1. 1- Physiology of speech
Presented by : Amit Kumar Maurya
Hem Prakash Singh

2. Physiology of speech : -
• Speech requires movement of sound waves through
the air. Speech itself is air that is moved from the
lungs through a series of anatomic structures
that mold sound waves into intelligible speech.
• This capacity can be accomplished in any volume
from a soft whisper to a loud shout by varying
the force and volume of air expelled from the lungs.
All languages are spoken by the same mechanism,
though the words are different and require different
usages of the anatomy.

4. • Physiology of respiration
• Purpose of respiration
• Description of respiratory movements
• Types of respiration
• Method of respiratory analysis

5. Physiology of respiration
• Respiratory physiology has had a long history .
With remarkable advance in this century .
Hippocretes (460-377 b.c) suggested that the
purpose of breathing is to cool the heart.

7. The respiratory passage:
• Includes, in descending order, the nasal & oral
cavities, the pharynx, larynx, trachea & bronchi-
forms a continuous passage leading from the
exterior to the lungs.
• The nasal oral & pharyngeal cavities are intrinsic
parts of breathing mechanism and also essential
organs of articulation & resonance.
• The larynx is a modification of the uppermost
tracheal cartilages

8. Division of respiratory system
1-Visceral thorax :
• Trachea Mainstream bronchi
• Bronchi Secondary bronchi
• Bronchioles tertiary bronchi
• Alveoli
• Lungs
• Lobes
• Pleura
• Mediastinum

9. 2- Bony thorax :
• Vertebrae and vertebral column
• Ribs and their attachment to vertebral column
• Sternum
• Clavicle
• Scapula
• Pectoral girdle
• Ilium
• Pubic bone
• Pelvic girdle

10. 3- Muscles of respiration
• Diaphragm
• Accessory muscles of inspiration
• Accessory muscles of expiration
• Muscles of postural control

11. TRACHEA:
• Extends from the larynx at the level of C6 to the bronchi
below, which is at the level of the top of the T5.
• Flexible tube.
• 11 to 12 cm in length
• Its composed of a series of 16 to 20 hyaline cartilage
rings open in posterior aspect placed one above the other,
separated by a small space that is filled by fibro elastic
membrane.
• diameter of tracheal rings is from 2 to 2.5 cm.

13. • Intervening space between the ends of the tracheal
rings is occupied by fibrous tissue & smooth msls
• The Ist tracheal cartilage is slightly larger than others
& it is connected with the inferior border of the cricoid
cartilage of larynx by cricotracheal ligaments.
• Last cartilage of trachea bifurcates giving rise to main
stem bronchi.
• At the level of bifurcation ( carina ), it divides into Rt
& Lt mainstem bronchi which serve Rt & Lt lungs.

14. • Fibrous membrane of trachea consists of 2 layers, 1 of
which passes over the outer surface of cartilagenous rings
while other passes over the inner surface.
•In the space between the rings, the 2 layers blend to form
a single intratracheal membrane which connects the
tracheal rings one with another.
• The smooth msl which is found in the space between the
tracheal rings consists of an outer longitudinal layer & an
inner transverse layer.
•Mucous membrane which lines the trachea is continuous
above with that of larynx and below with that of bronchi

15. BRONCHI:
• extends from trachea to lungs where they arborize to
form bronchial tree.
•Divided into: mainstem bronchi
lobar/ secondary bronchi
segmental/ tertiary bronchi
•Mainstem bronchi connect trachea to lungs and the pt at
which they enter is called hilum
•R bronchus is larger in diameter, shorter in length and
more in direct line with trachea than the L.

16. • Composed of cartilagenous rings bound together
by fibro elastic tissue.
• Invested by smooth msl fibers lined by
psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelium,
walls contain elastic and glandular tissue.
• R bronchus is divided into 3 sec bronchi.
• sec bronchi is divided into 10 ter bronchi.
• L bronchus is divided into 2 sec bronchi, from
which 8 ter bronchi arises.

17. BRONCHIOLES:
• Ter bronchi divide repeatedly, becoming smaller
• In adults 24 generation of divisions which compromise
the bronchial tree, but the combined cross sectional
area of any sub division is greater than cross sectional
area of parent division
• Final division of bronchi give rise to bronchioles,
1mm/less in diameter.
• Repeated division give rise to terminal bronchioles
which communicate with the alveolar ducts and open
into minute air sacs of lungs.

19. ALVEOLI:
• Walls of terminal bronchioles
& air sacs are pitted with
7,000,000 small depressions
called alveoli.
• Small pits- alveolus , so
alveoli in lungs are called
alveoli pulmonis
• Lined by a single layer of
epithelial cells resting on a
thin basement membrane
called Type I cells &
phagocytic cells

20. LUNGS:
• Located in thoracic cavity and largely occupy it.
• They are two irregular cone shaped structures
composed of spongy porous highly elastic
materials that contains smooth muscles fibres.
• It lie freely within their pleural cavities and
attached to the body only by their roots and
pulmonary ligaments.
• Roots are formed by the bronchi, pulmonary
arteries and veins, the pulmonary plexus of
nerves and the lymphatic vessels, encircled by
connective tissues that contributes to the media
stinum.

21. • Ms is bounded on each side by lungs and
pleural sacs.
• Its divided into anterior, middle, posterior and
superior MS.
• anterior MS contains mammalary vessels and
lymph nodes.
• Middle MS contains heart which is surrounded
by a closed membranous sac called
pericardium.
• Posterior MS contain part of esophagus and
trachea, some important nerve tracts and blood
vessels that supply the head.

23. • R lung is larger than L, but shorter and broader.
• Heart occupies much of the left side of thorax.
• Each lung has an apex, base, coastal and
mediastinal surface in addition to anterior,
inferior and posterior borders.
• Apex extends beyond upper limits of thorax, into
the root of neck to about 2.5 to 5 cm above the
sternal end of first rib.
• Base is broad and concave confirms to the
thoracic surface of diaphragm.

24. 1.Apex
2.Superior lobe
3.Coastal surface
4.Middle lobe
5. Inferior lobe
6.base

25. LOBES:
• R lung is partially divided into three lobes by two
fissures.
• Oblique fissures separates superior from inferior
lobe.
• Horizontal fissure give rise to small middle lobe.
• L lung divided by oblique fissure into superior
and inferior lobe, no horizontal fissure.
PLEURA:
• In a surface of thoracic cavity, thoracic surface of
diaphragm and medaistinum are lined with an air
tight membrane called parietal or coastal pleura.
Its continuous with the visceral pleura by means
of reflections at the root of tongue.

26. • A sleeve of pleura encloses the bronchi and
pulmonary blood vessels which forms a fold
called the pulmonary ligament.
• Lungs are encased in visceral pleura and
thoracic linings are parietal pleura.
• Pleura is composed of a single layer of
squamous mesothelial cells resting upon a
delicate tissue membrane.
• Its highly vascular, contain lymphatics and
nerves.

27. 2- Bony thorax
Vertebrae and vertebral column
Ribs and their attachment to
vertebral column
Sternum
Clavicle
Scapula
Pectoral girdle
Ilium
Pubic bone
Pelvic girdle

28. Vertebral column :
• The vc of the adult is a flexible . Supports the head and encloses the
spinal cord.
• There are 33 bones or vertebrae in the spine. The vertebral column
has 5 divisions.
• 7 cervical vertebrae in the neck (C1 - C7)
• 12 thoracic vertebrae in the upper back corresponding to each
pair of ribs (T1 - T12)
• 5 lumbar vertebrae in the lower back (L1 - L5)
• 5 sacral vertebrae are fused together to form 1 bone called
the sacrum (S1 - S5)
• 4 coccygeal vertebrae that are also fused to form the
coccyx or tailbone.
• Each vertebra consists of two essential parts - an anterior solid
segment or body, which is largest part of the body and a posterior
segment arch.

32. Sternum :
• The sternum is a prominent mid-line
structure located on the anterior ,
superior thoracic wall.
• It consists of 3 parts : the
manubrium, the body, and the
xiphoid process.
• The uppermost segment of the
sternum is known as the manubrium
which is a quadrilateral plate,
somewhat wider above than below.
• The body/corpus of the sternum is
long and narrow.
• The inferior border of the body
articulates with a small process
called the xiphoid process.

33. Ribs
 12 pairs of ribs complete the rib
cage. The ribs are designated by
numbers.
 The first seven ribs articulate
posteriorly with the vertebral
column, course obliquely downward
and at their lowest point give rise to
costal cartilages which course
upward to articulate with the
sternum.
 The rib cage becomes progressively
larger from the first through the
seventh or eighth ribs, and then
progressively smaller to the twelfth,
so the thoracic framework takes on a
barrel-like appearance
 The ribs become progressively more
oblique from ribs 1 through 8 or 9,
and then obliquity decreases.

36. 3- Muscles of respiration
Diaphragm
Accessory muscles of inspiration
Anterior thoracic muscle of
inspiration
Accessory muscles of expiration
Posterior thoracic muscles of
inspiration

37. MUSCLES IN RESPIRATION
DIAPHRAGM
• The diaphragm is a major muscle of ventilation. It is a dome shaped
musculor fibrous partition located between the thoracic cavity and
abdominal cavity.
• It is composed of 2 separate muscles known as the right and left hemi-
diaphragms. Each hemi-diaphragm arises from the lumbar vertebrae, the
costal margin and the xiphoid process.
• The 2 muscles then merge at the mid-line into a broad connective sheet
called the central tendon.
• When stimulated to contract, the diaphragm moves downward and the
lower ribs move upward and outward.
• This action increases the volume of the thoracic cavity which, in turn, lowers
the intra-pleural and intra-alveolar pressures in the thoracic cavity. As a
result gas from the atmosphere flows into the lungs.
• During expiration, the diaphragm relaxes and moves upward into the
thoracic cavity. This action increases the intra-alveolar and intra-pleural
pressures, causing gas to flow out of the lungs.

39. Accessory muscles of inspiration
• The accessory muscles of inspiration are
not involved during normal quiet breathing.
• These muscles play a role during exercise,
during the inspiratory phase of cough or
sneezing, or in a pathologic state (asthma).
• The accessory muscles of inspiration are
those muscles that are recruited to assist
the diaphragm in creating a sub-
atmospheric pressure in the lungs to
enable adequate inspiration . The major
accessory muscles of inspiration are :
 Scalene muscles
 Sternocleidomastoid muscles
 Pectoralis muscles
 Trapezius muscles
 External intercostal muscles

40. Scalene muscles
• 3 separate muscles that function
as a unit. They are known as the
anterior, the medial and the
posterior scalene muscles. They
originate on the transverse
processes of the second to the
sixth cervical vertebrae and insert
into the first and second ribs.
• The primary function of these
muscles is to flex the neck. When
used as accessory muscles for
inspiration, they elevate the first
and second ribs, an action that
decreases the intra-pleural
pressure.

41. Sternocleidomastoid muscles
• The sternocleidomastoid
muscles are located on each side
of the neck. Originate from the
sternum and clavicle and insert
into the mastoid process and
occipital bone of the skull.
• When the sternocleidomastoid
muscles function as an accessory
muscle of inspiration, the head
and neck are fixed by other
muscles and the
sternocleidomastoid pulls from
its insertion on the skull and
elevates the sternum. This
action increases the
anteroposterior diameter of the
chest.

42. Pectoralis Major Muscles
The pect or al i s m or m
aj uscl es
ar e pow f ul , f an-shaped
er
m uscl es l ocat ed on each si de
of t he upper chest . The
or i gi nat e f r omt he cl avi cl e
and t he st er numand i nser t
i nt o t he upper par t of t he
hum us. W f unct i oni ng as
er hen
accessor y m uscl es of
i nspi r at i on, t hey pul l f r om
t he hum al i nser t i on and
er
el evat e t he chest , r esul t i ng
i n an i ncr eased
ant er opost er i or di am er
et
• Tr apezi us Muscl es
The t r apezi us M uscl es ar e
l ar ge, f l at , t r i angul ar
m uscl es t hat ar e si t uat ed
super f i ci al l y i n t he upper
back and t he back of t he neck.
They or i gi nat e f r omt he

43. Anterior thoracic muscles of inspiration
• External intercostal muscles :
• Origin : inferior surface of ribs 1
to 11
• Insertion : upper surface of ribs
• The external intercostal muscles
contract during inspiration and
pull the ribs upward and
outward, increasing both the
lateral and anteroposterior
diameter of the thorax. This
action increases lung volume and
prevents retraction of the
intercostal space during an
excessively forceful inspiration.

44. Internal Intercostal Muscles
The Internal Intercostal Muscles
run between the ribs immediately
beneath the external
• Its arise from the inferior border of
each riband insert into the superior
border of the rib below.
• Anteriorly, the fibers run in a
lateral and downward direction.
• Posteriorly the fibers run
downward and in a medial
direction.
• The Internal Intercostal Muscles
contract during expiration and pull
the ribs downward and inward,
decreasing both the lateral and
anteroposterior diameter of the
thorax. This action decreases lung
volume and offsets intercostal
bulging during excessive expiration.

45. Accessory muscles of expiration
1-Rectus abdominals muscle:
Commonly known as "abs“ is a
paired muscles running vertically on
each side of the anterior wall of the
human abdomen. There are two
parallel muscles, separated by a
midline band of connective tissue
called the white line. It extends from
the pubic crest inferiorly to the xiphoid
process and lower costal cartilages
superiorly.
When contracted the rectus
abdominis muscle assist in
compressing the abdominal contents.
This compression in turn pushes the
diaphragm into the thoracic cage.,
thereby assisting in exhalation.
2-External oblique abdominis:
This muscles are broad ,thin muscles
located on the anterolateral sides of
the abdomen. They are the longest
and most superficial of all the
anterolateral abdominal muscles. They
arise by 8 digitations from the lower 8
ribs,

46. Internal Oblique Abdominis Muscles
• Its located in the lateral and
ventral parts of the abdominal
wall directly under the external
Oblique Abdominis muscles, its
arise from the inguinal
ligament, the iliac crest and the
lower portion of the lumbar
aponeurosis. they insert into
the last 4 ribs and into the linea
alba.
• The Internal Oblique Abdominis
muscles also assist in exhalation
by compressing the abdominal
contents and in pushing the
diaphragm into the thoracic
cage

47. Transverses Abdomen Muscles
• Its found immediately
under the internal
oblique abdominis
muscles. Which arise
from the inguinal
ligament, and the lower
6 ribs and insert into the
linea alba. When
activated, they also help
to constrict the
abdominal contents.
• When all 4 pairs of
accessory muscles of
exhalation contract, the
abdominal pressure
increases and drives
the diaphragm into the
thoracic cage. As the
diaphragm moves into

48. Posterior thoracic muscles of inspiration:
• Levatores costarum
• Serratus posterior

49. Function of Respiratory System:
• Primary function is to obtain oxygen for use by
body's cells & eliminate carbon dioxide that
cells produce
• Pathway of air: nasal cavities (or oral cavity) >
pharynx > trachea > primary bronchi (right &
left) > secondary bronchi > tertiary bronchi >
bronchioles > alveoli (site of gas exchange)

50. Major Functions of the Respiratory System
• To supply the body with oxygen and dispose of
carbon dioxide
• Respiration – four distinct processes must happen
Pulmonary ventilation – moving air into and out
of the lungs
External respiration – gas exchange between the
lungs and the blood
Transport – transport of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the lungs and tissues
Internal respiration – gas exchange between
systemic blood vessels and tissues

51. Path Taken by Inhaled Air
• The composition of air that we breathe in is:
1. Nitrogen - 78%
2. Oxygen - 21%
3. Carbon dioxide - 0.03 - 0.04%
4. Hydrogen - traces
5. Noble gases - traces
• Thus the air naturally contains more oxygen than
carbon dioxide.
• This oxygen-rich air is taken in by the nostrils. In
the nasal cavity, it is filtered by the fine hair.
• The cavity also has a rich supply of blood vessels
that keep the air warm.

52. Cont….
• This air then enters the pharynx, then the larynx and
then into the trachea.
• The trachea and the bronchi are lined with ciliated
epithelial cells and secretory cells (goblet cells).
• The secretory cells secrete mucus which moistens the
air as it passes through the repiratory tract and also
trap any fine particles of dust or bacteria that have
escaped the hairs of the nasal cavity.
• The cilia beat with an upward motion such that the
foreign particles along with the mucus is sent to the
base of the buccal cavity from where it may be either
swallowed or coughed out.

53. Cont…
Cilia on the Inner Lining of the Wind PipeBeating to Propel a Particle Outside
The air from the bronchus then enters the bronchioles and then the alveoli. The
alveoli form the respiratory surface in the humans.

54. Gaseous Exchange
• The capillaries lining the alveoli have impure blood which has low
concentration of oxygen.
• So, the oxygen from the air easily diffuses into the blood through
the thin barrier of the alveolus wall.
• Similarly since the concentration of carbon dioxide is quite high in
the blood, the gas easily diffuses out into the alveolar space.
• From here, the air that has comparatively more concentration of
carbon dioxide than the air that entered it, leaves the lungs.
• Note: Emphysema is condition wherein the area for gaseous
exchange in lungs gets reduced, This occurs commonly in heavy
smokers.
• The walls separating alveoli breakdown resulting in abnormal
alveoli with lesser area. Due to this condition the heart has to pump
more blood. This may lead to a strain on the heart causing heart
failure.

56. Gaseous Exchange in the Alveolus of Man

58. APPLICATION OF BOYLE’S LAW:
• Robert Boyle, a British physicist, discovered that volume & pressure
are inversely related, i.e.
V =1/p.
• Therefore, increasing the volume of an enclosed space will decrease
the air pressure within it.
• Boyle’s law – the relationship between the pressure and volume of
gases
P1V1 = P2V2
 P = pressure of a gas in mm Hg
 V = volume of a gas in cubic millimeters
 Subscripts 1 and 2 represent the initial and resulting conditions,
respectively

59. 2- Purpose of respiration
1- The purpose of the respiratory system is to
bring oxygen into the blood so it can distribute
it to the body cells. It also turns oxygen into
nutrients and removes carbon dioxide from
the body.
To supply oxygen to the body.
To eliminate carbon dioxide in the body.
To regulate the body's pH balance.

60. Cont..
2- The purpose of respiration is to store energy
released from food molecules so it can be used
by the cell. It increases the flow of blood to
individual cells.
It converts energy in nutrients to ATP in the
presence of oxygen and generates carbon dioxide
as a waste product so that you can accomplish
work.
• It causes the buildup of lactic acid.
• It increases the heart rate.

61. Cont..
3- Respiration circulate, and metabolism all works
together , the main purpose of respiration is to
provide oxygen for the body’s cells .
• Oxygen is used by cells for the breakdown of
nutrients, an activity that is necessary to supply
energy to the cells and the body .
• Without oxygen, cells are unable to function
properly . Oxygen deprivation even for only a few
minutes , can cause the brain and the heart to
stop functioning, which can lead to death

62. 3- Types of respiration
Respiration is the act of breathing :
Breathing consists of two phases :
• Inspiration
• Expiration.

63. Inspiration

64. Expiration

65. Difference
Inspiration Expiration
Diaphragm descends Diaphragm ascends
Ribcage elevates and/or expands Ribcage descends and/or
contracts
Increased intra-thoracic volume Decreased intra-thoracic volume
Decreased intra-thoracic pressure Increased intra-thoracic pressure
‘High pressure' exterior air flows ‘High pressure' air in lung flows
into 'low pressure' lung. out toward 'low pressure' exterior

66. • How breathing differs for
quite and speech?

67. BREATHING

68. Inspiration
 For quite breathing:
• Thoracic enlargement leads to inspiratory flow; the
enlargement takes place in three dimensions-vertical,
anteroposterior, transverse.
• Vertical enlargement takes place by lowering the base
of the thorax (diaphragm).
• Antero-posterior and transverse movements are more
complex-ribs attach to the vertebral column
posteriorly, from which they slope below and forward
towards the front of the thoracic cage.
• Upon elevation the ribs go through two types of
movement: which are compared to the ‘pump handle’
and ‘raising bucket handle’ movements.

69. Cont…
• In pump handle movement the front ends of the ribs move
up and forward along with the sternum, the result being
enlargement in the antero-posterior diameter of thorax.
• Bucket handle amounts to an outward eversion (rotation)
of each rib around an imaginary line joining its two ends.
This action results in the widening of the thorax
transversely, the extent of the increase being greater in the
lower than the upper thorax because the lower ribs swing
through arcs larger imaginary circles (siebeas, 1966).
• For quite inspiration (or inhalation), the medulla
automatically sends neural impulses via the spinal cord to
the pertinent thoracic muscles. Several nerves emerge from
the spinal cord at the level of the neck (Cervical nerves) &
join to form a nerve bundle known as phrenic nerve.

70. Cont…
• The phrenic nerve innervates diaphragm, the convex sheet of
muscle fibers that separates the thoracic & abdominal
cavities.
• When nervous stimulation is sufficient to cause a contraction
of the diaphragm, the muscle fiber shorten pulling the central
part downward toward the edges , which are attached to the
lower ribs. The effect is to lower & flatten the diaphragm to
some effect.
• As the diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity,
thoracic volume is increased vertically as the floor is lowered.
• The abdomen protrudes upon inspiration because of the
downward pressure of the diaphragm upon the abdominal
contents.
• At the same time that the diaphragm is lowering, nerve
impulses are transmitted via the nerves emerging from the
spinal cord at the level of the chest (thoracic nerves) to
innervate muscles that run between the ribs.

71. Cont…
• During inspiration, the external intercostal muscles & the
section of the internal intercostals that lies between the
cartilaginous portions of the ribs contract to elevate the
ribs.
• This action is aided by the twisting of the cartilage.
Elevation of the ribs is thus produced by the joint efforts of
the external intercostal muscles & the interchondral parts
of the internal intercostal muscles aided by the slight
rotation of the cartilage.
• As the volume within the thorax increases with
corresponding lung volume increase, the air pressure inside
the lungs decreases relative to the atmospheric pressure
outside. Consequently, air from the outside moves to the
area of less density or lower pressure within the lungs.

72. For Speech breathing:
• Speech Breathing is the regulation of the exhaled airstream to
support the processes of phonation and articulation, to ensure
the timely inspiration of air to support life and next speech event.
• There are differences between inspiration during quiet breathing
& inspiration for speech breathing.
1) The volume of air inspired for speech sounds is generally greater
than that inspired during quiet breathing especially if the speaker
knows that he is going to generate an utterance that is long and
loud(or both). To accomplish the inspiration of a grater volume of
air, the diaphragm & the intercostal muscles can be augmented
by any of several muscles capable of sternum & rib elevation:

73. Cont…
 The sternocleidomastoid, the Scalenus, the subclavius, the
pectoralis major, & minor in front,
 The Serratus Anterior muscle at the sides, &
 The levatores Costarum muscles, Serratus posterior muscle &
latttismus dorsi muscle at the back.
A second difference is in the degree of automaticity. .We breathe in
& out, day & night, conscious & unconscious , & the process is
under reflexive control, with the rate & depth of volume change
dependent upon need.
3) Inspiration for speech comprises less of the total respiratory cycle
than during quiet breathing.
• During quiet breathing, the ratio is roughly 40% inspiration & 60%
expiration while for speech it is about 10% inspiration & 90%
expiration.

74. Expiration
 For quite breathing:
• When the glottis is open for inspiration, air from outside enters the lungs .When
the inspiratory muscle effort is complete, there is a moment of equalized pressure.
The pressure in the lungs is equal to the atmospheric pressure. At a relatively high
thoracic volume, however, a large inspiratory effort is required to maintain the
volume. If the inspiratory muscles are made to relax, then the air would suddenly
rush out because of three passive forces:
1. The elastic recoil of the lungs & the rib cage,
2. Torque (the force of untwisting of the cartilages next to the sternum),
3. Gravity, which may aid in lowering the rib cage.
• These three passive forces suffice to decrease the volume of the rib cage & lungs.
• According to Boyle’s law, the decrease in volume increases the pressure within,
causing air to flow out. For inspiration, an increase in thoracic volume causes a
decrease in pressure. For expiration, a decrease in thoracic volume causes an
increase in pressure.
• In quiet expiration, the exchange of air is small (approximately 0.5 liter). With
deeper breaths like those that accompany exercise, the volume of air exchange
increases.

75. For sustained phonation:
• The passive expiratory forces of elasticity, torque, & gravity are not
sufficient by themselves to support singing or speaking. Expiration
during phonation then differs from those during quiet breathing, &
expiration during speech differs from both.
• In order to maintain a constant pressure to produce a note sung at
a constant intensity, the passive recoil force of the rib cage-lung
coupling is used as a background force that is supplemented by
active muscle contractions, first of the inspiratory muscles, then of
the expiratory muscles.
• If a singer permitted expiratory forces to act unaided, the lungs
would collapse suddenly & the note could not be sustained. The
purpose of the active inspiratory forces is to slow down the outflow.
The expiratory muscle forces are recruited later to further decrease
thoracic size below the limits set by elastic recoil.

76. For Speech
• The continued action of the inspiratory muscles to check the rate of expiration
seen in sustaining a tone is also evident during expiration for speech. The
expiratory muscles are innervated by spinal nerves. The thoracic nerves (T1-T11)
innervate the internal intercostal muscles, the interosseeous portion of which
contract to shorten the distance between the ribs by depressing them, thereby
reducing thoracic volume. The abdominal muscles are active in extended expiration
as their contraction presses in upon the abdominal contents forcing the diaphragm
up. The chief abdominal muscles used in expiration are rectus abdominis, the
external & internal Oblique, & the transversus abdominis.
• Expiration for speech differs from expiration for a sustained tone by many factors:
• During Speech, intensity is constantly changing because certain sentences, phrases,
words, & Syllables are given certain emphasis. In order to increase the intensity of
the speech sound, the speaker must increase the sub glottal pressure. The activity
of the abdominal muscles increases in order to supply the added respiratory force
needed for utterances that are heavily stressed or long in duration.

77. Cont…
• Increases in syllable duration, fundamental frequency, & Intensity
may each accompany the production of stressed syllables. The
intensity of the voice is primarily controlled by sub glottal pressure,
& it increases as a function of between the 3rd & 4th power of the
sub glottal air pressure.
I =P(sub)3 or Ps4
• As the formula above indicates, a small change in pressure
generates a large change in intensity. If you double the sub glottal
pressure, the intensity will increase between 8 & 16 times, a 9 to 10
db increase in sound intensity.
• Another difference between expiration for speech & for either
sustained phonation or for quiet breathing is that phase groups
determine the duration of the expiration. In saying “I’m nobody.
Who are you? Are you nobody too?” a speaker might use one
expiration or perhaps two. The break for the text is partly
determined by the text. Variations in expiratory duration depend on
what is spoken. It results in relatively long durations of the
expiratory part of the respiratory cycle.

78. Cont…
• A speaker who wants to finish a long phrase without interruption
often contracts expiratory muscles, using some of his expiratory
reserve volume, even at the expense of his comfort.
• A final difference between quiet breathing & breathing for speech is
the volume of air expended. During normal relaxed breathing we
only use 10% of our vital capacity. For e.g.: We may inhale up to
50% of VC & then exhale to 40%.
• In conversational speech, Hixon reports that we typically inspire up
to roughly the 60% of vital capacity. & do not take another breathe
until we have reached an appropriate stopping place near a resting
expiratory level of about 30-40% of vital capacity.. Therefore, we
use only about 25% of our vital capacity for conversational speech.
During loud speech, we use 40% of vital capacity, the expiratory
phase going from 80%-40% of vital capacity.

79. 4- Description of respiratory movements
 The specific characteristics of the speech breathing pattern may
vary across individuals and theses differences may be quite stable.
These patterns are sometimes called Ventillatory /Respiratory.
 There are 4 main types of breathing movements :
1. Costal or chest breathing,
2. Diaphragmatic or abdominal breathing,
3. Clavicular breathing,
4. Circular breathing

80. COSTAL OR CHEST BREATHING
• This type of breathing is characterised by an outward, upward
movement of the chest wall.
• In chest breathing the expansion is centred at the midpoint and
consequently it aerates the middle part of the lung most.
• Since the lower part of the lung is most abundantly perfused with
blood, we have that ventilation perfusion mismatch.
• Thus during resting periods chest breathing is less efficient.
• Chest breathing also requires more work to be done in lifting the rib
cage, thus the body has to work harder to accomplish the same
blood gas mixing than with diaphragmatic breathing, and the
greater the work, the greater the amount of oxygen needed, which
results in more frequent breaths.
• Chests breathing is useful during vigorous exercise but it is quite
inappropriate for ordinary, everyday activity.

81. ABDOMINAL OR DIAPHRAGMATIC BREATHING
• The principal muscle involved in abdominal breathing is the diaphragm, a
strong dome-shaped sheet of muscle that separates the chest cavity from
the abdomen.
• When we breathe in, the diaphragm contracts and pushes downwards,
causing the abdominal muscles to relax and rise.
• In this position, the lungs expand, creating a partial vacuum, which allow
air to be drawn in.
• When we breathe out the diaphragm relaxes, the abdominal muscle
contract and expel air containing carbon dioxide.
 Of the two major types of breathing, diaphragmatic breathing is the most
efficient because greater expansion and ventilation occurs in the lower part
of the lung where the blood perfusion is greatest.

83. Cont….
• Judson and Weaver (1965) point out that
changing relationship with age of the angle
between the ribs and the axis of the body in the
fetus and at the birth it average 90 degree.
• At 4ys of age it’s 82 degree.
• In adults 64 degree.
• The horizontal disposition of the ribs in a baby
makes costal breathing to enlarge the thorax less
efficient and explains why babies breathe in a
predominantly abdominal manner.

84. CLAVICULAR BREATHING
• Clavicular breathing is only significant when maximum air is
needed and the body’s need for oxygen is very great. .
• The name is derived from two clavicles or collar bones which are
pulled up slightly at the end of maximum inhalation, expanding
the very top of the lungs.
• Sternocliedo-mastoid muscle would be particularly active in this
breathing.
• Individuals with neurologic or lung disease such as patients with
asthma or chronic bronchitis, may use this adaptive strategy to
compensate for impaired function
• It’s also called as paradoxical breathing because of the
tendency for the abdomen to be drawn inward during
inspiration instead of expanded slightly outward.

85. Circircular Breathing:
• Musicians who play wind instruments such as the above
/clarinet are often required to sustain a note for
considerably longer than is possible from using expiratory
airflow on a single breathing alone.
• A talented musician overcomes this problem by using this
strategy. It enables the individual to replenish the volume
of air in his or her lungs by inhaling all the while continuing
to blow air out of all the mouth and into the wind
instrument, there by breathing and maintaining the musical
note simultaneously.
• Here they are adjusting distribution of volume of air in your
mouth by using your cheek muscle, breathing all the while
through the nasal passages by way of the opening
velopharyngeal port.

86. Cont…
• We can maintain breath by lowering velopharyngeal port, thereby
sealing off the oral cavity from rest of vocal tracts Musicians uses
their cheek muscle to squeeze the impounded air out of their
mouth and thru the instrument.
• After inhalation and subsequent increase in lung volume the
velopharyngeal port is raised and the air is exhaled through oral
cavity in to the mouth.
• Although as SLP’s we are concerned with the breathing system
primarily as a power source for voice and speech production, the
metabolic ventillatory demand of body supersede its
communicative function.
• Too much oxygen in blood can result in dizziness, blurred,
numbness and tingling. Too little oxygen can cause impaired cellular
respiration .Tissue damage and ultimately death

87. Lung Volumes
Tidal Volume (TV)
The volume of air inhaled and exhaled during any single
expiratory cycle (an inhalation followed by an exhalation) is
known as tidal volume.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
The quantity of air which can be inhaled beyond that inhaled
in a tidal volume cycle is called inspiratory reserve volume. In
a state of rest (quiet tidal breathings), inspiratory reserve
volumes vary anywhere from about 1500 to about 2500 cc.


88. Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled following quiet or
passive exhalation is known as expiratory reserve volume or resting
lung volume (RLV). Expiratory reserve volume usually amounts to
about 1500 cc and may go as high as 2000 cc in a young adult.
Residual Volume (RV)
The quantity of air that remains in the lungs and airways even after
a maximum exhalation is called residual volume. Regardless of the
depth of inhalation, approximately 150cc of our residual air neither
contributes oxygen to the blood nor receives carbon dioxide from
it. It is called dead air, and remains in the nasal cavities, larynx,
trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, or collectively, the dead-air
spaces.

89. Minute Volume = Rate (breaths per minute) X Tidal
Volume (ml/breath)Rate of respiration at rest varies from
about 12 to 15 bpm. Tidal volume averages 500 ml
Assuming a rate of 12 breaths per minute and a tidal
volume of 500, the restful minute volume is 6000 ml.
Rates can, with strenuous exercise, increase to 30 to 40
bpm and volumes can increase to around half the vital
capacity.

91. LUNG CAPACITIES
Inspiratory Capacity (IC)
The maximum volume of air that can be inhaled from the
resting expiratory level is called the inspiratory capacity.
Itcan be measured directly with a spirometer and is equal to
tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume.
Vital Capacity (VC)
The maximum volume of air that can be forcefully expelled
from the lungs following a maximal inspiration. It is the sum
of tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory
reserve volume. In adult males it ranges from 3500 cc to
5000cc.

92. Functional Residual capacity (FRC)
The quantity of air in the lungs and airways at the resting
expiratory level is known as functional residual capacity. It is
computed by taking the sum of expiratory reserve volume and
residual volume. In young adult males functional residual
capacity amounts to about 2300 cc.
Total Lung capacity (TLC)
The quantity of air the lungs are capable of holding at the height
of a maximum inhalation is logically known as total lung capacity
and is equal to the sum of all lung volumes.

94. Pressures of the respiratory system
There are 5 specific pressures for speech and non-speech functions.
Alveolar pressure ,intrapleural pressure, subglottal pressure, intraoral
pressure and atmospheric pressure.
Alveolar Pressure
• This is the pressure, measured in cm H20, within the alveoli, the smallest
gas exchange units of the lung. Alveolar pressure is given with respect to
atmospheric pressure, which is always set to zero. Thus, when alveolar
pressure exceeds atmospheric pressure, it is positive; when alveolar
pressure is below atmospheric pressure it is negative.
• Alveolar pressure determines whether air will flow into or out of the lungs.
When alveolar pressure is negative, as is the case during inspiration, air
flows from the higher pressure at the mouth down the lungs into the lower
pressure in the alveoli. When alveolar pressure is positive,which is the case
during expiration, air flows out. At end-inspiration or end-expiration, when
flow temporarily stops, the alveolar pressure is zero .

95. Alveolar Pressure
Changes

96. Intrapleural pressure (Ppl)
Intrapleural pressure (also called intrathoracicpressure) is the pressure
exerted outside the lungs within the thoracic cavity.It is the pressure in the
space betweenparietal and visceral pleurae.Intrapleural pressure will be
negative throughout respiration.
Subglottal pressure (Ps )
Subglottal pressure is the pressure below the vocal folds.
During normal respiration with open vocal folds the Subglottal pressure and
Intraoral pressures are equal to alveolar pressure.

97. Intraoral or mouth pressure (Pm)
is the pressure that could be measured within the mouth.
Atmospheric (barometric) pressure:
pressure exerted by weight of air in atmosphere on objects on
earth’s surface. These pressure measurements are made
relative to Atmospheric pressure.

98. Pressure Relationships
• Intrapulmonary pressure and intrapleural
pressure fluctuate with the phases of breathing
• Intrapulmonary pressure always eventually
equalizes itself with atmospheric pressure
• Intrapleural pressure is always less than
intrapulmonary pressure and atmospheric
pressure

100. Respiratory Cycle
• Respiration works by changing the volume of the chest cavity
• Before the start of inspiration, respiratory muscles are relaxed,
intra-alveolar pressure = atmospheric pressure, and no air is
flowing.
• At onset of inspiration, inspiratory muscles (primarily the
diaphragm) contract, which results in enlargement of the thoracic
cavity.
• As the thoracic cavity enlarges, the lungs are forced to expand to
fill the larger cavity.
• Because the intra-alveolar pressure is less than atmospheric
pressure, air follows its pressure gradient and flows into the lungs
until no further gradient exists

101. Cont…
• Therefore, lung expansion is not caused by movement of air into
the lungs
• Deeper inspirations are accomplished by contracting inspiratory
muscles more forcefully, and by using accessory inspiratory
muscles to enlarge the chest cavity further.
• At the end of inspiration, the inspiratory muscles relax, the chest
cavity returns to original size, and the lungs return to original
size.
• Although at rest expiration is a passive process, during exercise
it is an active process and expiratory muscles (primarily
abdominal muscles) contract to decrease the size of the chest
cavity during expiration.

102. Breathing for speech
Speech requires much more muscular control than quiet breathing,
to sustain the correct pressure over the long vocalisations that
humans typically produce. Without adequate breath control, the
air goes out too fast.
Therefore:
• At the start of an utterance, the flow of air out of the lungs is
braked by using the inspiratory muscles (external intercostals
and/or diaphragm) to keep lung volume high
• Once the resting expiratory volume has been reached, the
expiratory muscles (internal intercostals) are used to push more air
out until the end of the utterance.

103. Pressures of speech
The respiratory system operates at 2 levels of pressure.
• The first level is the relatively constant supply of subglottal
pressure required to drive the vocal folds. To produce sustained
voicing of a given intensity, this pressure is relatively constant. The
minimum driving pressure to make the vocal folds move would
elevate a column of water between 3-5 cm H2O, with
conversational speech requiring between 7 and 10 cm H2O. Loud
speech requires a concomitant increase in pressure.
• The second level of pressure is one requiring micro-control.
Eventhough a constant pressure is required for phonation, the
pressure can be rapidly changed for linguistic purposes such as
syllable stress. Quick bursts of pressure can create rapid increases
in vocal intensity and vocal pitch.

104. Speech production requires to maintain a constant pressure
for speech. During normal respiration, inhalation takes up
approximately 40% of the cycle, while expiration takes up
about 60%. The respiratory cycle for speech is markedly
different. During speech, only 10% of the respiratory cycle is
spend on inspiration and about 90% for expiration. Speech
requires much more muscular control than quiet breathing.

105. Therefore :
 At the start of an utterance, the flow of air out of the lungs is
braked by using the inspiratory muscles (external intercostals
and/or diaphragm) to keep lung volume high .
 Once the resting expiratory volume has been reached, the
expiratory muscles (internal intercostals) are used to push
more air out until the end of the utterance.

106. • During speech production the respiratory cycle is altered to
capitalize on expiration time and restrain the expiration through
checking action i.e., the flow of air out of the inflated lungs is
impeded or checked by the muscles of inspiration.
• Checking action is extremely important for respiratory control of
speech ,because it directly addresses a person’s ability to restrain
the flow of air. Checking action permits to maintain the constant
flow of air through the vocal tract and thus accurately controls the
pressure beneath the vocal folds that have been closed for
phonation. This is very important for maintaining constant vocal
intensity and frequency of vibration.

107. • Pressure is also generated through contraction
of the muscles of expiration when the lung
volume is less than resting lung volume. These
manipulations help to maintain a respiratory
rate to match the metabolic needs, and even
use the accessory muscles of inspiration and
expiration to generate small bursts of pressure
for syllabic stress.

108. Lung volumes required for speech
• Hoshiko (1946) found that approximately 50% of vital capacity is
inhaled for speech purposes.
• Hixon et al (1973) have reported that ‘there are roughly defined
lung volume limits within which certain types of utterances
typically occur.
• They state that in the upright posture most conversational speech
of normal loudness is produced within the midrange through
volumes encompassing approximately 35 to 60% of the vital
capacity.
• They also maintain that deeper breaths are taken during
conversational speech than during normal quiet tidal breathing.
During loud speech ,which demands higher subglottal pressures,
speech is initiated from higher lung volumes (60 to 80 % vital
capacity).

109. 5- Methods of respiratory analysis:
1- Invasive method:
• Pneumography
• Spirometroy
• Oral manoetory
• Electomyography
• Fluroscopy
• Cineoflurograph
• Recording of pressure during breathing