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Chapter 20
Atmosphere and Climate
Chapter 20
Outline
• Atmosphere
-what is it?
-Composition, coloration, P-T-density relationships
-Relative humidity, latent heat, troposphere
• Circulation
-Gradients and energy input
-Movement, prevailing winds, high winds (jet streams)
• Weather
-Air masses, fronts, clouds and precipitation
-Storms (thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes)
• Climate
-Controls, belts, variability (El Nino example)
Chapter 20
Chapter 20
Introduction
• Earth has a well-developed atmosphere (atm).
•  gas mixture called
• Density & pressure variations cause air motion
• Atmosphere governs physical conditions of weather
• Temperature (T).
• Pressure (P).
• Moisture content.
• Wind velocity.
• Wind direction.
• Climate is long term weather behavior
Chapter 20
Atmospheric Components
• Present atmosphere comprised of a gas mix:
• Nitrogen 78%
• Oxygen 21%
• Other gases 1%
• Aerosols – tiny suspended particles
• Liquid droplets solid dust particles
Chapter 20
Atmospheric Coloration
• Color due to light energy dispersion
• Light scattered passing through atm
• Some light returns to space
• Why is the sky blue?
• When the Sun is overhead..
• Gases scatter blue light
• Why is the sky red?
• Setting Sun passes through thicker
atmosphere
• Only red is left, blue scattered to space
Chapter 20
Pressure and Density
• Air pressure – force due to weight of overlying air
• Greatest near surface
• Decreases upward
• 14.7 psi (1 atm) at sea level.
• Air density – mass of air/vol
• Maximum at sea level
• Decreases upward
Chapter 20
P and T Relations
• P & T conditions change with elevation
• P - higher near surface; lower above
• When air moves from higher to lower P, it…
• Expands & cools.
• Moving from lower to higher P, it…
• Sinks, shrinks, and warms
• Called adiabatic cooling and heating
Chapter 20
Relative Humidity
• Air has varying water amounts:
• Dry (desert) 0.3%
• Humid (tropical rainforest) 4.0%
• Water content described by relative humidity
• Ratio (%) of measured water content to max possible
• Dry air –low relative humidty
• Humid air – high relative humidity
• 100% relative humidity air is saturated
• Under-saturated air has <100% relative humidity
Chapter 20
Relative Humidity
• Moisture content changes with T.
• Cold air holds less; warm air more.
• Warm, under-saturated air becomes saturated as it cools.
• Saturation T is the dewpoint
• Below dewpoint…
• Water forms dew or frost
Chapter 20
Relative Humidity
• Rising air cools (adiabatically) to form tiny water droplets
• Common phenomena -> form clouds
• Clouds can dissipate by adiabatic heating
Chapter 20
Latent Heat
• Water in air can change its state
• Liquid >gas or visa versa
• With state changes, air T also changes
• T change is not due to external energy; hence, “latent.”
• Instead, derives from state change alone
• Evaporating water absorbs heat, cools air
• Condensing water releases heat, warms air
Chapter 20
Atmospheric Layers
• Atmosphere is thermally layered.
• Troposphere (0 - 9 to 12 km).
• Mixing layer.
• All weather is here.
Chapter 20
Outline
• Atmosphere
-what is it?
-Composition, coloration, P-T-density relationships
-Relative humidity, latent heat, troposphere
• Circulation
-Gradients and energy input
-Movement, prevailing winds, high winds (jet streams)
• Weather
-Air masses, fronts, clouds and precipitation
-Storms (thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes)
• Climate
-Controls, belts, variability (El Nino example)
Chapter 20
Chapter 20
Atmospheric Circulation
• Troposphere experiences constant motion (wind)
• Wind velocities vary from 0 to >100 km/hr
• Wind circulation has both local and global aspects
• Local –.operates
• Global –
Chapter 20
Pressure Gradients
• Lateral pressure differences drive horizontal winds
• Pressures mapped by isobars-line of equal P
• Isobars cannot cross
• Air flows from high to low P perpendicular to isobars
• Steeper the gradient, faster the airflow
Chapter 20
Energy Input
• Air circulation is result of heat movement
• Warm air expands, becomes less dense> rises
• This air is replaced by sinking, colder, denser air
• Convection driven by differential solar heating (insolation)
•  Solar energy = insolation, or incoming solar radiation
Chapter 20
Energy Input
• Solar energy bathing Earth is not evenly disturbuted
• Vertical Sun rays have more energy
• Oblique rays
• Tropics (vertical rays) receive
• Poles (oblique rays) receive
Chapter 20
Seasons
• Seasons due to 23.5 tilt to Earths rotation axis
• Earth orbits Sun, vertical rays
• More north
• More south
Chapter 20
Seasons – January vs. July
Chapter 20
Atmospheric Movement
• Troposphere divided into 6 N-S motion cells
• Hadley cells – low latitude
• Ferrel cells – mid latitude
• Polar cells – high latitude
• Hadley cell – Rising
equatorial air creates low P,cools and rains
Chapter 20
• Rotation (via Coriolis effect), complicates N-S flow
• Cell airflow is deflected E or W depending on flow direction
• Forms convergent and divergent zones
• Cooling air sinks, warm air rises
Atmospheric Movement
Chapter 20
Prevailing Winds
• Result is regular wind directions
• Called prevailing winds
• May be locally modified
Chapter 20
High Winds
• Troposphere thickness changes with latitude
• Warm equatorial air expands it
• Cold polar air thins it
• At given altitude, equatorial pressure will be higher
• Causes equatorial high-altitude air to flow towards poles
• Air atop Hadley cells spill over top of Ferrel cells.
• Coriolis deflects these winds too!
Chapter 20
High Winds
• High-altitude pressure gradient
• Over
• High-altitude westerlies can
• Called
Chapter 20
Outline
• Atmosphere
-what is it?
-Composition, coloration, P-T-density relationships
-Relative humidity, latent heat, troposphere
• Circulation
-Gradients and energy input
-Movement, prevailing winds, high winds (jet streams)
• Weather
-Air masses, fronts, clouds and precipitation
-Storms (thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes)
• Climate
-Controls, belts, variability (El Nino example)
Chapter 20
Chapter 20
Weather
• Local-scale conditions of T,P wind speed, humidity
• Reflects prevailing winds plus local variations
• Variation in topography and vegetation
• Land vs. sea.
• A weather system affects a region for a short time
Chapter 20
Air Masses
• Air packages with unique recognizable properties
• >1,500 km across, they flow over a region for days
• Characteristics reflect origin and changes
• Weather changes dramatically when air masses changes
Chapter 20
Fronts
• Fronts – boundaries between air masses
• Curved surfaces that lead air masses
• Cold fronts:
• Steep T and P gradients –move fast
• Flow beneath warm air masses
• Pushes up warm, humid air, and creates storms
Chapter 20
Fronts
• Warm front:
• More gradual P and T gradient – move slow
• Warm air climbs up over colder air
• Pushes cold air into wedge
• Incline reflects less steep T/P gradients
• Warm air rising up the front causes broad cloud cover/precip
Chapter 20
Clouds and Precipitation
• Water vapor in saturated air changes states by..
• Condensing as water droplets
• Precipitating as ice crystals
• Condensation nuclei help initiate this change
• Microscopic solid or liquid particles
Chapter 20
Clouds and Precipitation
• Several air-lifting mechanisms.
• Convective lifting – warmed air rises
• Frontal lifting – air is carried upward along fronts
• Convergence lifting – converging windds force air upward
• Orographic lifting – air must raise to pass over mountains
Chapter 20
Clouds and Precipitation
• Rain, snow, sleet form in 2 ways,
• Collison & coalescence – small droplets collide/merge
• Drops fall when too large to suspend
• Typical raindrops are 2mm
• Drops >5 mm break up
• Cold air near ground turns rain to sleet
Chapter 20
Cloud Types
• Clouds form in troposphere, controlled by:
• Air stability
• Elevation at which moisture condenses
• Wind conditions
Chapter 20
Cloud Types
• Clouds described by shape:
• Cirrus – wipsy, thin, feathery
• Cumulus – puffy, cottony
• Stratus – stable, layered
• Prefixes narrow cloud types.
• Cirro – high altitude
• Alto – mid altitude
• Nimbo – rain producing
Chapter 20
Storms
• Storms develop along
• Centered by
• Fueled by
• Result:
Chapter 20
Thunderstorms
• Local pulses of
• Rising air forms
• Latent heat released by
• Cumulus clouds
• Anvil head
• Heavy rains
Chapter 20
Thunderstorms
• Lightning is
• Scientists do not
• Cloud bases develop a
• Result: buildup of
• Air is a good insulator; prevents
• Eventually, charge imbalance
Chapter 20
Thunderstorms
• Lightning leader advances from
• Return stroke starts
• Connect to form
• Thunder is a
• Bolt heats air
• Air expands explosively.
Chapter 20
Tornadoes
• Near-vertical
• Air moves with
• Local winds up to
• Extremely
Chapter 20
Tornadoes
• Tornadoes develop along
• Strong W winds
• Strong SE surface winds
• Shear initiates
• Drafts tip the rotating
Chapter 20
Tornadoes
• Tornadoes prevalent in
• Proper conditions;
• Cold polar air from
• Warm moist air pushed
• Tornado-prone region called
Chapter 20
Hurricanes
• Huge low-P cyclonic storms from tropical Atlantic.
• Defined by
• Fueled by
• Originate in
• Do not form near
Chapter 20
Hurricanes
• Hurricanes develop in summer & late fall.
• Form over warm tropical ocean waters
• Cyclonic low-P “tropical disturbances”
• Air rises, cools, condenses;
• Heat buoys air, creates
• Over time, storm gains
• Size range –
• Strength –
Chapter 20
Hurricanes
• Storm “named” when winds exceed
• Named in
• Alternating male/female with
• Hurricane tracks move
• Landfall removes
Chapter 20
Hurricanes
• Hurricane-like storms outside the Atlantic are called…
• Typhoons –
• Cyclones –
Chapter 20
Hurricanes
• Intensity is ranked 
• Category 1: Wind speed > 119 km/h; pressure > 980 mbars
• Category 5: Wind speed > 250 km/h; pressure < 920 mbars
Chapter 20
Hurricanes
• 2005 hurricane season set records:
• Most named storms (26) – previous record 21 in 1933.
• Most hurricanes (13) – Previous record 12 in 1969.
• Most category 5s (3) – Previous record 2 in 1960 and 61.
• Most major hurricanes (Cat. 3 or higher - 7).
• Most major hurricanes in the U.S. (4).
 Increased stormy trend likely reflects climate change.
Chapter 20
Outline
• Atmosphere
-what is it?
-Composition, coloration, P-T-density relationships
-Relative humidity, latent heat, troposphere
• Circulation
-Gradients and energy input
-Movement, prevailing winds, high winds (jet streams)
• Weather
-Air masses, fronts, clouds and precipitation
-Storms (thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes)
• Climate
-Controls, belts, variability (El Nino example)
Chapter 20
Chapter 20
Climate
• “climate” refers to
• Long-term
• Trends include
Chapter 20
Climate Controls
• Climatic conditions governed by:
• Latitude – N or S position.
• Determines
• Hotter near
• Colder near
• Seasonally
• Altitude – Height above SL.
• Elevation linked to
• For same latitude:
• Lower elevations
• Higher elevations
• ~6oC/km lapse rate.
Chapter 20
Climate Controls
• Climatic conditions governed by:
• Proximity to
• Land heats & cools faster than
• Near oceans have less
Chapter 20
Climate Controls
• Climatic conditions governed by:
• Proximity to ocean currents
• Warm currents produce
Chapter 20
Climate Controls
• Climatic conditions governed by:
• Proximity to
• Mountains alter air flow -
• Mountains modify
• Heavy precipitation on
• Rain shadow
Chapter 20
Climate Controls
• Climatic conditions governed by:
• Proximity to
• Latitudinally
• Govern
• Directly control
Chapter 20
Climate Belts
• Climatic belts classified by
Chapter 20
Climate Variability
• Climate can change in cyclic patterns.
• Example: El Niño – Oscillation (ENSO) -> air/water circulation
off Peru.
Normal circulation is:
• Easterlies push Peru
• Upwelling deep, cold,
• Rain in
Chapter 20
Climate Variability
• During El Niño, atmosphere-ocean circulation changes:
• Westerlies develop
• Low P zone moves
• Suppresses Peru
• Drought in

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18 atmosphere climate_forstudents

  • 2. Chapter 20 Outline • Atmosphere -what is it? -Composition, coloration, P-T-density relationships -Relative humidity, latent heat, troposphere • Circulation -Gradients and energy input -Movement, prevailing winds, high winds (jet streams) • Weather -Air masses, fronts, clouds and precipitation -Storms (thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes) • Climate -Controls, belts, variability (El Nino example) Chapter 20
  • 3. Chapter 20 Introduction • Earth has a well-developed atmosphere (atm). •  gas mixture called • Density & pressure variations cause air motion • Atmosphere governs physical conditions of weather • Temperature (T). • Pressure (P). • Moisture content. • Wind velocity. • Wind direction. • Climate is long term weather behavior
  • 4. Chapter 20 Atmospheric Components • Present atmosphere comprised of a gas mix: • Nitrogen 78% • Oxygen 21% • Other gases 1% • Aerosols – tiny suspended particles • Liquid droplets solid dust particles
  • 5. Chapter 20 Atmospheric Coloration • Color due to light energy dispersion • Light scattered passing through atm • Some light returns to space • Why is the sky blue? • When the Sun is overhead.. • Gases scatter blue light • Why is the sky red? • Setting Sun passes through thicker atmosphere • Only red is left, blue scattered to space
  • 6. Chapter 20 Pressure and Density • Air pressure – force due to weight of overlying air • Greatest near surface • Decreases upward • 14.7 psi (1 atm) at sea level. • Air density – mass of air/vol • Maximum at sea level • Decreases upward
  • 7. Chapter 20 P and T Relations • P & T conditions change with elevation • P - higher near surface; lower above • When air moves from higher to lower P, it… • Expands & cools. • Moving from lower to higher P, it… • Sinks, shrinks, and warms • Called adiabatic cooling and heating
  • 8. Chapter 20 Relative Humidity • Air has varying water amounts: • Dry (desert) 0.3% • Humid (tropical rainforest) 4.0% • Water content described by relative humidity • Ratio (%) of measured water content to max possible • Dry air –low relative humidty • Humid air – high relative humidity • 100% relative humidity air is saturated • Under-saturated air has <100% relative humidity
  • 9. Chapter 20 Relative Humidity • Moisture content changes with T. • Cold air holds less; warm air more. • Warm, under-saturated air becomes saturated as it cools. • Saturation T is the dewpoint • Below dewpoint… • Water forms dew or frost
  • 10. Chapter 20 Relative Humidity • Rising air cools (adiabatically) to form tiny water droplets • Common phenomena -> form clouds • Clouds can dissipate by adiabatic heating
  • 11. Chapter 20 Latent Heat • Water in air can change its state • Liquid >gas or visa versa • With state changes, air T also changes • T change is not due to external energy; hence, “latent.” • Instead, derives from state change alone • Evaporating water absorbs heat, cools air • Condensing water releases heat, warms air
  • 12. Chapter 20 Atmospheric Layers • Atmosphere is thermally layered. • Troposphere (0 - 9 to 12 km). • Mixing layer. • All weather is here.
  • 13. Chapter 20 Outline • Atmosphere -what is it? -Composition, coloration, P-T-density relationships -Relative humidity, latent heat, troposphere • Circulation -Gradients and energy input -Movement, prevailing winds, high winds (jet streams) • Weather -Air masses, fronts, clouds and precipitation -Storms (thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes) • Climate -Controls, belts, variability (El Nino example) Chapter 20
  • 14. Chapter 20 Atmospheric Circulation • Troposphere experiences constant motion (wind) • Wind velocities vary from 0 to >100 km/hr • Wind circulation has both local and global aspects • Local –.operates • Global –
  • 15. Chapter 20 Pressure Gradients • Lateral pressure differences drive horizontal winds • Pressures mapped by isobars-line of equal P • Isobars cannot cross • Air flows from high to low P perpendicular to isobars • Steeper the gradient, faster the airflow
  • 16. Chapter 20 Energy Input • Air circulation is result of heat movement • Warm air expands, becomes less dense> rises • This air is replaced by sinking, colder, denser air • Convection driven by differential solar heating (insolation) •  Solar energy = insolation, or incoming solar radiation
  • 17. Chapter 20 Energy Input • Solar energy bathing Earth is not evenly disturbuted • Vertical Sun rays have more energy • Oblique rays • Tropics (vertical rays) receive • Poles (oblique rays) receive
  • 18. Chapter 20 Seasons • Seasons due to 23.5 tilt to Earths rotation axis • Earth orbits Sun, vertical rays • More north • More south
  • 19. Chapter 20 Seasons – January vs. July
  • 20. Chapter 20 Atmospheric Movement • Troposphere divided into 6 N-S motion cells • Hadley cells – low latitude • Ferrel cells – mid latitude • Polar cells – high latitude • Hadley cell – Rising equatorial air creates low P,cools and rains
  • 21. Chapter 20 • Rotation (via Coriolis effect), complicates N-S flow • Cell airflow is deflected E or W depending on flow direction • Forms convergent and divergent zones • Cooling air sinks, warm air rises Atmospheric Movement
  • 22. Chapter 20 Prevailing Winds • Result is regular wind directions • Called prevailing winds • May be locally modified
  • 23. Chapter 20 High Winds • Troposphere thickness changes with latitude • Warm equatorial air expands it • Cold polar air thins it • At given altitude, equatorial pressure will be higher • Causes equatorial high-altitude air to flow towards poles • Air atop Hadley cells spill over top of Ferrel cells. • Coriolis deflects these winds too!
  • 24. Chapter 20 High Winds • High-altitude pressure gradient • Over • High-altitude westerlies can • Called
  • 25. Chapter 20 Outline • Atmosphere -what is it? -Composition, coloration, P-T-density relationships -Relative humidity, latent heat, troposphere • Circulation -Gradients and energy input -Movement, prevailing winds, high winds (jet streams) • Weather -Air masses, fronts, clouds and precipitation -Storms (thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes) • Climate -Controls, belts, variability (El Nino example) Chapter 20
  • 26. Chapter 20 Weather • Local-scale conditions of T,P wind speed, humidity • Reflects prevailing winds plus local variations • Variation in topography and vegetation • Land vs. sea. • A weather system affects a region for a short time
  • 27. Chapter 20 Air Masses • Air packages with unique recognizable properties • >1,500 km across, they flow over a region for days • Characteristics reflect origin and changes • Weather changes dramatically when air masses changes
  • 28. Chapter 20 Fronts • Fronts – boundaries between air masses • Curved surfaces that lead air masses • Cold fronts: • Steep T and P gradients –move fast • Flow beneath warm air masses • Pushes up warm, humid air, and creates storms
  • 29. Chapter 20 Fronts • Warm front: • More gradual P and T gradient – move slow • Warm air climbs up over colder air • Pushes cold air into wedge • Incline reflects less steep T/P gradients • Warm air rising up the front causes broad cloud cover/precip
  • 30. Chapter 20 Clouds and Precipitation • Water vapor in saturated air changes states by.. • Condensing as water droplets • Precipitating as ice crystals • Condensation nuclei help initiate this change • Microscopic solid or liquid particles
  • 31. Chapter 20 Clouds and Precipitation • Several air-lifting mechanisms. • Convective lifting – warmed air rises • Frontal lifting – air is carried upward along fronts • Convergence lifting – converging windds force air upward • Orographic lifting – air must raise to pass over mountains
  • 32. Chapter 20 Clouds and Precipitation • Rain, snow, sleet form in 2 ways, • Collison & coalescence – small droplets collide/merge • Drops fall when too large to suspend • Typical raindrops are 2mm • Drops >5 mm break up • Cold air near ground turns rain to sleet
  • 33. Chapter 20 Cloud Types • Clouds form in troposphere, controlled by: • Air stability • Elevation at which moisture condenses • Wind conditions
  • 34. Chapter 20 Cloud Types • Clouds described by shape: • Cirrus – wipsy, thin, feathery • Cumulus – puffy, cottony • Stratus – stable, layered • Prefixes narrow cloud types. • Cirro – high altitude • Alto – mid altitude • Nimbo – rain producing
  • 35. Chapter 20 Storms • Storms develop along • Centered by • Fueled by • Result:
  • 36. Chapter 20 Thunderstorms • Local pulses of • Rising air forms • Latent heat released by • Cumulus clouds • Anvil head • Heavy rains
  • 37. Chapter 20 Thunderstorms • Lightning is • Scientists do not • Cloud bases develop a • Result: buildup of • Air is a good insulator; prevents • Eventually, charge imbalance
  • 38. Chapter 20 Thunderstorms • Lightning leader advances from • Return stroke starts • Connect to form • Thunder is a • Bolt heats air • Air expands explosively.
  • 39. Chapter 20 Tornadoes • Near-vertical • Air moves with • Local winds up to • Extremely
  • 40. Chapter 20 Tornadoes • Tornadoes develop along • Strong W winds • Strong SE surface winds • Shear initiates • Drafts tip the rotating
  • 41. Chapter 20 Tornadoes • Tornadoes prevalent in • Proper conditions; • Cold polar air from • Warm moist air pushed • Tornado-prone region called
  • 42. Chapter 20 Hurricanes • Huge low-P cyclonic storms from tropical Atlantic. • Defined by • Fueled by • Originate in • Do not form near
  • 43. Chapter 20 Hurricanes • Hurricanes develop in summer & late fall. • Form over warm tropical ocean waters • Cyclonic low-P “tropical disturbances” • Air rises, cools, condenses; • Heat buoys air, creates • Over time, storm gains • Size range – • Strength –
  • 44. Chapter 20 Hurricanes • Storm “named” when winds exceed • Named in • Alternating male/female with • Hurricane tracks move • Landfall removes
  • 45. Chapter 20 Hurricanes • Hurricane-like storms outside the Atlantic are called… • Typhoons – • Cyclones –
  • 46. Chapter 20 Hurricanes • Intensity is ranked  • Category 1: Wind speed > 119 km/h; pressure > 980 mbars • Category 5: Wind speed > 250 km/h; pressure < 920 mbars
  • 47. Chapter 20 Hurricanes • 2005 hurricane season set records: • Most named storms (26) – previous record 21 in 1933. • Most hurricanes (13) – Previous record 12 in 1969. • Most category 5s (3) – Previous record 2 in 1960 and 61. • Most major hurricanes (Cat. 3 or higher - 7). • Most major hurricanes in the U.S. (4).  Increased stormy trend likely reflects climate change.
  • 48. Chapter 20 Outline • Atmosphere -what is it? -Composition, coloration, P-T-density relationships -Relative humidity, latent heat, troposphere • Circulation -Gradients and energy input -Movement, prevailing winds, high winds (jet streams) • Weather -Air masses, fronts, clouds and precipitation -Storms (thunderstorms, tornadoes, hurricanes) • Climate -Controls, belts, variability (El Nino example) Chapter 20
  • 49. Chapter 20 Climate • “climate” refers to • Long-term • Trends include
  • 50. Chapter 20 Climate Controls • Climatic conditions governed by: • Latitude – N or S position. • Determines • Hotter near • Colder near • Seasonally • Altitude – Height above SL. • Elevation linked to • For same latitude: • Lower elevations • Higher elevations • ~6oC/km lapse rate.
  • 51. Chapter 20 Climate Controls • Climatic conditions governed by: • Proximity to • Land heats & cools faster than • Near oceans have less
  • 52. Chapter 20 Climate Controls • Climatic conditions governed by: • Proximity to ocean currents • Warm currents produce
  • 53. Chapter 20 Climate Controls • Climatic conditions governed by: • Proximity to • Mountains alter air flow - • Mountains modify • Heavy precipitation on • Rain shadow
  • 54. Chapter 20 Climate Controls • Climatic conditions governed by: • Proximity to • Latitudinally • Govern • Directly control
  • 55. Chapter 20 Climate Belts • Climatic belts classified by
  • 56. Chapter 20 Climate Variability • Climate can change in cyclic patterns. • Example: El Niño – Oscillation (ENSO) -> air/water circulation off Peru. Normal circulation is: • Easterlies push Peru • Upwelling deep, cold, • Rain in
  • 57. Chapter 20 Climate Variability • During El Niño, atmosphere-ocean circulation changes: • Westerlies develop • Low P zone moves • Suppresses Peru • Drought in