1. International Business Management Report
International
Business
Management Report
Prepared By :
Arvind Bindal
Anish Garg
Amrit Aggarwal
Ruchir Sood
Shivang Saxena
Indian Institute of Sunayna Khoud
Planning & Management Sumit Badoria
Satbari, New Delhi
Yash Rathore
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2. International Business Management Report
Index
S . NO T O PI C PAGE
1. C E RT I FI CA T E 3
2. A C K O W L E DG E M E NT 4
3. I NT RO D UC T I O N 5
4. L I B E RA L I ZA T I O N 7
5. P RI V AT I ZA T I O N 14
6. G L O B AL I ZA T I O N 20
7. C O N CL US I O N 26
8. B I B L I O G R A PH Y 37
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3. International Business Management Report
C E RT I FI C AT E
This is to certify that the Project Report titled “ Drawbacks of
liberalization, Privatization, Globalization in Indian Business”
submitted by :
Name Roll No
1. ArvindBindal 22
2. YashRathore
3. RuchirSood
4. AnishGarg 13
5. AmritAggarwal
6. ArjunVij
7. ShivangSaxena
8. SunayanaKhound
9. SumitBadoria
embodies the work done by them On/Off campus is under my
supervision.
Date: _____________
Signature:_________________
(Prof: PankajUpadhayay)
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4. International Business Management Report
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This project involved the collection and analysis of
information from a wide variety of sources and the efforts
of many people beyond me. Thus it would not have been
possible to achieve the results reported in this document
without their help, support and encouragement.
I will like to express my gratitude to the following people
for their help in the work leading to this report:
Prof: PankajUpadhayay: for their useful comments on the
subject matter and for the knowledge I gained by sharing
ideas with them.
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5. International Business Management Report
I NT RO D UC T I O N
Rajiv G a n d hi ’s g o v er n me n t i n i ti a te d th e po l i c y of
l i b er a l i za ti o n s i nc e mi d - 8 0s . T he l i b er a l i za ti o n i ni t i a ti v es ha v e
b e e n u n de r ta k en i n I n di a w i t h a v i ew to i n cr e a s e a p r o d u c ti o n,
i m pr o v e q ua l i ty a n d g e t a c c es s t o ma r ke t f o r p r o d uc ts a nd
s er v i c e a br o a d. R a di ca l l i ber a l i za ti o n or g l o ba l i za ti o n
m e a s ur es ha v e b e e n br o ug h t i n s i n ce J ul y 1 99 1 to m a k e t he
I n d i a n ec o no my p r o g r es s i v e l y ma r ke t o r i e nt e d a nd i n te g r a te i t
w i t h t h e e m er g i n g g l o ba l e co no m y s tr u ct ur e. T he s e m ea s ur es
i n cl u de r e d u ct i o n a n d r a ti o na l i z a ti o n o f e x c i s e d uty a nd
c u s to ms d ut i es , del i c e ns i ng of s ev er a l d r ug and
p h a r ma c eu ti c a l p r o d uc ts , r ea dy a c c es s to i mp o r t o f r a w
m a ter i a l a n d ca pi ta l g o o ds a n d s o o n.
It has c r e a t ed an e n v i r o n me n t co n d uc i v e to an
e n te r p r i s e, i n v es t m e nt a nd i nn o v a ti o n. I n di a n i n du s tr i es ha v e
s ta r te d to a ttr a c t f o r ei g n po r tf o l i o i nv es tm e nt a n d e q ui ty
p a r ti ci p a ti o n i n n ew v e n t ur es . T h e g o v er n me n t i s co m mi tt e d
t o ma ke f o r ei g n p l a y er s f ee t a t e a s e t o i n v es t d i r ec tl y a nd
b r i ng w i t h i t n ew t e c hno l o g y a nd m a r ke ti ng s ki l l s .
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6. International Business Management Report
T h er e ha s be e n i m p r es s i v e g r o w th i n F D I i nf l o w s t o I n di a
w i t h th e i ntr o d uc t i o n o f po l i cy r ef o r ms . A s co m pa r e d to a n e a r
t o t a l co n c e ntr a t i o n i n m a nu f a ct ur i ng ti l l 1 9 91 , t h e b u l k o f ne w
i nf l o w ha s co m e i n th e e n er g y a nd s e r v i ce s e cto r .
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7. International Business Management Report
LIBERALIZATION
LIBERALIZATION
T h e Ne w I n d u s t r i a l P o l i c y , 19 91
A n u m ber o f s i g n i f i c a n t e co no mi c c h a n g es i nt r o du c e d b y
m a ny a n u m ber of co u ntr i es all the world o v er , t he
e n co ur a g i n g r es u l ts o f t he l i b er a l i za ti o n m ea s ur e s i n tr o d u ce d
i n 1 9 80 s by t he G o v er n me n t o f I nd i a , a nd th e pr ec a r i o us
e co no mi c s i t u a ti o n th a t p r ev a i l e d d u r i ng t h e l a te r pa r t 8 0s
h a v e en co ur a g ed a n d f o r c ed t he t h en Co ng r es s g o v er n me n t,
w hi c h c a m e b a c k to po w er a t t h e c e nt r e , u n de r th e l ea d er s hi p
o f S hr i . P. V. N a r a s i mh a R a o — a no n - N e hr u f a mi l y me m be r , to
t a ke s o m e bo l d m e a s ur es to r e j u v en a t e th e e co n o my a n d to
a c c el e r a te t he pa c e o f dev el o p me n t. I n t hi s b a ck g r o u n d, t he
G o v er n me n t o f In d i a a n no un c e d i ts N e w In d u s t ri a l Po l i c y (N IP
o r I P ) o n J u l y 24 , 1 9 91 . T h e i m po r t a nt o bj e ct i v e s a r e:
a ) T o co r r e c t t h e d i s to r ti o ns th a t m a y ha v e cr e pt i n, a n d
c o ns o l i d a t e t h e s t r e n g t hs b ui l t o n t h e g a i ns a l r ea dy ma d e
b ) T o ma i n ta i n s u s t a i n ed g r o w t h i n t h e p r o d u c ti v i ty a n d
g a i nf ul em pl o y me n t
c ) T o a t ta i n i n te r n a t i o na l co m pe ti ti v e n es s .
T h er e f o r e , th e ba s i c ph i l o s o p hy o f t he N ew IP , 19 9 1 ha s
b e e n t he co n ti nu i ty w i t h c ha n g e . B e c a u s e , t h e n e w po l i cy
r e pr es e nts a r en ew e d i ni ti a ti v e t o w a r ds co ns o l i d a t i n g th e
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8. International Business Management Report
g a i ns o f n a ti o n a l r e co ns tr u cti o n a t t hi s cr u ci a l s ta g e. B ut w ha t
i s mo r e i m po r ta n t i s t he c ha n g e ( i n co n ti n ui t y w i t h c ha ng e ) —
c h a ng e i n t he a t ti t u d e o f t he s ta t e t o w a r ds t h e i n d us tr i a l
s o ci et y , c h a ng e f r o m c e ntr a l l y pl a n n ed e co no my t o ma r ke t l e d
e co no my , c ha ng e f r o m ex c es s i v e g o v er nm e nt i nt er v e nt i o n to
m i ni ma l i nt er v e n ti o n , ch a ng e from na ti o na l i za ti o n to
privatization, c h a ng e from s u bs i di za ti o n and cr o s s -
s u bs i di za ti o n t o g r a d ua l w i t h dr a w a l o f s ub s i dy , e t c. B ut t hes e
c h a ng es , w hi c h t h e g o v er n me n t h a s i n tr o du c e d, r ep r es e nt a
s ha r p d e pa r t ur e f r o m t he e a r l i e r i n d us t r i a l po l i c i es . T h e s e
c ha nge s p e r ta i n b ro ad l y to f i ve ar e as v i z ,
a) Industrial licensing,
b) Public sector policy
c ) MR T P A c t , 1 969
d ) F o r e i gn i n v e s t m e n t
e ) F o r e i g n t e c h n o l o g y a gr e e m e n t s .
I n d u s t r i a l Li c e n s i n g
T hi s i s o n e o f t he a r e a s i n w h i ch s u bs t a n ti a l ch a n g e h a s
b e e n ma de b y th e g o v er nm e nt. W i t h a v i ew to g i v e ef f e ct to
t h es e c ha ng es , t h e g o v er nm e nt i s s ue d a n o ti f i c a ti o n [ vi z . ,
N o t i f i c a t i o n N o . 4 7 7 ( E ) ] o n J u l y 2 5 , 19 9 1 a n d t hi s no ti f i c a t i o n
h a s ex e m pt e d t he i n d us tr i a l u n de r t a k i n g s f r o m th e o pe r a ti o n
o f t he f o l l o w i ng S e c ti o ns o f In d u s t r i e s D e ve l o p m e n t a n d
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9. International Business Management Report
R e gu l a t i o n s A c t , 1 95 1 s u b j e c t t o t he f ul f i l m e nt o f ce r t a i n
c o nd i t i o n s .
(a) S e cti o n 1 0 (w hi ch d e a l s w i th r e g i s tr a ti o n o f ex i s t i n g
i n d us t r i a l u n de r ta ki ng s )
(b) S e cti o n 1 1 (w hi ch i s c o n c er ne d w i t h th e l i ce ns i n g f o r
n ew i n d us tr i a l un d er ta ki ng s )
(c) S e cti o n 1 3 (w hi c h i s co n cer n e d w i t h t h e l i c en s i ng
r e qu i r e m en ts f o r s u bs t a nti a l e x p a n s i o n ).
F ur th er , the s e co n d s c he d ul e a pp e n de d to th e
n o t i f i ca ti o n ci t ed a bo v e [ v i z. , N o . 4 7 7 ( E ) ] l i s ts t h e i nd us tr i es
w hi c h a r e s u bj e ct to m a nd a to r y i n d u s tr i a l l i c e ns i n g . A c co r di ng
to th i s no ti f i ca t i o n, o nl y 1 8 i n d us t r i e s w e r e s u b j e ct to
c o mp ul s o r y i nd us tr i a l l i ce ns i n g . F ur th er , f i v e mo r e i n d us t r i es
h a v e b ee n ex c l u d e d f r o m t he l i s t o f i nd us tr i es w h i ch a r e
s u bj e ct to c o m pu l s o r y i n d us tr i a l l i ce ns i n g s u bs eq u e n tl y . T ha t
m e a n s , o nl y 13 i n dus tr i es a r e no w s u bj e ct to c o m p ul s o r y
i n d us t r i a l l i ce ns i n g .
P u b l i c Se c t o r P o l i c y
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10. International Business Management Report
A l a r g e n um b er o f Pu bl i c S e cto r E n t er pr i s es ha v e f a i l e d to
a c hi ev e a t l e a s t a r e a s o na bl e r a t e o f s u cc es s . S o me o f t he
f a c to r s w hi ch ha v e co n tr i b u te d to t hi s s i t ua ti o n a r e o v er
s ta f f i n g a n d o v er ma na g i ng , pr i ce a n d d i s tr i bu ti o ns co ntr o l s ,
e t c. H en c e, t he g o v er n me n t, i n i ts In d us tr i a l P o l i c y , 19 9 1,
i n tr o du c e d t he nu m b er o f s i g ni f i ca n t c h a n g e s p er ta i n i ng to t he
P S E s . S o m e o f th e i m po r ta n t cha n g es e nv i s a g ed b y t he N ew
P o l i c y a r e s u m ma r i z e d b el o w .
P r i o r to t he a n n o u n c em e nt o f N ew In d us tr i a l P o l i c y ,
1 9 9 1, s ev e nt ee n i n d us tr i es w er e r es er v e d ex cl us i v el y f o r t he
s ta te f o r th ei r f u t ur e de v e l o p me n t. F ur t her , w i t h r es p e ct to
a no t her 12 i n d us t r i es , t he s ta te w a s to p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e
b y t a ki n g i ni ti a t i v e to es ta bl i s h n ew u n d er ta ki ng s . B es i d es , the
s ta te ha d p o w e r t o e nt er i n to a ny o t her a r e a r e s e r v e d f o r the
p r i v a t e s e cto r . H o w e v er , th e f a i l u r e o n t he p a r t o f ma j o r i ty o f
P S E s h a s f o r c ed t h e g o v er n me n t t o r e v i ew i ts ea r l i er d e ci s i o n.
C o ns e q ue n tl y , th e g o v er n me n t i n i ts N ew I n d us tr i a l Po l i c y ,
1 9 9 1 ha s pr un ed t he l i s t o f t he i n d us t r i e s r es e r v e d f o r t he
public s ec to r to o nl y 8. F ur t h er , the g o v er n me n t has
d e r es er v e d 2 mo r e i nd us tr i es . A s a r es ul t, o nl y s i x i n d us tr i es
a r e no w r es e r v ed f o r t he p u bl i c s e cto r . T h ey a r e: ( a ) A r ms a nd
a m m un i t i o n a n d a l l i ed i te ms o f d ef e n c e e q ui pm e n t, a i r cr a f t
a n d w a r s hi ps , (b ) A to mi c e n er g y , ( c ) Co a l a nd l i g n i t e, ( d)
M i n er a l o i l s , (e) M i n er a l s s pe ci f i e d i n t h e s c he d ul e t o t he
A to m i c E ner g y Or d er , 1 95 3, a n d ( f ) R a i l w a y tr a ns p o r t. H e n ce ,
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11. International Business Management Report
t h e f o c us o f th e p u b l i c s e c to r w i l l be o nl y o n s t r a te g i c a nd
h i g h t e c h i n d us t r i es a nd o n ba s i c i nf r a s tr u ct ur a l pr o j e c ts .
H o w ev e r t h e o bj e c ti v e o f t he N ew I nd us tr i a l Po l i c y ha s b e en to
w i t hd r a w t he pu b l i c s e c to r i nv e s t m en t f r o m th e a c ti v i ti es
w hi c h c a n s uc ce s s f ul l y b e ta k en u p b y t he pr i v a t e s e cto r
e n te r p r i s e s . T he e m p ha s i s o f PS E s i n f u t ur e w i l l be o n : (a )
Basic and e s s en t i a l i nf r a s tr u ctu r a l f a ci l i ti es , (b) M i n er a l
r es o ur ces , ( c ) C r u c i a l a r e a s i n t he i n ter es t o f th e e co no m y i n
t h e l o n g r u n a n d w her e th e p r i v a t e s e cto r i n v es t m en t i s
i na d e qu a t e , a nd ( d ) D ef e n ce eq ui p m e nt.
W i t h a v i ew to mo b i l i ze th e r e s o ur ces a n d to h a v e a
w i d er p u bl i c pa r ti c i p a t i o n , a pa r t of g o v er nm e n ts s ha r e
h o l di ng s i n i ts en t er pr i s es w i l l be o f f er e d to t h e m u t ua l f u n ds ,
f i n a n ci a l i ns t i t u ti o ns , e mp l o y s o f P S E s , a n d t he g e n er a l p u bl i c.
T h e N ew I n du s tr i a l Po l i cy a l s o pr o po s es s e l e c ti v e p r i v a ti z a t i o n
o f PS E s . F ur t he r , t he po l i cy a l s o p r o po s e s to cl o s e do w n the
PSEs w h i ch have b e co m e sick and w hi c h c a n no t be
r e ha bi l i t a t ed. T h e s i c k PS E s w h i c h ca n be r ev i v e d w i l l be
r ef e r e d to B o a r d f o r I n d us tr i a l a n d F i n a n c i a l R e co ns tr u ct i o n
f o r t h e f o r m ul a ti o n o f r ev i v a l pa c ka g es . T he N ew I n d us t r i a l
Policy also aims at pr o v i di n g g r e a t er o pe r a ti o na l and
m a na g er i a l a uto n o my to th e ma n a g e me n t o f PS E s a nd m a k i n g
t h e ma n a g em e nts a c co u n ta bl e f o r t he p er f o r m a nc e t hr o u g h a
s y s t em c a l l ed M em o r a n d um o f U nd e r s t a n d i n g .
M R T P A c t , 1 96 9
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12. International Business Management Report
T h e N ew I nd us t r i a l Po l i cy , 1 99 1 pr o po s es to a m en d
s ui ta bl y t he M o n o po l i es a n d R es tr i c ti v e T r a d e P r a c ti ce s A c t,
1 9 6 9. T o r em o v e t h e t hr es ho l d l i m i ts o f a s s ets i n r es pe c t o f
M R T P co m pa ni es a nd t he d o m i n a n t i n du s tr i a l u n d er ta ki ng s .
T h e i m po r ta n t o b j e cti v es o f t h i s w er e tw o i n nu m b er . T he y
are:
(a) P r ev e n ti o n o f co n ce n tr a ti o n o f e co no mi c po w e r i n
t h e h a nd s o f f ew w h i c h w i l l be d etr i m e nt a l to t h e
c o mmo n i n ter es t; a n d
(b) R e g ul a ti o n o f m o no po l i s ti c, r es tr i c ti v e a n d u nf a i r
t r a d e pr a c ti c es w h i ch a r e p ur s ue d by th e b us i n e s s
c o mm u ni ty a nd w hi c h a r e p r ej u di ci a l to t he p u b l i c
i n ter es t.
T h e N ew Po l i cy p r o po s es to r en ew t h e t hr es ho l d l i mi ts o f
a s s e ts a nd t h er e f o r e , to r e p ea l t h e P r o v i s i o ns o f M R T P A c t,
1 9 6 9 per ta i n i ng t o t he f i r s t o b j e c ti v e. H e n ce , th e M R T P A ct
n o w co n c er ne d o nl y w i t h t he p r o hi bi ti o n o f m o no po l i s t i c,
r es t r i ct i v e a nd unfair tr a de p r a c ti ce s followed by t he
i n d us t r i a l u n de r ta ki ng s a nd t he tr a di n g co m m un i t i e s .
F o r e i g n In ve s t m e n t
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13. International Business Management Report
A s f a r a s t h e di r e c t f o r e i g n i n v es t m e nt i s co n c er ne d , t he
N ew Po l i cy pr o po s es to g i v e a uto ma ti c a pp r o v a l u p to 5 1% o f
e q ui ty i n t he c a s e o f h i g h p r i o r i t y i n d us tr i es a nd i t h a s a l s o
i d en ti f i e d 34 such i nd us tr y g r o u ps . F ur th er , the po l i cy
p r o po s es to a l l o w ma j o r i ty f o r ei g n e q ui ty ho l d i ng s u p to 51%
o f e q ui ty f o r th e tr a di ng co mp a ni es w h i c h a r e e ng a g e d i n
e x po r t a c ti v i ti es . T hi s i s to e na bl e t he do m es ti c co m pa ni es a n
e a s y a c ces s to i nt er n a ti o n a l ma r ke ts . Wi th a v i ew t o ne g o t i a t e
w i t h t he l a r g e i nt er na ti o na l f i na n ci a l i ns ti t u ti o ns a n d to
a p pr o v e t he d i r e c t f o r e i g n i n v es tm e nts p r o po s a l s i n s el e c t e d
areas, the N ew P o l i cy pr o po s e s to co ns t i t u te a s pe ci a l
c o mm i t te e.
F o r e i gn T e c h n o l o g y A gr e e m e n t s
T h e N ew I n d us tr i a l Po l i cy pr o po s es to g i v e a ut o m a t i c
p e r m i s s i o n f o r f o r ei g n t e c h no l o g y a g r e em e nts i n i de n ti f i e d
h i g h pr i o r i ty i nd u s tr i es . F ur t her , i t a l s o pr o po s es to a l l o w
o th er i n d us tr i es to i m po r t f o r ei g n t e c hn o l o g y s u b j ec t to th e
f ul f i l l me n t o f c er t a i n co nd i t i o n s .
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P R IIV A T IIZ A T IIO N
PR VAT ZAT ON
Introduction
I n t he s i x ti es a nd s ev e nti es , t he p u bl i c s ec to r po l i c y ha s
b e e n l a r g el y g ui d ed b y I n d us t r i a l Po l i cy R es o l u t i o n , 1 95 6
w hi c h g a v e th e p u b l i c s e cto r a s t r a te g i c r o l e i n th e e co no my .
D ur i n g t he l a s t f o ur de ca d es , ma s s i v e i nv es tm e nts ha v e b ee n
m a de to b u i l d a p u b l i c s e cto r w hi c h h a s a c o m ma n d i ng r o l e i n
t h e e co no my . T o da y , ma n y k ey s e cto r o f t he e co no my a r e
d o mi na te d b y t he ma t ur e p ub l i c s e cto r e n te r p r i s e s t ha t ha v e
s u c ces s f u l l y ex p a n d e d t h e p r o d u ct i o n.
I n t h e ea r l y po s t - I nd e pe n de n c e y ea r s , t her e w a s v i r t ua l
c o ns e ns us a bo u t t h e n ee d f o r t he g o v e r n m e nt i nt er v e nt i o n i n
e co no mi c a c ti v i ti es . P a nd i t Ja w a h a r l a l N e h r u de s cr i be d t h e
p u b l i c s ec to r a s T e m pl es o f M o d er n In d i a . A t t h a t ti me ,
v i r t ua l l y n ei t her q u es ti o n ed t h e s t r a te g y no r r a i s ed a n y do ub ts
a bo u t i t s i m pl e me n ta ti o n. T h e n um b er o f ce n tr a l p u b l i c s e cto r
e n te r p r i s es i n cr e a s ed f r o m 5 i n t h e y ea r 1 95 1 to 24 0 by t h e
e n d o f 19 95 a nd i nv es tm e nts i n p u b l i c s e cto r u n d er ta ki ng s
( P S U s ) i nc r e a s e d f r o m R s 2 9 cr o r e i n 1 9 51 to R s . 1,7 2 , 43 8 cr o r e
b y t h e en d o f 19 9 5. T hey c o ntr i b u t e d ne a r l y o ne t h i r d o f o ur
e x po r ts . T he y made s i g ni f i ca n t co ntr i b u ti o n to i m po r t
s u bs t i t u ti o n. G o v er nm e nt u n der ta ki ng s a cc o u n t f o r mo r e t ha t
7 0% o f t he w o r k f o r ce e m pl o y e d i n t h e o r g a ni ze d s e c to r . T hey
h a v e g r ea tl y r e du c e d t h e i m ba l a n c e d o f r eg i o n a l d ev el o p me nt
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15. International Business Management Report
a n d ha v e l a i d s tr o ng b a s e f o r th e r a pi d de v el o p m e nt o f t h e
c o un tr y . S o m e o f th e PS U s h a v e e a r ne d a r ep u t a ti o n pa r
e x c el l e n ce a t t he i n ter n a t i o n a l l e v e l . S o me g i a nt p u bl i c s ec to r
u n i t s (e. g . , I n d i a n O i l C o r po r a ti o n , S t e el A u tho r i ty o f I n di a , Oi l
and N a t ur a l Gas Co mm i s s i o n , H i nd us ta n P et r o l e um
C o r po r a ti o n Lt d. , Co a l I n di a Ltd and Bharat P e tr o l e um
C o r po r a ti o n Lt d) f i g ur e in F o r t un e I nt er na ti o na l ’s large
c o mp a ni e s . F u r th e r , t he p ub l i c s e c to r a c co u nt s f o r o n e - f o ur th
o f th e co u n tr y ’s G D P.
T h er e are tw o mi l l i o n e m pl o y e es in g o v e r nm e nt
u n d er ta ki ng s a nd t h e a v er a g e em o l u me nt s pe r a n n u m a mo u n t
t o mo r e th a n R s . 50 , 0 00 e a c h. B e s i des p a y i n g hi g h er s a l a r i es ,
p u b l i c e n ter pr i s es a s s ur e j o b s e c ur i ty , g o o d w o r ki ng co n di ti o n,
a t tr a c ti v e i nc e nti v e s c he m e, pa r ti ci p a ti v e ma na g em e n t, hi g her
d e g r ee o f s a f e ty , a d eq u a t e f a ci l i t i e s , et c.
M e a n i n g o f Pr i v a t i s a t i o n
T h e r e v o l u t i o n of p r i v a t i z a t i o n s ta r t e d i n 1 9 8 0 a nd s p r e a d
t o ma n y p a r t s of t h e wo r l d . S e v e r a l c o u n t r i e s a r e p r i v a t i z i n g
their public sector enterprises. India is no exception to it.
P r i v a t i z a t i o n w a s me a n t t o i mp r o v e t h e p e r f o r ma n c e o f p u b l i c
enterprises. Privatization techniques have be e n tried in
countries like Great Britain, China, US, Tur k e y, Brazil,
M e x i c o , J a p a n , e t c . P r i v a t i z a t i o n , i n t h e n a r r o w s e n s e , me a n s
Page 15 of 37
16. International Business Management Report
t r a n s f e r o f o wn e r s h i p , o r s a l e o f p u b l i c e n t e r p r i s e s . Ho we v e r ,
p r i v a t i z a t i o n h a s b e e n u s e d i n d i f f e r e n t w a ys a s d e t a i l e d b e l o w:
1 . L i b e r a l i z a t i o n A p p r o a c h : Pr i v a ti za ti o n ma y b e us ed i n th e
s en s e of l i b er a l i za ti o n h a v i ng f ew e r co n tr o l s and
r eg ul a ti o n b y t he s t a t e i n e co no m i c a c ti v i ti es . T h i s a l s o
m e a n s s l o w i ng o f new co nt r o l s a n d r e g u l a ti o ns a n d a l s o
d i s ma n tl i ng o f t he ex i s ti n g co n tr o l s a n d r eg ul a t i o ns .
2 . R e l a t i v e Sh a r e E n l a r ge m e n t A p p r o a c h : P r i v a ti za ti o n ma y
r el a t e to e nl a r g em e n t o f t he s h a r e o f pr i v a te e nt er pr i s es
i n t h e pr o d u ct i o n o f g o o d s a n d s er v i c es i n t he ec o no my .
T hi s m ea ns th a t f a s t er e co no mi c e x p a ns i o n o f g o o ds a n d
s er v i c es pr o d u ced b y p r i v a t e s e ct o r a n d s l o w i n g d o w n o f
p r o d uc ti o n o f g o o ds a n d s e r v i ce s i n th e pu bl i c s e ct o r .
3 . A s s o c i a t i o n o f P r i v a t e S e c t o r M a n a ge m e n t A p p r o a c h :
T hi s a p pr o a c h s u g g es ts u ti l i zi ng the s er v i c es of
m a na g er i a l p er s o n nel o r ex ec u t i v es o f p r i v a t e s e c to r
e n te r p r i s es f o r th e co n d uc t a n d m a na g e m en t o f P S U s .
4. Transfer of Mi n o r i t y Equity O wn e r s h i p Approach :
P r i v a t i z a t i o n ma y b e def i n e d a s t h e tr a ns f er o f m i no r i ty
e q ui ty o w n er s hi p of pu b l i c e n te r p r i s es to p r i v a te
i n di v i d u a l s a nd i n s ti t u ti o ns s o t ha t t he u l t i m a t e c o ntr o l
c o nt i n u es to r e ma i n w i t h t h e s t a te .
5 . T r a n s f e r o f C o m p l e t e O wn e r s h i p A p p r o a c h : Pr i v a t i z a t i o n
i s a l s o us e d i n th e s e ns e o f s a l e o f a l l th e s h a r es to t he
private pa r ti e s so t ha t the p u bl i c e nt er pr i s es are
c o nv e r t e d i n to pr i v a te en t er pr i s es .
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17. International Business Management Report
Shortcomings
T ho ug h t he PS U s ha v e co n tr i b ute d h ea v i l y to de v e l o p t he
i n d us t r i a l b a s e o f t he co u ntr y , t h ey co n ti nu e , ev e n to da y , to
s uf f er f r o m a nu m b er o f s ho r t co mi ng s w h i ch a r e i d e nti f i e d
b e l o w v er y b r i ef l y .
1 . A s i za bl e n u m be r o f PS U s ha v e b ee n i n c ur r i n g a n d
r e po r t i n g l o s s es o n a co nt i nu a l b a s i s . Co ns e q ue n tl y , a
l a r g e n u m be r o f P S U s ha v e a l r e a dy b ee n r ef er r e d o f B IF R ;
2 . M ul ti pl i c i t y of a u t ho r i ti es to w ho m t he PSUs are
a c co u nt a b l e ;
3 . D el a y i n i m pl em e n ta ti o n o f pr o j e c ts l ea di ng t o co s t
e s ca l a ti o n a n d o t h er co ns e q u en ce s ;
4 . I n ef f e ct i v e a nd w i d es p r e a d i n ef f i ci e n cy o n m a n a g e m e nt ;
5 . M a n y PS U s a r e o pe r a ti ng w i t ho u t th e l e a d er (i . e . , c h i ef
e x e c ut i v e o r c ha i r ma n ) ;
6 . W i t h a v i ew to p r o v i d e o p po r t un i ti e s f o r mo r e a n d mo r e
u n e m pl o y e d y o u t hs , mo r e n um b er of p eo pl e , t ha n
r e qu i r e d , w er e r e cr ui t e d a n d t he r ef o r e , m a n y PS U s a r e
o v er - s ta f f e d r es u l ti ng i n l o w e r l a bo ur p r o d uc ti v i ty , ba d
i n d us t r i a l r el a t i o n s , e tc. ;
7 . u n - r em u ne r a ti v e p r i ci ng po l i cy ; a n d
8 . A n u mb er o f s i ck c o m p a n i es ( 4 0 c o m pa ni es ) w hi c h w e r e
i n th e pr i v a te s e c to r w a s t a k e n o v er by p u bl i c s e cto r
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18. International Business Management Report
m a i nl y to pr o t ec t t h e e m pl o y ee s . T h es e s i ck u n i t s a r e
c a us i n g a bi g dr a i n o n t h e r es o ur ce s o f t h e s t a t e; et c.
M et h o d s o f P r i va t i z a t i o n
T h er e a r e f o ur i m p o r t a n t mo d es o f pr i v a t i z a t i o n. T h ey a r e :
(a) F r a n c hi s i ng
(b) C o n tr a c ti ng
(c) L ea s i ng
(d) D i s i nv e s t me n t.
I n I n d i a , di s i nv es tm e nt o f g o v er n m e nt s ha r e o f e q u i t y i n
P S U s i s pr edo mi n a n t. It s ta r t ed i n 1 9 92 i mm e di a te l y a f t er t he
N ew E co no m i c Po l i c y i n a p h a s ed m a n ner . T he m a i n cr i ti c i s m
o f di s i n v es t me n t o f s ha r es o f PS U s i n I n di a i s tha t i t ha s be e n
p a r ti a l a n d h a l f - h ea r te d. T h er e s ee ms to b e n o pl a ns to
d i s i nv es t co m pl et el y . T h e g o v er nm e n t s ti l l w o ul d l i ke to ke ep
a do mi na n t co nt r o l . 39 co m pa ni es ha v e be e n p r o po s ed f o r
d i s i nv es tm e nt ti l l 1 9 95 - 9 6. A l l t h e co m pa ni es p r o po s ed f o r
d i s i nv es tm e nt a r e c e ntr a l PS U s . N o s t a t e l ev el PS U h a s b e en
p r o po s ed f o r di s i nv es tm e nt. It co ul d o nl y di s i nv e s t 1% to 35%
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s ha r es o f PS U s o n a n a v e r a g e. I t i s a l s o o bs er v e d t ha t th e
s ha r es of ef f i c i en t and pr o f i t - ma ki ng co mp a ni es are
d i s i nv es te d mo r e t ha n th e co mp a ni es w hi c h a r e po t en ti a l l y
s i c k o r s i c k co mp a ni es . T h e di s i n v es t m en t pe r c en t a g e i s a l s o
not much in l o s s - m a ki n g and i n ef f i ci e nt u ni ts , t h er e by
d ef ea ti ng t he p ur po s e.
P r i v a t i z a t i o n o f P S Us
M a j o r i ty o f t he i n d u s tr i a l e n ter pr i s es i n th e p u bl i c s e cto r
h a v e f a i l e d to a ch i ev e t h e d es i r ed r es ul t. Of co ur s e, a n u m ber
of f a c to r s - i n ter n a l and ex ter n a l , co n tr o l l a bl e and no n -
c o ntr o l l a bl e a r e r es po n s i bl e f o r h i s p r e ca r i o us pe r f o r ma n ce. A
l o o k a t th e hi s to r y o f p u bl i c s e cto r un d er t a k i n g s ( P S U s ) i n t he
c o un tr y r e v e a l s t h e co nt i n uo us ex pa ns i o n i n t h e r o l e o f PS U s .
C o ns e q ue n tl y , a n u m b er o f e nt er p r i s es ha v e b ee n es ta bl i s he d
a n d h u g e a mo unt o f bo r r o w e d ca pi ta l ha s be e n e m pl o y e d b y
t h e s ta te ev en i n t he no n - co r e , no n - s tr a te g i c a n d no t s o
e s s e n ti a l a r e a . H e n c e, t h e s ta t e h a s ma de a n um be r o f c ha ng es
i n i ts N ew I nd us tr i a l Po l i c y a nno un c e d o n J ul y 2 4, 1 9 9 1.
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20. International Business Management Report
GLOBALISATION
GLOBALISATION
Introduction:
T h e ex pa ns i o n o f ec o no mi c a ct i v i ti es a cr o s s p o l i ti ca l
b o un d a r i es o f n a ti o n s ta tes . M o r e i m po r ta nt, p er ha ps , i t
r ef e r s to a pr o c e s s o f i nc r e a s i n g eco no mi c i nt e g r a te d a n d
g r o w i ng e co no mi c i n t er de pe n d en c e b etw ee n co u n tr i es i n th e
w o r l d e co no my . I t i s a s s o ci a t e d n o t o nl y w i t h a n i n cr ea s i n g
c r o s s - bo r d er mo v em e nt o f g o o ds , s er v i ces , ca pi ta l te c h no l o g y
i nf o r ma ti o n a n d p eo pl e b ut a l s o w i t h a n o r g a ni za ti o n o f
e co no mi c a ct i v i ti es w h i c h s tr a d dl es n a t i o n a l bo un d a r i es . T hi s
p r o ce s s is dr i v e n by the l ur e of pr o f i t a nd t hr ea t of
c o mp e ti t i o n i n th e ma r k et.
T h e t er m G l o ba l i z a ti o n a s s u c h d e no tes a d j us tm e n t o f
n a ti o na l e co no m y w i t h t h a t o f t he w o r l d ec o no m y . It i s
c o nv e r s i o n o f a n a ti o na l ma r k et i n to i n t er na ti o na l mo bi l i t y o f
f a c to r s o f pr o d uc t i o n. In o t h er s w o r ds , i t ma y be d e s cr i be d a s
t h e i n te g r a ti o n o f na ti o na l ec o no m y w i t h th a t o f g l o b a l
e co no my .
A n i m po r ta n t a t tr i b u te o f G l o b a l i z a t i o n i s t he i n cr ea s i n g
d e g r ee of o pen n es s , w hi c h has t hr ee d i me ns i o ns , i . e. ;
Page 20 of 37
21. International Business Management Report
i n ter n a ti o n a l tr a d e , i n ter n a ti o n a l i nv es tm e nt a n d i n ter n a ti o n a l
f i n a n c e. A c co r d i ng to Wo r l d D ev el o p men t R e po r t,
G l o b a l i z a ti o n r ef l e cts t h e pr o g r e s s i v e i n te g r a ti o n o f w o r l d’s
e co no mi es .
The m a n i f e s ta ti o n of pr o d uc t i o n i n c l u d es s pa ti a l
r eo r g a ni z a t i o n of pr o d u cti o n t he i nt er p e n etr a t i o n of
i n d us t r i e s a cr o s s b o r d er s , th e s pr e a d o f f i na n ci a l m a r ke ts , a n d
t h e d i f f us i o n o f i d en ti c a l co ns u me r g o o ds to di s ta n t co u nt r i es
a n d ma s s i v e tr a ns f er o f po p u l a ti o n a cr o s s na ti o n a l f r o n ti e r s .
G l o b a l i za ti o n i s a pr o c es s o f r ea f f i r m a t i o n o f f a i t h i n t he
m a r ke ts , r e ta i ni n g t h e c ha r a ct er o f i n de pe n d en c e o f a co u ntr y .
H er e , t h e co u n tr y f o l l o w s a pr a g m a ti c po l i cy w i t h a s hi f t i n
d e ci s i o n ma ki ng f r o m g o v er nm en t to b us i n es s . T h e ma r k et
f o r c es a n d t h e l a w s o f eco no mi cs w i l l ha v e g r ea ter i m po r ta n ce
t h a n t he po l i ti ca l i d eo l o g y . T o m a ke a co un tr y a s uc c es s f ul
p a r t ner in Globalization, t he g o v e r n m e nt must play a
c o mp l i me n ta r y r o l e.
F a c t o r s c o n t r i bu t i n g t o G l o ba l i z a t i o n :
T h e i mp o r t a n t f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o Gl o b a l i z a t i o n a r e :
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22. International Business Management Report
( a ) T ec h n o l o g i c a l Ad va n c es I n c o m mu n i c a t i o n :
T e c h nol og i c a l a d v a nc e s i n c omm u ni c a t i on h a v e ma d e i t
p os si b l e t o know i n a n i nst a nt w h a t i s h a p p e ni ng i n
d i f fe re nt p a rt s o f t h e w or l d . Th e f l ow o f i n for m a t i o n a n d
i d e a s, b o ost e d greatly by the I nt e rn e t , can enable
d e v e l op i ng c ou nt ri e s t o l e a r n mo r e r a p i d l y f rom e a c h ot h e r
a nd f r om i nd u st r i a l c ou nt ri e s .
( b ) I mp r o v emen t s I n T r a n s p o r t a t i o n An d T ec h n o l o g y :
I m p r o v e m en ts i n tr a ns po r t a ti o n n e tw o r ks a n d t e c h no l o g y
a r e r e d u ci ng t h e c o s ts o f s hi p pi ng g o o ds b y w a t er , g r o un d a nd
a i r . T h i s c a n f a ci l i t a t e t he mo v em e n ts o f g o o ds . T e c hno l o g i c a l
i m pr o v em e nt s ca n en a bl e d ev el o pi ng co u ntr i es t o l e a p s t a g es
i n t he d ev e l o p me n t pr o ce s s t h a t r e l y o n i n ef f i ci e nt us es o f
n a ti o na l r es o ur ce s .
(c) O t h e r Fa c t o r s :
R i s i n g ed u ca ti o n a l l ev e l s , t e chn o l o g i ca l i nno v a t i o ns th a t
a l l o w i de a s to ci r c ul a t e , a nd t he e co no m i c f a i l u r es o f mo s t
c e n tr a l l y pl a n ne d eco no mi es have also co nt r i bu t ed to
G l o b a l i z a ti o n.
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23. International Business Management Report
T r en d s i n G l o ba l i z a t i o n :
T h e i mpo r t a n t t r e n ds i n G l o b a l i za t i o n a r e t h e f o l l o w i ng :
(a) I n t er n a t i o n a l T r a d e :
T r a de i n g o o ds a n d s er v i c es ha s g r o w n tw i c e a s f a s t a s
g l o ba l G D P i n t h e 19 9 0’s a n d t h e s h a r e a ttr i b u ta bl e to
d e v el o pi n g co u nt r i es h a s r i s en f r o m 2 3 to 2 9 p er c e n t. T her e i s
a c o m po s i ti o n a l s h i f t i n tr a de , w hi c h ha s cr e a t ed a new
p a tt er n i n t he i n t er na ti o na l ex ch a ng e o f g o o ds , s e r v i ce s , a n d
i d ea s . T r a de i n c o mpo n e nts i s o n e pa r t o f t h a t n ew pa tt er n.
A dv a n c es i n i nf o r ma ti o n t ec h no l o g y h el ps to l i n k f i r ms f r o m
d e v el o pi n g co u nt r i es i nto g l o ba l pr o d u cti o n netw o r ks . T h e
t r e m e n do us g r o w t h o f tr a d e i n s e r v i c es a n d , mo r e r e ce nt l y , o f
e l e c tr o ni c co m me r ce i s a l s o a pa r t o f t he n ew tr a de p a t te r n.
(b) International Financial Flows :
T h er e ha s b ee n i n cr e a s e i n i n te r na ti o na l ca pi ta l f l o w s o f
d e v el o pi n g co u nt r i es . H o w ev er , th e f i n a n c i a l cr i s i s o f 1 9 77 - 99
h a v e p u t t he g r o w i ng i n ter d e pen d e n ci es a mo n g c o u n tr i es i n
t h e s po tl i g h t a n d l e d to i n te ns e s c r u ti ny . S u ch f l o w s a r e
s ta r te d to r i s e a g a i n. T he f i n a nci a l per f o r m a nc e o f em er g i n g
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m a r ke ts i n t he 1 9 9 0s ma d e c a pi ta l a c co u nt l i b er a l i za ti o n a n
a t tr a c ti v e o pt i o n f o r dev el o pi ng c o u n tr i es . M a n y d ev el o pi ng
c o un tr i es h a v e b e g a n to l o o s e n c o n tr o l s o n i n f l o w s a nd
o ut f l o w s o f ca pi ta l .
T h e E a s t A s i a n me l t do w n ha s e n ha n c ed t he a tt r a ct i v en es s o f
l o n g - t er m ca pi ta l i nv es t m en t. C o un tr i es have s t a r te d to
r e co g ni ze t ha t f o r ei g n d i r e c t i nv es t m e nt br i n g s w i t h i t no t
o nl y ca pi ta l bu t also t e ch no l o g y m a r ke t a c c es s and
o r g a ni za ti o na l s k i l l s . A n a na l y s i s o f t he per i o d 19 9 6 - 97 s ho w s
t h a t f o r ei g n d i r e c t i nv es t m e nt w a s l es s v o l a ti l e th a n t he
c o mm er ci a l b a nk l o a n s a nd f o r ei g n p o r tf o l i o f l o w s .
( c ) I n t er n a t i o n a l M i g r a t i o n :
A l o n g w i th g o o d s , s e r v i c es , a nd i nv es tm e nt , pe o p l e a r e
crossing bo r d er s in large n um b er s . A c co r di n g to Wo r l d
D ev el o pm e nt R ep o r t 1 99 9 - 2 00 0, e a c h t ea r be tw e e n 2 mi l l i o n
a n d 3 mi l l i o n peo pl e e mi g r a t e, w i t h ma j o r i ty o f th e m g o i ng to
j us t 4 co un tr i es : t h e U ni t e d S ta t es , G er ma ny , C a na da a n d
A us tr a l i a . T h e ma r k et f o r hi g h l y s ki l l e d w o r ke r s w i l l b eco me
e v e n mo r e g l o ba l l y i nt eg r a te d i n t h e co m i n g de ca d es .
A t t h e e n d o f th e 2 0 t h c en t ur y G l o b a l i za ti o n ha s a l r ea dy
d e mo ns tr a te d th a t e co no mi c de c i s i o ns , w h er ev er t h ey a r e
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25. International Business Management Report
m a de i n t he w o r l d , m us t ta ke i n t er na ti o na l f a c to r s i nto
a c co u nt. T her e i s a c cel er a ti o n o f g o o ds , s e r v i c es , i d ea s a nd
c a pi ta l a cr o s s na t i o n bo r d er s .
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26. International Business Management Report
C O N CL US I O N:
The low a n n u a l g r o wt h rate of the economy of
I n d i a b e f o r e 1 9 8 0 , wh i c h s t a g n a t e d a r o u n d 3 . 5 % f r o m
1950s to 1980s, wh i l e p e r capita i n c o me a ve r a g e d
1.3%] At the s a me time, Pakistan grew by
5 % , I n d o n e s i a b y 9 % , Th a i l a n d b y 9 % , S o u t h K o r e a b y
1 0 % a n d i n Ta i wa n b y 1 2 % .
Only four or f i ve licences wo u l d be g i ve n
f o r s t e e l , p o we r a n d c o m mu n i c a t i o n s . L i c e n se o wn e r s
b u i l t u p h u g e p o we r f u l e mp i r e s .
A h u g e p u b l i c s e c t o r e me r g e d . S t a t e - o wn e d e n t e r p r i s e s
made large losses.
Infrastructure i n ve s t me n t wa s poor because of the
p u b l i c s e c t o r mo n o p o l y .
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27. International Business Management Report
License Ra j e s t a b l i s h e d the "irresponsible, self -
p e r p e t u a t i n g b u r e a u c r a c y t h a t s t i l l e xi s t s throughout
much of the country andcorruption flourished under this
s ys t e m.
E co no mi c l i be r a l i za ti o n h a s i n cr e a s ed t h e r es po n s i bi l i t y
a n d r o l e o f t he p r i v a t e s e cto r . A t t he s a me t i me , i t ha s
r e du c e d t h e co nt r o l o f t h e g o v er n m e nt o n e co no m y a f f a i r s . I t
i s ex p e ct e d th a t t h e r ef o r ms w o ul d l i ber a l i ze t h e I n d i a n
e co no my e no ug h t o cr ea te a co nd u c i v e e nv i r o nme n t f o r r a p i d
e co no mi c d ev el o p m e nt. T he N i nth F i v e Y ea r P l a n, t h er ef o r e,
r i g ht l y o bs er v ed, “ T h e co n d i ti o ns t ha t ex i s t to da y , d e ma n d a
d e ci s i v e br ea k f r o m t h e p a s t. T h e g o v er n m en t h a s ta ke n o n
i ts el f to o ma ny r e s p o ns i bi l i ti es w i t h t he r es ul t t ha t i t no t o nl y
e n co ur a g ed a de p e n de n cy s y n dr o me a mo n g o ur p eo p l e , but
a l s o i m po s e d s ev er e s tr a i n s o n f i na n ci a l a n d a d m i ni s tr a ti v e
c a pa bi l i ti e s o f t he g o v er nm e nt.
Private i ni ti a ti v e w h et h er i nd i v i d u a l , co l l e ct i v e or
c o mm u ni ty - ba s ed f o r ms t he es s e nc e o f t h e d e v e l o p m e nt
s tr a te g y a r ti c ul a t e d i n t h e p l a n.
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28. International Business Management Report
T h e pr o c es s o f r e f o r ms a cco r d i ng to ma ny e co no mi s ts a nd
s o ci a l s ci en ti s ts i s no t f a s t e no ug h to a c h i ev e t he g o a l s .
J ef f r e y S a c hs , d i r e cto r o f H a r v a r d U ni v er s i ty ’s c en t er f o r
i n ter n a ti o n a l dev el o p me n t a n d a n o t e d e co no mi s t , po i n te d o u t
t h a t t he r ef o r m p r o ce s s i n I n di a h a d a l o ng w a y to g o . H e f e el s
t h a t w i tho u t a f o c us o n th e “ tw i n pi l l a r s ” o f s o ci a l a n d
e co no mi c s tr a teg i es , t h e f u t ur e w o u l d b e bl ea k f o r I n di a ,
e s p e ci a l l y i n t he c o nt ex t o f co m pe ti ti o n a l l a r o u nd .
L i ber a l i za ti o n pr o ce s s i s o n t h e s l o w tr a c k . G o v e r n m e nt i s
e x p e ct e d to r e du c e a n d f i na l l y g i v e u p i ts i nv o l v e m en t i n
e co no mi c m a t t er s a n d p l a y a m a j o r r o l e i n pr o v i d i ng t he
r e qu i r e d s o ci o - e co no mi c i nf r a s tr u ct ur e. The g o v er n me n t,
h o w ev er , i s r el u c t a n t to g i v e u p i ts r o l e o f o w ni ng a nd
c o ntr o l l i n g e c o no mi c a ct i v i ti e s . A t t he s a m e ti me i ts i na bi l i t y
to s pe n d for providing mi ni m u m h ea l t h and e d u ca ti o n
s er v i c es . I t i s ea g e r to s pe n d o n h i g he r e d uca ti o n w i tho u t
s pe n di n g e no u g h o n pr i ma r y a nd s e co n da r y e du ca ti o n. It h a s
f a i l ed in pr o v i d i ng a co r r up ti o n fre e a d mi ni s tr a ti o n , an
e s s e n ti a l p r e co nd i ti o n f o r i n cr e a s i n g co m pe ti ti v en es s .
S u c ces s o f t h e e co no mi c r ef o r ms d e pe n ds up o n t he
c o mm i t me n t o f a l l co n c er ne d – p e o p l e , po l i ti ca l pa r ti es ,
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29. International Business Management Report
b u r e a uc r a cy , and g o v er n me n t – to the socio e co no m i c
p r o g r es s o f t he co u n tr y .
T h e e c o n om i c liberalisation in I n di a r e f e r s to
o n g o i n g e c o n o m i c r e f o r ms i n I n d i a t h a t s t a r t e d i n 1 9 9 1 .
After Independence in 1947, India adhered
t o s o c i a l i s t p o l i c i e s . I n t h e 1 9 8 0 s , P r i m e M i n i s t e r Ra j i v
G a n d h i i n i t i a t e d s o m e r e f o r ms . I n 1 9 9 1 , a f t e r I n d i a s o l d 6 7
t o n s o f g o l d t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l M o n e t a r y F u n d ( I M F) , t h e
g o ve r n m e n t of P. V. Narasimha Rao and his finance
m i n i s t e r Ma n mo h a n Singh started breakthrough
r e f o r ms . Th e n e w n e o - l i b e r a l p o l i c i e s i n c l u d e d o p e n i n g f o r
i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e a n d i n ve s t m e n t , d e r e g u l a t i o n , i n i t i a t i o n
o f p r i va t i z a t i o n , tax r e f o r ms , and inflation-controlling
m e a s u r e s . T h e o ve r a l l d i r e c t i o n o f l i b e r a l i s a t i o n h a s s i n c e
remained the s a me , i r r e s p e ct i ve of the ruling p a r t y,
a l t h o u g h n o p a r t y h a s ye t t r i e d t o t a k e o n p o we r f u l l o b b i e s
such as the trade unions and farmers, or contentious
issues such as reforming labour l a ws and
r e d u c i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l s u b s i d i e s . Th e ma i n o b j e c t i ve o f t h e
g o ve r n m e n t wa s to transform the economic
s ys t e m f r o m s o c i a l i s m t o c a p i t a l i s m s o as to a c h i e ve
h i g h e c o n o mi c g r o wt h a n d i n d u s t r i a l i z e t h e n a t i o n f o r t h e
we l l - b e i n g of Indian c i t i z e n s . To d a y India is ma i n l y
c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a ma r k e t e c o n o m y .
A s o f 2 0 0 9 , a b o u t 3 0 0 mi l l i o n p e o p l e — e q u i va l e n t t o t h e
entire population of the Un i t e d S t a t e s — h a ve e s c a p e d
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30. International Business Management Report
e xt r e me p o ve r t y . T h e f r u i t s o f l i b e r a l i s a t i o n r e a c h e d t h e i r
p e a k i n 2 0 0 7 , wh e n I n d i a r e c o r d e d i t s h i g h e s t G DP g r o wt h
r a t e o f 9 % . W it h t h i s , I n d i a b e c a me t h e s e c o n d f a s t e s t
g r o wi n g ma j o r economy in the wo r l d , n e xt only to
China. An Organisation for E c o n o mi c Co - o p e r a t i o n and
D e ve l o p m e n t ( O E C D) report states that the a ve r a g e
g r o wt h r a t e s 7 . 5 % wi l l d o u b l e t h e a ve r a g e i n c o me i n a
d e c a d e a n d m o r e r e f o r ms wo u l d s p e e d u p t h e p a c e .
Indian g o ve r n m e n t coalitions h a ve been a d vi s e d to
continue liberalisation. India g r o ws at s l o we r pace
t h a n Ch i n a , wh i c h h a s b e e n l i b e r a l i s i n g i t s e co n o m y s i n c e
1 9 7 8 . Mc K i n s e y s t a t e s that r e mo vi n g main obstacles
" wo u l d f r e e I n d i a ’ s e c o n o m y t o g r o w a s f a s t a s C h i n a ’ s , a t
1 0 p e r c e n t a ye a r " .
I n d i a n e c o n o mi c p o l i c y a f t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e wa s i n f l u e n c e d
b y t h e c o l o n i a l e xp e r i e n c e ( wh i c h wa s s e e n b y I n d i a n
l e a d e r s a s e xp l o i t a t i ve i n n a t u r e ) a n d b y t h o s e l e a d e r s '
e xp o s u r e t o Fa b i a n socialism. Policy tended
t o wa r d s p r o t e c t i o n i s m , wi t h a s t r o n g e mp h a s i s o n i m p o r t
substitution, industrialization under state
m o n i t o r i n g , s t a t e i n t e r ve n t i o n a t t h e m i c r o l e ve l i n a l l
businesses especially in labour and financial markets, a
large public sector, business regulation, and central
p l a n n i n g Fi ve - Ye a r Plans of India resembled central
planning in t h e S o vi e t U n i o n . S t e e l , mi n i n g , m a c h i n e
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31. International Business Management Report
t o o l s , wa t e r , t e l e c o m mu n i c a t i o n s , i n s u r a n c e , a n d e l e c t r i c a l
plants, a mo n g other industries, we r e
e f f e c t i ve l y n a t i o n a l i z e d i n the mid-1950s. Elaborate
licences, regulations and the a c c o m p a n yi n g r e d tape,
c o m mo n l y r e f e r r e d t o a s L i c e n c e R a j , we r e r e q u i r e d t o s e t
u p b u s i n e s s i n I n d i a b e t we e n 1 9 4 7 a n d 1 9 9 0 .
Before the process of reform began in 1991, the
g o ve r n m e n t a t te mp t e d t o c l o s e t h e I n d i a n e c o n o m y t o t h e
outside wo r l d . The Indian c u r r e n c y, the rupee, wa s
i n c o n ve r t i b l e and high tariffs and i mp o r t licensing
p r e ve n t e d f o r e i g n g o o d s r e a ch i n g t h e m a r k e t . I n d i a a l s o
o p e r a t e d a s ys t e m o f c e n t r a l p l a n n i n g f o r t h e e c o n o m y, i n
wh i c h f i r ms r e q u i r e d l i c e n s e s t o i n ve s t a n d d e ve l o p . Th e
l a b yr i n t h i n e b u r e a u c r a c y o f t e n l e d t o a b s u r d r e s t r i c t i o n s —
up to 80 agencies had to be satisfied before a firm could
b e g r a n t e d a l i c e n c e t o p r o d u c e a n d t h e s t a t e wo u l d
d e c i d e wh a t wa s p r o d u c e d , h o w m u c h , a t wh a t p r i c e a n d
wh a t s o u r c e s o f c a p i t a l we r e u s e d . Th e g o ve r n m e n t a l s o
p r e ve n t e d f i r ms from l a yi n g off wo r k e r s or closing
factories. Th e central pillar of the policy wa s i m p o r t
substitution, the belief that India needed to rely on
i n t e r n a l ma r k e t s f o r d e ve l o p me n t , n o t i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e —
a belief generated by a mi xt u r e of socialism and the
e xp e r i e n c e o f c o l o n i a l e xp l o i t a t i o n . P l a n n i n g a n d t h e s t a t e ,
rather than markets, wo u l d determine how mu c h
i n ve s t m e n t wa s n e e d e d i n wh i c h s e c t o r s .
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32. International Business Management Report
I n t h e 8 0 s , t h e g o ve r n me n t l e d b y R a j i v G a n d h i s t a r t e d
l i g h t r e f o r ms . T h e g o ve r n m e n t s l i g h t l y r e d u c e d L i c e n s e
Raj and also p r o mo t e d the g r o wt h of
t h e t e l e c o mm u n i c a t i o n s a n d s o f t wa r e i n d u s t r i e s
T h e V i s h wa n a t h P r a t a p S i n g h g o ve r n m e n t (1989–1990)
a n d Ch a n d r a S h e k h a r S i n g h g o ve r n me n t ( 1 9 9 0 – 1 9 9 1 ) d i d
n o t a d d a n y s i g n i f i c a n t r e f o r ms .
1 9 9 1 I n di a e c on o m i c c r i s i s
T h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n o f p r i me mi n i s t e r I n d i r a G a n d h i i n 1 9 8 4 ,
and later of her s o n Ra j i v Gandhi in 1991, crushed
i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n ve s t o r c o n f i d e n c e o n t h e e c o n o m y t h a t wa s
e ve n t u a l l y p u s h e d t o t h e b r i n k b y t h e e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s .
A s o f 1 9 9 1 , I n d i a s t i l l h a d a f i xe d e xc h a n g e r a t e s ys t e m,
wh e r e t h e r u p e e wa s p e g g e d t o t h e va l u e o f a b a s k e t o f
currencies of major trading partners. India started
h a vi n g b a l a n c e o f p a ym e n t s p r o b l e ms s i n c e 1 9 8 5 , a n d b y
t h e e n d o f 1 9 9 0 , i t wa s i n a s e r i o u s e c o n o mi c c r i s i s . Th e
g o ve r n m e n t wa s close to default,its central bank had
r e f u s e d n e w c r e d i t a n d f o r e i g n e xc h a n g e r e s e r ve s h a d
reduced to the point that Indiacould barely finance three
we e k s ’ wo r t h o f i mp o r t s .
A B a l a n c e o f P a ym e n t s c r i s i s i n 1 9 9 1 p u s h e d t h e c o u n t r y
t o n e a r b a n k r u p t c y . I n r e t u r n f o r a n I M F b a i l o u t , g o l d wa s
transferred toLondon as collateral, t h e Ru p e e d e va l u e d
a n d e c o n o m i c r e f o r ms we r e f o r c e d u p o n I n d i a . T h a t l o w
p o i n t wa s t h e c a t a l ys t r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s f o r m t h e e c o n o m y
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33. International Business Management Report
t h r o u g h b a d l y n e e d e d r e f o r ms t o u n s h a c k l e t h e e c o n o m y.
Controls started to be
d i s m a n t l e d , t a r i f f s , d u t i e s a n d t a xe s p r o g r e s s i ve l y l o we r e d ,
s t a t e mo n o p o l i e s b r o k e n , t h e e c o n o m y wa s o p e n e d t o
trade and i n ve s t me n t , p r i va t e sector enterprise and
c o mp e t i t i o n we r e e n c o u r a g e d a n d g l o b a l i s a t i o n wa s s l o wl y
e mb r a c e d . T h e r e f o r ms p r o c e s s c o n t i n u e s t o d a y a n d i s
accepted by all political parties, but the speed is often
h e l d h o s t a g e b y c o a l i t i o n p o l i t i c s a n d ve s t e d i n t e r e s t s .
L a t e r r e f o r ms
A t a l B i h a r i V a j p a ye e 's a d mi n i s t r a t i o n s u r p r i s e d m a n y b y
c o n t i n u i n g r e f o r m s , wh e n i t wa s a t t h e h e l m o f a f f a i r s o f
I n d i a f o r f i ve ye a r s .
T h e V a j p a ye e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n continued
wi t h p r i va t i z a t i o n , reduction of t a xe s , a sound fiscal
p o l i c y a i me d at reducing deficits and debts and
i n c r e a s e d i n i t i a t i ve s f o r p u b l i c wo r k s .
T h e U F g o ve r n m e n t a t t e mp t e d a p r o g r e s s i ve b u d g e t t h a t
encouraged r e f o r ms , but the 1997 Asian financial
crisis and political i n s t a b i l i t y c r e a t e d e c o n o mi c
stagnation.
E c o n o mi c and technology-related sanctions h a ve
r e p e a t e d l y n o t p r o ve d t o b e ve r y e f f e c t i ve i n c o mp e l l i n g
n a t i o n s t o c h a n g e t h e i r s o ve r e i g n d e c i s i o n s m a d e i n
e n l i g h t e n e d s e l f - i n t e r e s t . I n d i a f a c e d s e ve r e s a n c t i o n s
a f t e r P o k h r a n - I ( f i ve n u c l e a r t e s t s o n Ma y 1 1 a n d 1 3 ,
1998 at the Pokhran range in Rajasthan
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34. International Business Management Report
Desert),andsanctions that we r e mo r e c o m p r e h e n s i ve
we r e i m p o s e d f o l l o wi n g P o k h r a n - I I . Th e r e we r e d i r e
p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e e c o n o m y, d o u b l e - d i g i t
inflation etc.
A f t e r f i ve ye a r s, mo s t o f t h e s a n c t i o n s h a ve b e e n l i f t e d
and the Indian economy is continuing to grow at an
a c c e p t a b l y s a t i s f a c t o r y r a t e . Th e a n t i c i p a t e d g r o wt h r a t e
for 2003-04 is 6.0%. Though India’s Gross National
Income is only $477.4 billion by c o n ve n t i o n a l
calculations, it translates into $2,913 billion purchasing
p o we r parity (PPP), according to the latest wo r l d
d e ve l o p me n t i n d i c a t o r s . I n P P P t e r ms , i t i s t h e wo r l d 's
f o u r t h l a r g e s t e c o n o m y, b e h i n d o n l y t h e US , C h i n a a n d
Japan.
L i b e r al i z a ti on v s Dem oc r a ti z at i on
T h e r e i s a d i st in c t di f fe re n c e b e t w e e n l ibe r al iz a t io n an d
d e m o c r a t iz a t io n , w h i c h a re o ft e n t h o u g h t to b e th e s a m e
c o n c e pt . L ibe r al iz a t io n can take pl ac e w i th o u t
d e m o c r a t iz a t io n , a n d de al s w i t h a c o m b in at io n o f po l i c y
a n d so c i al c h an g e sp e c ial iz e d t o a c e r t ai n is s u e s u c h as
the l i be r al iz at i o n of g o ve r n m e n t - h e l d pr o p e r ty for
p r i v ate pu rc h a s e , w h e re a s de m o c r at iz a ti o n is m o re
p o l i t ic al l y spe c i al iz e d th at c an a r i se from a
l ibe r al iz a t io n , bu t works in a b ro ad e r l e ve l of
g o ve rn m e n t.
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35. International Business Management Report
What are Disadvantages of
Privatisation ?
1 . P r i v a t i s a t i o n i s e x p e n s i v e a n d g e n e r a t e s a l o t o f i n c o me i n
fees for specialist advisers such as banks.
2 . P u b l i c mo n o po l i e s h a v e b e e n t u r n e d i n t o p r i v a t e mo n o p o l i e s
w i t h t o o l i t t l e c o mp e t i t i o n , s o c o n s u me r s h a v e n o t b e n e f i t e d a s
mu c h a s h a d b e e n h o p e d . Th i s i s t h e ma i n r e a s o n wh y i t h a s
b e e n n e c e s s a r y t o c r e a t e r e g u l a t o r s ( O F WA T , O F G AS e t c ) .
T h i s i s a n i mp o r t a n t p o i n t . I t p a r t l y d e p e n d s o n h o w t h e
privatisation took place. F o r e x a mp l e , t h e r a i l wa ys we r e
p r i v a t i s e d i n b i t o f a r u s h a n d t h e r e mi g h t h a v e b e e n o t h e r
w a ys t o d o i t s o t h a t mo r e c o mp e t i t i o n wa s c r e a t e d . I t p a r t l y
d e p e n d s o n t h e ma r k e t . S o me m a r k e t s a r e ' n a t u r a l mo n o p o l i e s '
w h e r e c o mp e t i t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t . F o r e x a mp l e , i t w o u l d b e v e r y
wasteful and expensive to build t wo sets of track into
L i v e r p o o l S t r e e t ju s t t o c r e a t e s o me c o mp e t i t i o n . Na t u r a l
mo n o p o l i e s c r e a t e a s p e c i a l ju s t i f i c a t i o n f o r p u b l i c o wn e r s h i p
i n t h e g e n e r a l p ub l i c i n t e r e s t .
3 . Th e n a t i o n a l i se d i n d u s t r i e s we r e s o l d o f f t o o q u i c k l y a n d t o o
c h e a p l y. Wi t h p a t i e n c e a b e t t e r p r i c e c o u l d h a v e b e e n h a d wi t h
mo r e b e n e f i c i a l r e s u l t s o n t h e g o v e r n me n t ' s r e v e n u e . I n a l mo s t
all cases the share prices rose sharply as soon as dealing began
after privatisation.
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36. International Business Management Report
4 . Th e p r i v a t i s e d b u s i n e s s e s h a v e s o l d o f f o r c l o s e d d o wn
u n p r o f i t a b l e p a r t s o f t h e b u s i n e s s ( a s b u s i n e s s e s n o r ma l l y d o )
a n d s o s e r v i c e s e g t r a n s p o r t i n r u r a l a r e a s h a v e g o t wo r s e .
5 . Wi d e r s h a r e o w n e r s h i p d i d n o t r e a l l y h a p p e n a s ma n y s ma l l
i n v e s t o r s t o o k t he i r p r o f i t s a n d d id n ' t b u y a n yt h i ng e l s e .
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