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Basics of Coaching
A brief review of recent literature
What is coaching?
Coaching is a professional development tool frequently suggested as effective but not always clearly
defined. Coaching is described by one source as “the practice of providing deliberative support to
another individual to help him/her to clarify and/or to
achieve goals” (Bloom et al, 2005, p. 5; Silver et al, 2009).
Another defines it as “enabling personal and professional
                                                                    “Coaching is highly focused on
growth leading to service improvement” (Driscoll & Cooper,
                                                                       individuals designing their
2005, p. 19; Brittain & Potter, 2009). Contrasting coaching
                                                                        future – and that of their
with mentoring, Brittain & Potter (2009) describe coaching
                                                                     organization – and achieving
as “typically more task oriented and focused on work
                                                                       excellence through setting
situations” than mentoring, which can be a more personal
                                                                     personally and professionally
relationship involving social support and general career
                                                                          challenging goals and
development (p. 285). These definitions point to coaching
                                                                        committing to taking the
being a useful tool to address a well-defined work
                                                                      actions necessary to achieve
performance issue or goal.
                                                                     them”. (Byrne, 2007, p. 1987)

The National Implementation Research Network (NIRN)
includes coaching as one of its core implementation
components (NIRN, 2008), as seen in Figure 1 below.




The NIRN research highlights several reasons coaching may be necessary for effective implementation:
•   “Newly-learned behavior is crude compared to performance by a master practitioner
    •   Newly-learned behavior is fragile and needs to be supported in the face of reactions from
        consumers and others in the service setting
    • Newly-learned behavior is incomplete and will need to be shaped to be most functional in a
        service setting” (NIRN, 2008).
(For more information on the National Implementation Research Network, please see their website at
http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~nirn/).


What are the benefits of coaching?
Byrne (2007) describes the type of learning commonly achieved through effective coaching programs:
     Enhancing specific skills
     Resourcefulness
     Confidence
     Openness
     Commitment to change
     Clarity of thinking
     Commitment to action
     Enhanced communication skills
     Empowering organizational culture
     More constructive relationships


When would coaching be an effective tool?
 Brittain & Potter (2009) clearly describe the three primary types of work situations that may
 benefit from coaching:

 “Skills coaching is focused on specific skills and abilities leading to specified outcomes. The
 supervisor is likely to use this approach most often in the beginning stage with new workers,
 though it may be very appropriate with more senior staff members as they take on specific new
 responsibilities. Skills coaching is targeted to specific gaps in skills-coaching approach to meeting
 needs in an ITNA [Individual Training Needs Assessment].

 Performance coaching is focused more widely on enhancing role performance and is useful in
 helping good workers become great workers and intervening when workers are struggling
 (Driscoll & Cooper, 2005). This type of coaching is most appropriate at the middle level of
 caseworker development, the “make it or break it” stage.

 Development coaching is less directive than the other types and is aimed at challenging and
 stimulating growth and areas of excellence. The supervisor may challenge the worker to develop
 deeper levels of critical thinking to assimilate theory, research, and practice (Clare, 2007). It may
                                                                                                         2




What are the models of coaching? in the end stage of their development who are
 be most appropriate with very seasoned workers
                                                                                                         Page




 looking for ways to expand their expertise and opportunities to contribute (Driscoll & Cooper,
 2005).”
There are a variety of models or coaching programs described in the literature – the following addresses
who serves as coach, whether coaching is provided to an individual or group and highlights a few
common coaching approaches.

Supervisor as Coach
Brittain & Potter (2009) describe a model where the supervisors or outside professionals are coaching
employees. They describe “the interaction between supervisor and worker is one of the most powerful
settings for developing worker competence……… mentoring and coaching are important opportunities
for workers and supervisors” (p.280). In this model, coaches assess the workers through observation to
understand how they work and how that fits with the desired goals of the job. An agreed-upon structure
of the coaching process is important and the coach should ask for permission to coach the employee.
The coach and employee identify natural “coachable moments” that occur in their job, where the
employee can step outside the situation and “examine the event with the goal of integrating knowledge
or enhancing a skill” (p. 260).

Peer Coaching
Huston & Weaver (2008) examine peer coaching as a professional development opportunity in an
educational setting. Peer coaching is defined as a reciprocal or one-way collegial process whereby two
colleagues work together to improve or expand their approaches to their work. The authors describe six
recommendations for creating a peer coaching program:
    1. Goal setting – most important that the goals of the coaching relationship are set by the
        colleague rather than the coach
    2. Voluntary participation – for both the colleague and the coach
    3. Confidentiality – the colleague must know that the coach will not share the content of the
        coaching relationship (questions, suggestions, receptiveness) with anyone who may affect their
        promotion possibilities
    4. Assessment – Maintain confidentiality in assessment process, also be sure to assess coaches’
        experience on an ongoing basis
    5. Formative evaluation – Should be used for formative and developmental purposes rather than
        for summative – “the sole function of the coaches should be to help colleagues improve…; the
        coaches should not be commandeered to participate in top-down, administration-driven
        evaluations” (p.16).
    6. Institutional Support – funding, publicizing and marketing, nominating potential coaches,
        sponsoring events to honor the coaches.

Individual and Group Coaching Combination
Both the supervisor and peer coaching models above assume a one-on-one approach consisting of direct
interactions between coach and coachee. Poglinco & Bach (2004) examined an educational coaching
program made up of not only one-on-one coaching support in individual classrooms but also group-
focused activities such as staff meetings and study groups of several coachees where curricular
materials were introduced and reviewed. They found that the group activities were not as effective.
                                                                                                   3       Page




“Although the coaching model relies on a combination of individual support and group activities, we
found that the connection between group focused professional development activities and changes in
classroom instruction is less than robust or, at the very least, underspecified” (p. 399). They went on to
say that, “Of all of the techniques coaches employ, modeling instruction in individual classrooms is most
likely to result in modifications in instructional practices” (p. 399). This is in contrast to group activities,
where “many struggle to understand how to use the new materials to change their instructional
practices in the classroom” (p.399).

Cohort-based Coaching
Silver et al (2009) describes the use of a cohort-based model as a “particularly valuable aspect of the
program” (p. 226). Interestingly, the cohorts in this case include the coaches themselves as opposed to
the coachees. The program, an extension of a university-based preparation program for school
administrators, provides three years of coaching support to new principals. In this program, coaches
provide 3-6 hours of individual coaching monthly to coachees at their respective schools and are
available by phone or email to answer questions. Coaches are from outside the school or system with
expertise in school leadership. While not explicitly described, it appears that the cohorts are made up of
coaches grouped geographically. The ability to discuss their coaching skills and receive feedback from
peers was reported as especially valuable. The administrators, or coachees, reported that a cohort for
them would be a valuable addition to the program, especially for those in rural areas to increase
opportunities for peer mentoring – they reported often feeling alone and isolated.

Coaching Approaches
There are a variety of coaching “approaches” described in the literature, a few of the most common
include (Denton & Hasbrouk, 2009):
     Technical Coaching – coach is “expert” who supports coachee’s implementation of a specific
        new practice or approach; often used in support of previously received training

       Problem-solving Coaching – coach acts as facilitator, collaborative problem-solver, and
        teacher/learner in order to identify and address issues by working them through together and
        learning from each other

       Reflective practice coaching – coach is mediator helping coachee to reflect on their practice and
        become aware of the thinking that guides their behavior


What is the role of the coach and how is it structured?
The role of the coach will naturally vary depending on the model and coaching approach used. The
following descriptions may be helpful when considering a coaching program. While Denton & Hasbrouck
(2009) focus on instructional coaching in an educational setting, their general description of coaching
activities can easily be adapted to the child welfare setting:
          Observing the caseworker and providing feedback
          Modeling effective techniques and strategies
          Advising and supporting
                                                                                                          4        Page




          Working with caseworkers to effectively use data
   Engaging in problem-solving discussions
           Conducting workshops to introduce new strategies
           Developing and monitoring improvement plans and goals (p.155)

Denton & Hasbrouck (2009) also specifically describe the role of a coach using the technical coaching
approach. It consists of a three-step process including:
             Planning – setting goals and objectives on which coaching will focus or identifying a
                problem to address
             Executing – providing demonstration, observation, facilitating group meetings, providing
                training, studying assessment data
             Reflecting and Debriefing – feedback on observations, post-demonstration debriefing
                and recommendations on which aspects to focus, leading back to step 1.

It is recommended that coaching relationships start during training if possible so the development of the
coaching relationship can be facilitated by the practicing of new skills and feedback process (NIRN, 2008;
Showers & Joyce, 1996; Smart et al., 1979). From an organizational standpoint, it is important to include
potential coaches in the planning stages of the program to help ensure success (NIRN, 2008).

The time devoted to coaching can vary widely, from two hours of coaching a week to two hours per
month. NIRN (2008) cites examples of a program where weekly consultation is supplemented with direct
observation, post-observation feedback, and skill development. It has been noted that coaching may
suffer from a lack of time, inadequate staff resources, and a focus on paperwork as opposed to
outcomes (NIRN, 2008). NIRN (2008) provides a link to an “Example of a Consultation and Coaching
Outline” that may be a helpful guide when designing a coaching program
http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~nirn/implementation/07/07a3_consandcoac/CoachingOutline.pdf. The
document includes examples of clearly developed “Purpose” and “Policy” sections that clarify the role of
the coach.


What are the characteristics and qualifications of effective coaches?
Since programs vary and the outcomes will determine the type of skills a coach will need, there is no
consensus on the background or specific skills a coach must possess. However, several authors outlined
some key characteristics that may help a coach to be effective. Byrne (2007) indicates that coaches must
have “well-honed communication and interpersonal skills
essential to motivating and inspiring others” (p. 1987).
Several authors indicate that coaches not only need to be
                                                                        “Ineffective coaches were
highly experienced in their subject matter but also adept at a
                                                                     more likely to interfere in day-
variety of coaching skills. Poglinco & Bach (2004) specified
                                                                         to-day work and provide
that coaches must be able to:
                                                                      solutions rather than develop
              Observe and understand worker strengths
                                                                          problem-solving skills”
              Identify strategies for engaging the worker
                                                                       (Wageman, 1997; Brittain &
                                                                                                    5




              Offer effective criticism
                                                                                                             Page




                                                                              Potter, 2009).
              Provide useful feedback
   Effectively provide a variety of technical assistance/coaching techniques including
                modeling, joint lesson planning, co-teaching, formal observation, informal
                conversations, etc (Poglinco & Bach, 2004)

Brittain & Potter (2009) describe a study at Xerox which identified positive coaching behaviors resulting
in highly functional teams; those most effective were able to:
              Give clear, engaging direction
              Design rewards for excellence
              Ensure basic resources for the team
              Give team members authority to manage their own work
              Set clear goals
              Create work norms that promote strategic thinking

Finally, the NIRN (2008) research cites several qualities of effective coaches as those who tend to be:
             • Diplomatic
             • Patient
             • Willing to share information, credit and recognition
             • Encouraging
             • Supportive
             • Committed
             • Sensitive
             • Flexible
             • Respectful
             • Enthusiastic




                                                                                                      6     Page
References
       Bloom, G., Castagna, C., Moir, E., Warren, B. (2005). Blended coaching: Skills and strategies to support
           principal development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

       Brittain, C. & Potter, C. (2009). Developing Worker Competence. In Potter, C. & Brittain, C. (Eds.) Child
            Welfare Supervision (262-295). New York: Oxford University Press.

       Byrne, G. (2007). Unlocking potential – coaching as a means to enhance leadership and role
           performance in nursing. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 16:11, 1987-1988.

       Denton, C. & Hasbrouck, J. (2009). A Description of Instructional Coaching and its Relationship to
          Consultation. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 19:2, 150-175.

       Driscoll, J. & Cooper, R. (2005). Coaching for clinicians. Nursing Management, 12:1, 18-23.

       Huston, T. & Weaver, C. (2008). Peer Coaching: Professional Development for Experienced Faculty.
          Journal of Innovation in Higher Education, 33, 5-20.

       National Implementation Research Network. (2008). Consultation and Coaching.
           http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~nirn/implementation/07/07a3_consandcoac.cfm [accessed March 29,
           2010].

       Poglinco, S. & Bach, A. (2004, January). The Heart of the Matter: Coaching as a Vehicle for Professional
          Development. Phi Delta Kappan, 85:5, 398-400.

       Showers, B. & Joyce, B. (1996). The Evolution of Peer Coaching. Educational Leadership, 53:6, 12-17.

       Silver, M., Lochmiller, C., Copland, M., Tripps, A. (2009). Supporting new school leaders: findings from a
            university-based leadership coaching program for new administrators. Mentoring & Tutoring:
            Partnership in Learning, 17:3, 215-232.

       Smart, D. A., Blase, K.B., Smart, D.I., Graham, K., Collins, S.R., Daly, P.B., Daly, D.L., Fixsen, D.L., &
          Maloney, D.M. (1979). The Teaching-Family Consultant’s Handbook (Second ed.). Boys Town,
          Nebraska: Father Flanagan’s Boys’ Home.

       Wageman, R. (1997). Case study: Critical success factors for creating superb self-management teams at
          Xerox. Compensation and Benefits Review, 29:5, 31-41.
                                                                                                                    7
                                                                                                                    Page




Northeast and Caribbean Implementation Center
March 2010
http://muskie.usm.maine.edu/ncic/

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Coaching literaturereview0310

  • 1. Basics of Coaching A brief review of recent literature What is coaching? Coaching is a professional development tool frequently suggested as effective but not always clearly defined. Coaching is described by one source as “the practice of providing deliberative support to another individual to help him/her to clarify and/or to achieve goals” (Bloom et al, 2005, p. 5; Silver et al, 2009). Another defines it as “enabling personal and professional “Coaching is highly focused on growth leading to service improvement” (Driscoll & Cooper, individuals designing their 2005, p. 19; Brittain & Potter, 2009). Contrasting coaching future – and that of their with mentoring, Brittain & Potter (2009) describe coaching organization – and achieving as “typically more task oriented and focused on work excellence through setting situations” than mentoring, which can be a more personal personally and professionally relationship involving social support and general career challenging goals and development (p. 285). These definitions point to coaching committing to taking the being a useful tool to address a well-defined work actions necessary to achieve performance issue or goal. them”. (Byrne, 2007, p. 1987) The National Implementation Research Network (NIRN) includes coaching as one of its core implementation components (NIRN, 2008), as seen in Figure 1 below. The NIRN research highlights several reasons coaching may be necessary for effective implementation:
  • 2. “Newly-learned behavior is crude compared to performance by a master practitioner • Newly-learned behavior is fragile and needs to be supported in the face of reactions from consumers and others in the service setting • Newly-learned behavior is incomplete and will need to be shaped to be most functional in a service setting” (NIRN, 2008). (For more information on the National Implementation Research Network, please see their website at http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~nirn/). What are the benefits of coaching? Byrne (2007) describes the type of learning commonly achieved through effective coaching programs:  Enhancing specific skills  Resourcefulness  Confidence  Openness  Commitment to change  Clarity of thinking  Commitment to action  Enhanced communication skills  Empowering organizational culture  More constructive relationships When would coaching be an effective tool? Brittain & Potter (2009) clearly describe the three primary types of work situations that may benefit from coaching: “Skills coaching is focused on specific skills and abilities leading to specified outcomes. The supervisor is likely to use this approach most often in the beginning stage with new workers, though it may be very appropriate with more senior staff members as they take on specific new responsibilities. Skills coaching is targeted to specific gaps in skills-coaching approach to meeting needs in an ITNA [Individual Training Needs Assessment]. Performance coaching is focused more widely on enhancing role performance and is useful in helping good workers become great workers and intervening when workers are struggling (Driscoll & Cooper, 2005). This type of coaching is most appropriate at the middle level of caseworker development, the “make it or break it” stage. Development coaching is less directive than the other types and is aimed at challenging and stimulating growth and areas of excellence. The supervisor may challenge the worker to develop deeper levels of critical thinking to assimilate theory, research, and practice (Clare, 2007). It may 2 What are the models of coaching? in the end stage of their development who are be most appropriate with very seasoned workers Page looking for ways to expand their expertise and opportunities to contribute (Driscoll & Cooper, 2005).”
  • 3. There are a variety of models or coaching programs described in the literature – the following addresses who serves as coach, whether coaching is provided to an individual or group and highlights a few common coaching approaches. Supervisor as Coach Brittain & Potter (2009) describe a model where the supervisors or outside professionals are coaching employees. They describe “the interaction between supervisor and worker is one of the most powerful settings for developing worker competence……… mentoring and coaching are important opportunities for workers and supervisors” (p.280). In this model, coaches assess the workers through observation to understand how they work and how that fits with the desired goals of the job. An agreed-upon structure of the coaching process is important and the coach should ask for permission to coach the employee. The coach and employee identify natural “coachable moments” that occur in their job, where the employee can step outside the situation and “examine the event with the goal of integrating knowledge or enhancing a skill” (p. 260). Peer Coaching Huston & Weaver (2008) examine peer coaching as a professional development opportunity in an educational setting. Peer coaching is defined as a reciprocal or one-way collegial process whereby two colleagues work together to improve or expand their approaches to their work. The authors describe six recommendations for creating a peer coaching program: 1. Goal setting – most important that the goals of the coaching relationship are set by the colleague rather than the coach 2. Voluntary participation – for both the colleague and the coach 3. Confidentiality – the colleague must know that the coach will not share the content of the coaching relationship (questions, suggestions, receptiveness) with anyone who may affect their promotion possibilities 4. Assessment – Maintain confidentiality in assessment process, also be sure to assess coaches’ experience on an ongoing basis 5. Formative evaluation – Should be used for formative and developmental purposes rather than for summative – “the sole function of the coaches should be to help colleagues improve…; the coaches should not be commandeered to participate in top-down, administration-driven evaluations” (p.16). 6. Institutional Support – funding, publicizing and marketing, nominating potential coaches, sponsoring events to honor the coaches. Individual and Group Coaching Combination Both the supervisor and peer coaching models above assume a one-on-one approach consisting of direct interactions between coach and coachee. Poglinco & Bach (2004) examined an educational coaching program made up of not only one-on-one coaching support in individual classrooms but also group- focused activities such as staff meetings and study groups of several coachees where curricular materials were introduced and reviewed. They found that the group activities were not as effective. 3 Page “Although the coaching model relies on a combination of individual support and group activities, we
  • 4. found that the connection between group focused professional development activities and changes in classroom instruction is less than robust or, at the very least, underspecified” (p. 399). They went on to say that, “Of all of the techniques coaches employ, modeling instruction in individual classrooms is most likely to result in modifications in instructional practices” (p. 399). This is in contrast to group activities, where “many struggle to understand how to use the new materials to change their instructional practices in the classroom” (p.399). Cohort-based Coaching Silver et al (2009) describes the use of a cohort-based model as a “particularly valuable aspect of the program” (p. 226). Interestingly, the cohorts in this case include the coaches themselves as opposed to the coachees. The program, an extension of a university-based preparation program for school administrators, provides three years of coaching support to new principals. In this program, coaches provide 3-6 hours of individual coaching monthly to coachees at their respective schools and are available by phone or email to answer questions. Coaches are from outside the school or system with expertise in school leadership. While not explicitly described, it appears that the cohorts are made up of coaches grouped geographically. The ability to discuss their coaching skills and receive feedback from peers was reported as especially valuable. The administrators, or coachees, reported that a cohort for them would be a valuable addition to the program, especially for those in rural areas to increase opportunities for peer mentoring – they reported often feeling alone and isolated. Coaching Approaches There are a variety of coaching “approaches” described in the literature, a few of the most common include (Denton & Hasbrouk, 2009):  Technical Coaching – coach is “expert” who supports coachee’s implementation of a specific new practice or approach; often used in support of previously received training  Problem-solving Coaching – coach acts as facilitator, collaborative problem-solver, and teacher/learner in order to identify and address issues by working them through together and learning from each other  Reflective practice coaching – coach is mediator helping coachee to reflect on their practice and become aware of the thinking that guides their behavior What is the role of the coach and how is it structured? The role of the coach will naturally vary depending on the model and coaching approach used. The following descriptions may be helpful when considering a coaching program. While Denton & Hasbrouck (2009) focus on instructional coaching in an educational setting, their general description of coaching activities can easily be adapted to the child welfare setting:  Observing the caseworker and providing feedback  Modeling effective techniques and strategies  Advising and supporting 4 Page  Working with caseworkers to effectively use data
  • 5. Engaging in problem-solving discussions  Conducting workshops to introduce new strategies  Developing and monitoring improvement plans and goals (p.155) Denton & Hasbrouck (2009) also specifically describe the role of a coach using the technical coaching approach. It consists of a three-step process including:  Planning – setting goals and objectives on which coaching will focus or identifying a problem to address  Executing – providing demonstration, observation, facilitating group meetings, providing training, studying assessment data  Reflecting and Debriefing – feedback on observations, post-demonstration debriefing and recommendations on which aspects to focus, leading back to step 1. It is recommended that coaching relationships start during training if possible so the development of the coaching relationship can be facilitated by the practicing of new skills and feedback process (NIRN, 2008; Showers & Joyce, 1996; Smart et al., 1979). From an organizational standpoint, it is important to include potential coaches in the planning stages of the program to help ensure success (NIRN, 2008). The time devoted to coaching can vary widely, from two hours of coaching a week to two hours per month. NIRN (2008) cites examples of a program where weekly consultation is supplemented with direct observation, post-observation feedback, and skill development. It has been noted that coaching may suffer from a lack of time, inadequate staff resources, and a focus on paperwork as opposed to outcomes (NIRN, 2008). NIRN (2008) provides a link to an “Example of a Consultation and Coaching Outline” that may be a helpful guide when designing a coaching program http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~nirn/implementation/07/07a3_consandcoac/CoachingOutline.pdf. The document includes examples of clearly developed “Purpose” and “Policy” sections that clarify the role of the coach. What are the characteristics and qualifications of effective coaches? Since programs vary and the outcomes will determine the type of skills a coach will need, there is no consensus on the background or specific skills a coach must possess. However, several authors outlined some key characteristics that may help a coach to be effective. Byrne (2007) indicates that coaches must have “well-honed communication and interpersonal skills essential to motivating and inspiring others” (p. 1987). Several authors indicate that coaches not only need to be “Ineffective coaches were highly experienced in their subject matter but also adept at a more likely to interfere in day- variety of coaching skills. Poglinco & Bach (2004) specified to-day work and provide that coaches must be able to: solutions rather than develop  Observe and understand worker strengths problem-solving skills”  Identify strategies for engaging the worker (Wageman, 1997; Brittain & 5  Offer effective criticism Page Potter, 2009).  Provide useful feedback
  • 6. Effectively provide a variety of technical assistance/coaching techniques including modeling, joint lesson planning, co-teaching, formal observation, informal conversations, etc (Poglinco & Bach, 2004) Brittain & Potter (2009) describe a study at Xerox which identified positive coaching behaviors resulting in highly functional teams; those most effective were able to:  Give clear, engaging direction  Design rewards for excellence  Ensure basic resources for the team  Give team members authority to manage their own work  Set clear goals  Create work norms that promote strategic thinking Finally, the NIRN (2008) research cites several qualities of effective coaches as those who tend to be: • Diplomatic • Patient • Willing to share information, credit and recognition • Encouraging • Supportive • Committed • Sensitive • Flexible • Respectful • Enthusiastic 6 Page
  • 7. References Bloom, G., Castagna, C., Moir, E., Warren, B. (2005). Blended coaching: Skills and strategies to support principal development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin. Brittain, C. & Potter, C. (2009). Developing Worker Competence. In Potter, C. & Brittain, C. (Eds.) Child Welfare Supervision (262-295). New York: Oxford University Press. Byrne, G. (2007). Unlocking potential – coaching as a means to enhance leadership and role performance in nursing. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 16:11, 1987-1988. Denton, C. & Hasbrouck, J. (2009). A Description of Instructional Coaching and its Relationship to Consultation. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 19:2, 150-175. Driscoll, J. & Cooper, R. (2005). Coaching for clinicians. Nursing Management, 12:1, 18-23. Huston, T. & Weaver, C. (2008). Peer Coaching: Professional Development for Experienced Faculty. Journal of Innovation in Higher Education, 33, 5-20. National Implementation Research Network. (2008). Consultation and Coaching. http://www.fpg.unc.edu/~nirn/implementation/07/07a3_consandcoac.cfm [accessed March 29, 2010]. Poglinco, S. & Bach, A. (2004, January). The Heart of the Matter: Coaching as a Vehicle for Professional Development. Phi Delta Kappan, 85:5, 398-400. Showers, B. & Joyce, B. (1996). The Evolution of Peer Coaching. Educational Leadership, 53:6, 12-17. Silver, M., Lochmiller, C., Copland, M., Tripps, A. (2009). Supporting new school leaders: findings from a university-based leadership coaching program for new administrators. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 17:3, 215-232. Smart, D. A., Blase, K.B., Smart, D.I., Graham, K., Collins, S.R., Daly, P.B., Daly, D.L., Fixsen, D.L., & Maloney, D.M. (1979). The Teaching-Family Consultant’s Handbook (Second ed.). Boys Town, Nebraska: Father Flanagan’s Boys’ Home. Wageman, R. (1997). Case study: Critical success factors for creating superb self-management teams at Xerox. Compensation and Benefits Review, 29:5, 31-41. 7 Page Northeast and Caribbean Implementation Center March 2010 http://muskie.usm.maine.edu/ncic/