Football) • Passing bias, M = +1.63, SD = 4.08 – Character Judgments (two 5-item, 7-point Likert-type scales: Brawn, M = 4.29, SD = 1.22; Brain, M = 5.99, SD = .964, r = .056) • Control Variables: – Hours spent consuming sports media (M = 9.08, SD = 12.9) – Previous experience with game ~ 3:10 weekly
  • 11. MANIPULATION CHECK • Frame salience indicated that audience members accurately perceived the brain/brawn manipulation ( 2(49) = 37.1, p < .001)
  • 12. RESULTS • H1a (Frame  Behavior) supported. • H1b (Race  Behavior) not supported. Brain Frame Brawn Frame While athlete +4.27a (SD = 3.54) .000b (4.61) Black athlete +2.80a,b (SD = 3.43) -.857b (2.68) F(3,43) = 7.31, p < .001, η2 = .391 (adj. η2 = .287)
  • 13. RESULTS • H2a: (Brawn  Physical) supported – (r = .33, p = .02) • H2b: (Brain  Mental) supported – (r = .46, p < .01)
  • 14. POST-HOC Frame Exposure -- (brawn) - (brain) Observed in- game Behavior (-10 = brawn; +10 = brain) Brawn character judgments (7 = most positive) Brain character judgments (7 = most positive) 4.95* Total: -.320 Direct: .140 Total: 1.63* Direct: 1.29* -.093* .069 adj. R2 = .280* adj. R2 = .328*
  • 15. IMPLICATIONS • Influence of frames – Frames appear to be driving the observed effects, particular for brain coverage – These frames are apparent in „real world‟ coverage of sports
  • 16. IMPLICATIONS • Behaviors (gameplay) were more predictive of character judgment than the manipulation (article) – Reification? – Audience building their own frame to interpret through (Scheufele, 1999)
  • 17. WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT? • Frame effects – Audience members‟ perceptions and behaviors regarding minority athletes or minorities in general • Influence on Sports Culture – coaching, educational expectations, sponsorship, advertisements, revenue, and growth, • Larger Society – reinforce, shape/influence culture
  • 18. FOR MORE INFORMATION Gregory A. Cranmer Ph.D. Student Gcranmer@mix.wvu.edu P.O. Box 6293 West Virginia University Morgantown WV, 26506

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