This document discusses approaches to analyzing lexis and grammar in texts. It examines both discourse-based, top-down approaches that identify characteristic lexical and grammatical traits across an entire text, as well as sentence-level, bottom-up approaches that discover linguistic traits through empirical observation of individual sentences. Specific aims discussed include analyzing language features for language learning or for a particular discipline like ESP/EAP. Examples are provided of analyzing academic registers and comparing lexical usage between non-native speakers, native speakers in different disciplines, and corpora in different languages and contexts. The document emphasizes the importance of examining both relative word frequencies and collocations/colligations to understand appropriate usage and identify potential gaps for language learners.

1. The vocabulary / grammar
component?
Look at these examples and determine what
components in language can be observed (e.g.,
vocabulary, grammar, text, register…? Explain why)
a) To relate to + something vs. to be related to +
someone
b) Had he + past participle… / he would + past participle
c) Could I please have … ?(in a restaurant)
d) To make + someone + adjective versus to make +
something + preposition (up, into…)
e) The data are examined vs. The data is run

2. Approaches to lexis and
grammar in text units

3. Discourse-based (top-down)
e.g., Bhatia, 1998; Carter, 1998; Tribble, 2001;
Scott, 2001; Flowerdew, 2004; Hüttner et al, 2009
(...)
AIMS: To identify characteristic lexico-grammatical
traits / discoursive items / movements, etc ...

4. Sentence level (bottom-up
approach)
e.g., Johns, 1991; Aston, 1997; Bernardini, 2000;
Curado, 2002; De Cock (2003); Yeung, 2009,
Boulton (2010)
AIMS: To discover / assess linguistic traits for
language learning via empirical observation

5. Specific aims (e.g., writing in a
discipline): ESP / EAP /EPP …
--EFL countries (Brazil, France, Spain...)
--Working with specialized corpora (academic,
professional...) to both identify and propose
language / teaching solutions (key phraseology,
rhetorical items, etc) within or across disciplines

6. Academic register (Example 1 of
lexico-grammatical approach)
Start = “the good old semi-technical lexis” with hugely
different frequencies, collocations, and meanings across
disciplines (cf. Hyland, 2009; Durrant, 2009 …)
e.g.; applied linguistics (on the other hand + textual act) vs.
Electrical engineering (as shown in figure + research
oriented)
In a discipline, e.g.:
1) Computer Science (+ empirical /
experimental, + research...)
2) Analysis and DDL for academic discourse
competence (Spanish faculty / graduate
students inform about research)

7. EXAMPLE: C.S. (NNS) vs.
Humanities..NS) vs CS (NS)
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Tokens
(in
10,000s)
Types
(in
1,000s)
STTR
#
oftexts#
ofdisciplines
#
ofgenres
/texttypes
NNS Corpus
BNC selection
NS Computer Science

8. Relative word frequencies
WORD NNS Corpus for
Case Study
BNC selection
IN >
TO <
FOR >
AS >
THAT >
IS <
WE >>
HAVE >
CAN >>
AT >
USE >>
FROM <
WHICH =
BUT >
C.S. NS (40,180 tokens)
Is
For
That
Be
Are
As
With
This
By
On
It >
From
Was >
Can
Not >
Which
Have
We <
Within
These
At
Were
Also

9. Relative word frequencies
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
on
by
with
be
we
can
use
from
also
should
into
both
each
so
some
may
such
I
if
our
NNS texts
BNC texts
NS C.S.

10. T-scores = + 2.0; M.I. Scores = + 3.0T-scores = + 2.0; M.I. Scores = + 3.0
(Collocational strength– Clear, 1999)(Collocational strength– Clear, 1999)
Freq of node ‘new’ f(n): 221
Freq of collocate ‘technologies’ f(c): 123
Freq of node and collocate within span: 16
Size of corpus: 500120
We observe that (2.6 / 11.4)2.6 / 11.4) (CS NNS)(CS NNS)

11. Lexical / grammatical patternsLexical / grammatical patterns
Specialized collocationsSpecialized collocations (Topic / area)
Eg. record + file
Eg. New information technologies
Eg. The use of [+ technology]
eg. information + available on + digital media
Lexical-rhetoricalLexical-rhetorical (Genre / text type)
Ej. With respect to (+ concept)
Ej. In this paper we
Ej. As far as [+ subject] is concerned
Ej. This is found to be (passive)

12. Contrastive information: collocations,
colligations, semantic associations,
textual (Hoey, 2005)
*Similar use
*C.S. NNS gap = 15% more in BNC
*C.S. NNS use = 15% more in NNS
e.g. Appear* to be (similar) /
to ensure that (NS) /
in this sense (NNS)
*[and NS and NNS field-driven?]

13. WORD USE Similar Use NS only NNS only
Collocation
Appear* + to be
(20 / 20.4 / 19%)
It is possible to
(28 / 8 / 28.4%)
We observe that
(0 / 14.7 / 0%)
Colligation
The basis for (Direct
Object)
(26.3 / 17.6 / 21%)
Noun + to (no
purpose / no
reported speech)
(26.5 / 1.2 / 17%)
Be + asked to (present
tense)
(0 / 61.5 / 13%)
Semantic Association
In the field of + area
(20 / 11.5 / 16%)
To be seeking +
functionality (28 /
0 / 18%)
Related to + concept
(26 / 76.9 / 36%)
Textual Colligation
As a result of (beg.
paragraphs)
(20 / 31.5 / 26%)
One of the most +
adj. (beg. sentences)
(23.2 / 4.3 / 19%)
For this reason, (beg.
sentences)
(2.9 / 20 / 3%)

14. Genre and subject / field
Lexical use Genre Subject
Collocation
Such as + examples
(52 / 56% --C.S. papers)
If and only if
(71.4% --BNC: Logic)
Colligation
I had + past participle
(47% --BNC reports)
is + to be + past participle
(22 / 17.8% --C.S.: IT and
networking)
Semantic Association
Be + applied to + area
(17 / 25.6 % --C.S. paper
Introductions & Method)
Be / appear + on the right +
side
(19 / 26.6% --C.S.: graphical
design)
Textual Colligation
There is no + noun (beg.
paragraphs)
(34.8% -- BNC articles)
This form + be completed
(beg. paragraphs)
(16.4% -- BNC: survey
reports)

15. Correlating frequency and use
e.g., e.g., “we + observe” vs. “subj + has been /
was observed” (also CS)
1) There is a more open use of words in patterns by NS
authors (e.g., observe > this is observed to be / we
observe / this has been observed to … )
2) The NS limitation often obeys the rigid influence of
formulaic items & fossilization (K. Hyland’s claim that
the semi-technical items should follow the research-
oriented stylistic inclination more in engineering = many
choices for patterns)

16. Word use and context
Lexical use according to variables
0 5 10 15 20
Collocations
Colligations
Semantic Associations
Textual Colligations
number of items
NNS and NS
Subject
Genre
NS
NNS

17. Discipline versus NNS (Spanish)
writing interference: How much?
• L1 transfer problems with collocates & also,
fossilized structures

18. Data management on-line (e.g.,
Sketch Engine)
Double objective: Distinguish most appropriate
use & work with more phraseological
possibilities = enrich writing (genre & field)

19. Key points so far
--Relative frequencies as key references of use
--the lexico-grammatical component in specific text (top-
down)
--Statistical information on word behavior (bottom-up)
--Exploring content + content / function + content
elements:
Overusing, under-using, misusing by Non-native
--L1 transfer problem and fossilized items

20. Text type-focus (more examples)
In our organisation, we are just in the process of
finalising our new 3-year rolling Strategic Plan.
Crucial to achieving the objectivesachieving the objectives set in the Planset in the Plan
will be the implementation of a large number ofwill be the implementation of a large number of
new projects/initiatives that will have an impactnew projects/initiatives that will have an impact
on every part of the organisation.on every part of the organisation.
A computer technical report?
An academic lecture?
The Pet Rock, the White Power Rangers, the Beanie
Babies and the Furbies were toys that achievedachieved
successsuccess in different years without coming fromin different years without coming from
the rule-book or the experience database of anythe rule-book or the experience database of any
single company. Despite their yesterday's success,single company. Despite their yesterday's success,
the producers of such toys are not guaranteedthe producers of such toys are not guaranteed
a place in the future that doesn't computea place in the future that doesn't compute
based on yesterday's historical data.based on yesterday's historical data.
A business review?
A piece of news? (Give reasons for your choice)

21. Activities in class and collocations / patternsActivities in class and collocations / patterns
Another type of encryption designed primarily for business-to- business information exchange
involves both a public and a private key. The company that plans to exchange data with another
company provides it with a public key. This public key is used to encrypt data for transmission
between the companies but is not used for decryption. The receiving company uses its private
key to decrypt the data upon receipt.
Data sent over the Internet runs the risk of being changed by a hacker during transmission. Data
alteration includes deleting data, adding a virus to destroy data or report data back to the hacker,
and altering a business transaction. Using digital signatures can reduce these risks. A digital
signature contains a hash code derived from the data per se. Any data modification will cause a
different hash code that will not match the digital signature. After the digital signature is
encrypted within the message, the message is sent to the recipient, first with the sender’s private
key and then with the receiver’s public key. Furthermore, the recipient must decrypt the message
first with its private keys and then with the sender’s public key. This method ensures that the
message can come only from the sender.
Unregistered transactions: A business transaction may run the risk of being sent but not
received. This risk can be costly if the transaction is in response to a limited-time offer, such as a
bid on a government contract. The receipt of an important transaction should be confirmed by
sending an acknowledgment message back to the sender. Corporations find themselves at the
mercy of Internet hackers and vandals. They are looking for different ways to protect their own
networks against intrusion from hackers. Companies must not only prevent unauthorized users
from accessing private and sensitive data and resources but must also prevent unauthorized

22. •NEED FOR TECHNICAL COMPOUNDS—Collin et al.
(2004); Kaplan (2000)
•Management control system -- management control
•bit array -- number of bits
•online tax preparation software -- tax software
resource-based view of the firm -- view of the firm
•Discussing ‘solutions’: (L.A. Robb, 1996)
•sistema de gestión controlada; un string de bits; Un bit
array*; software de tasas**; preparación de tasas online**;
visión de la firma basada en riqueza??***;
GENRE / TEXT TYPE VARIATIONS:
In this paper we…-- En este papel***
RESEARCH PAPER
It was argued that…-- Se argumentó que*
PROCEEDINGS
(company+) Sales analysis reported that…-- El análisis de
ventas reportó* -- TECHNICAL REPORT
Get your company started-- Coge a tu compañía
empezada*** -- WEB SITE
Our paper-- Nuestro papel*** --ABSTRACT
In the current example-- En el corriente ejemplo***
TEXTBOOK
Rhetorical-discoursive markersRhetorical-discoursive markers
1. Nominal wages increase because ofbecause of a demand impulse in
2. experienced tremendous growth because ofbecause of the demand
3. for when the market for enforcement is tighter, either
because ofbecause of high demand or because ofbecause of low supply
4. service sectors are picking up because ofbecause of strengthening
demand.
¿debido a …?
COLLOCATIONS
______________corporate____ + LAW
+ IMAGE
+ GOVERNANCE
+ CONTROL
+ REPORT
+ PERFORMANCE
+ FINANCE
+ SECTOR
CHECK for instance:
EG. INFORME TÉCNICO / RENDIMIENTO DE LA
EMPRESA…
Observing language / L1 / L2

23. Text type & field / topic focus (can
one guess?)
According to our historical data, …According to our historical data, …
The paper describes our research findings…The paper describes our research findings…
For the results above, a similar phenomenon hasFor the results above, a similar phenomenon has
been found in a different site…been found in a different site…
Maybe I should emphasize the importance of thatMaybe I should emphasize the importance of that
Concept…Concept…
If and only if X > Y can we then assume…If and only if X > Y can we then assume…
Sorry, I couldn’t hear your questions…Sorry, I couldn’t hear your questions…

24. Enhancing tools for the relation between lexico-Enhancing tools for the relation between lexico-
grammatical items and text / discoursegrammatical items and text / discourse
14

35. Enhancing learning (possible resources)Enhancing learning (possible resources)
14

36. Lexis and grammar in the conversation
register (Example with children)
• Speakers use parallel forms / e.g., pattern
question and answer replies (Carter,
2004)
• language-in-action collaborative tasks
among speakers (McCarthy, 1998)
• Categories: Age, nationality, situation /
topic…
• Example: Children in USA– English /
Spanish
Child Age
Aimee 5;4.0
Justin 4;6.0
Melissa 3;4.0
Trevor 4;3.0
Willie 6;1.0

37. Oral texts: CHILDES
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Directories
(3-6
yr.)
Directories
(otheryrs.)
Sources
(3-6
yr.)
Sources
(otheryrs.)
English
Spanish
Bilingual
0
20
40
60
80
A. English S. Spanish B. Spanish
Average lengths
Aver. W.length
Aver. S.length
• Children / adult
(+or –familiar =
situations; Carter)
• Production /
reception
(tagging adults’)
Standardised ratios (STTR)
0
10
20
30
3-year
old
4-year
old
5-year
old
6-year
old
nºwordsper1000tokenss
A. English
S. Spanish
B. Spanish

38. Frequency + dispersion (DCLs)
• Overall similarities and differences:
1. + inter-personal statements
2. + everyday words / worlds (coche / boy)
3. + markers, references (esto / aquí / then)
4. 2nd vs. 3rd persons
5. Concise / short sentences vs. Longer
ones; less vs. More opinion (me parece)
6. Age levels
American English
(monolingual)
Spain’s Spanish
(monolingual)
Spanish / English (Bilingual
Latin American in USA)
Word TOTAL
You 30921
I 27118
A 23615
Be 23388
The 20701
It 20222
What 16925
To 15343
Do 14944
That 14056
Dem 10622
Not 9415
And 8774
Go 8507
This 7871
In 7848
No 7597
On 7351
One 7227
Have 7128
Word TOTAL
A 25204
No 23096
Que 19932
La 16372
El 16303
Es 13580
Se 12636
Qué 12477
De 10391
Sí 10365
Éh 8511
Lo 7069
En 6673
O 6071
Me 5999
Aquí 5951
Está 5317
Mira 5298
Los 5201
Mí 4610
Word TOTAL
No 3485
A 3468
Y 3209
Que 2843
El 2162
La 2010
Sí 1723
Es 1609
Eh 1482
Aquí 1386
Lo 1272
Un 1261
De 1226
Se 1191
Me 1111
Cómo 1078
Te 1076
Ya 1047
Está 946
Yo 889
American English (monolingual) Spain’s Spanish (monolingual) Spanish / English (Bilingual Latin
American in USA)
I don’t know
I’m goin(g) to (5 & 4
years)
Mommy, you… (all)
I’m not gonna (5 years)
I want ta go (4 years)
You want to…? (4 & 3
years)
I’m gonna (6 years)
You have to
You open it
I not going to (3 years)
A ver si
A lo mejor
No sé qué es (6 & 5
years)
Es que como no… (6
years)
Porque no + verb (6 & 5
years)
A mí no me gusta (6, 5 &
4 years)
Mira lo que + verb (4
years)
Pues creo que
Lo tienes que
Y luego (5, 4 & 3 years)
Y ya está
Y lo pone en
Y luego (6 & 5 years)
Me voy a + verb (all)
No me acuerdo (all
except 6 years)
No se puede
Me parece que (4 years)
Sí es eso
Y yo también (all)
Mamita, el de… (3 years)

39. Examples:
• Questions asked by adults vs. Children (3 / 4)
• Structures (e.g., Be + going to / gonna (3 / 4)
Age level-related development
3 and 4
Fr
eq.
Field – Year 3 Field – Year 4
1 Do you have... / would you like (adult) / where did you ... (adult) /
what else did you... (adult) / why don't you... (adult) / what do you
call... (adult)
I don't (want) / I don't see (no birds) /
I'm finished
2 I don't know / I don't think you (adult) / I want to (go) / I going to / I
don't want to / I want some (more) / mommy, I want (a)
you have to / mommy, you... / how
you do it / how do you do it / where
you going
3 Chug a chug a chug / make a (dog) (adult) / make a (plane)
(child) /
it looks like a / dis is a / I never heard
of a / it's gonna be a
4 Oh yeah? Oh look it what does it say / you turn it /
5 what kind of... (adult) I like to / would you like to (mother)
6 play with (toy) what is dis / what is that (mother)

40. • Comprehension / production according to age:
keyness (vs. Other ages and Other directories)
e.g., + likes and dislikes / commands (all since 3)
+ declaratives / questions (since 4)
+ numbers (5) / + colours (6)
Negative: specific words (e.g., “suitcase” –
age 3 / “dem” – age 5, etc)
Possible applications for pedagogy
Keyword type Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
POSITIVE
I
[NAMES]
A
HE
GOIN(G)
[WHY]
D(O)
[YA]
UH
DIS
MONKEY
BUGS
IS
[THIS]
DOSE
THA
DEY
DE
TIRE
KNOCK
[NAMES]
I
DE
DIS
MOMMY
I’M
[COULD]
GRAIN
DAT’S
GONNA
[INFINITIVES]
NOW
DESE
NEED
DERE
CAN
MOM
[AUXILIARIES]
HEY
PAINT
ALLIGATOR
OLD
LADY
[BALANCE]
FIVE
YUP
OK
HOW
[MHMH]
[NUMBERS]
ASK
GIRAFFE
[SOMETIMES]
THINK
GOP
THIS
SCHOOL
GUTCHET
NINE
WE
[PICK CARDS]
PENGUIN
BLUE
WIN
BACKWARDS
PENGUINS
GREEN
CARDS
I
ROBBIE’S
CANDYLAND
GAME
MOVED
HATE
STAY
PURPLE
PICKED
THEY
HEARTS
[ORDER]
NEGATIVE HMM
BOOM
YUM
SUITCASE
GAIN
DOLLY
BOOKS
KNOWS
TV
FIT
[MOTHER’S]
ICE
BATH
BOOM
WORD
HAPPY
TOY
HOUSE
SHAPE
CHAIR
WHO
WHAT’S
OKAY
TAKES
DEM
FO
BRIDGE
REINDEER
DAT
MARBLE
BREAK
‘T

41. • Broader Contrastive View:
Overall key items in English (vs. BNC sampler)
and Spanish (vs. Written material—news,
essays, ads—on the web)
keyness :
e.g., + questions (what / qué)
+ personal inclinations (I want / quiero...)
+ negation / dislikes / commands (don’t /
no / ...)
EFL content for Spanish learners
American English Spain’s Spanish
Word Keyness
You 65.208,5
Dem 60.718,0
What 53.113,5
Do 38.399,9
Go 28.287,0
I 24.541,8
A 21.785,5
It 21.218,3
Zero 20.639,2
Not 18.937,5
Mommy 18.612,8
Want 16.661,1
No 16.515,1
That 16.035,6
Don't 15.150,2
Oh 14.576,8
Here 14.421,3
Huh 14.326,5
Put 14.182,9
See 13.663,4
Word Keyness
Qué 7.722,3
No 6.660,0
Sí 6.572,3
Te 4.604,5
Mira 3.733,8
Aquí 3.411,6
Está 3.213,1
Mí 2.828,3
Me 2.240,5
Ver 2.202,0
Di 2.197,7
Eh 2.183,7
Ti 2.136,9
Ah 2.044,7
Ay 1.590,0
Yo 1.575,6
Ahí 1.555,9
Esto 1.292,1
Así 1.271,5
Ahora 1.244,9

42. Nationality /
Age comparison
Interpersonal Declarative Markers
American English
3 <> 4 ,4583 ,0057 ,0593
3 <> 5 ,0003 ,4923 ,5289
3 <> 6 ,4660 ,2085 ,0002
4 <>5 ,0000 ,0311 ,0968
4 <> 6 ,0252 ,0003 ,0000
5 <> 6 ,5989 ,0629 ,0062
Spain’s Spanish
3 <> 4 ,3617 ,1213 ,9714
3 <> 5 ,7595 ,0052 ,1917
3 <> 6 ,9027 ,0794 ,0398
4 <>5 ,4110 ,9072 ,2047
4 <> 6 ,3279 ,5768 ,0434
5 <> 6 ,7979 ,2432 ,4016

43. • COLLABORATIVE PLAY / TASKS
• DYNAMIC AND VISUAL
• RECEIVE AND
PRODUCE INFORMATION
Resources for pedagogical aims in the
children’s lessons

44. 1. Interpersonal (i.e., use of first and second person
pronouns, vocative words, commands);
2. Declarative (demonstrative pronouns and
adjectives, third person statements, expression of
preferences and dislikes);
3. Markers (discourse connectors, interjections,
gambits)
4. Nouns (30 % English / 26 % Spanish); 14.6 %
verbs / 7 % adjectives
Linguistic-discursive priorities
• 60 keywords at each age level > t-scores
1. Interpersonal = years 3 and 4 (E = S)
2. Declarative = years 4 and 3 (E); 3 (S)
3. Markers = years 4 and 5 (E); 5 and 6 (S)
4. Nouns = years 5 and 4 (E); 5 (S)
*MOT: want to take it apart first ? [interpersonal question]
*CHI: right here +... [marker / metadiscourse / production]
*MOT: how do you get it out ? [interpersonal question]
*MOT: how do you get the pieces out ? [interpersonal question / repetition]
*MOT: like this ? [question / metadiscourse / repetition]
*CHI: yeah . [answer / production]
*MOT: ok . [answer / marker]
*CHI: are ya gonna talk to it without the puzzles out of it ? [interpersonal question / production]
*MOT: yeah . [answer]
*MOT: <you can just put> [//] why don't you put a piece and then I'll put
a piece . [command / question]
*CHI: ok . [answer / marker / production]
*MOT: this looks like Mickey's head . [declarative / naming]
*MOT: is that his head ? [question / repetition]
*CHI: yep . [answer / production]
*MOT: ok . [answer / marker]
*CHI: there . [metadiscourse / production]
*MOT: now it's your turn . [marker / interpersonal prompt]
*CHI: um . [pause / marker / production]
*MOT: ok . [answer / marker]
*CHI: there . [metadiscourse / production]
*OBS: a ver # me dices como te llamas . [interpersonal question]
*CRI: Cristina Perez Perez . [answer / production]
*OBS: Cristina Perez Perez ? [question / repetition]
*OBS: oye que estabas haciendo ahora en clase ? [marker / interpersonal
question]
CRI: estaba escribiendo y pintando . [answer / declarative /
production]
*OBS: y que estabas escribiendo y pintando ? [interpersonal question / repetition]
*CRI: escribiendo en el cuaderno azul . [answer / declarative /
production]
*OBS: si # oye y que es el cuaderno azul ? [marker / interpersonal
question / repetition]
*CRI: uno que tiene cuadrados rojos y lo voy a terminar .[answer / declarative / production]
*OBS: si y que te ha dicho la sor # que lo haces bien ? [marker / interpersonal question]
*CRI: si . [answer / production]
*OBS: y tambien pintas en ese ? [marker / metadiscourse / interpersonal
question]
*CRI: &=afirma . [answer / production]
*OBS: y que pintas ? [marker / interpersonal question]
*CRI: pin [/] pinto cuadros . [answer / production]

45. lessons Concepts 3 4 5 Linguistic
content
3 4 5
Colours X Like/ Dislike X X X
Greetings /
introductions X X X
Prepositions
X X
Numbers X Commands
(Imperative)
X X X
Sizes and
shapes
X X X To be X X X
The weather X It is … X X X
Feelings
(love, hate
…) and likes
(I like/ I don´t
like)
X X X
Are you ….?
X X
Specific
Vocabulary X
To have
X X X
Simple
descriptions
of objects,
people ...
X X X
Personal and
possessive
pronouns
X X X
Vocabulary X X X X
Naming of
objects, people
–simple
definitions
X X X
Personal and
possessive
pronouns
X X X
Space /time
orientation (up,
down, near ...)
X X X
Can/Could
Would you like … X
Actions (read,
jump, run) X X
Adjectives
Comparative and
superlative
X X
Family X X These is/are X X
Sensations,
states of mind
(happy, bored, I
am cold…)
X X
Do/does
Yes/no questions X X
Daily routines
(wash one’s
hands, have
breakfast…) and
parts of the day
X X X
Wh/ open questions
Interrogative
pronouns
X X

46. • Self-access and group interactivity with key language
at age (EFL and L1):
– Adaptive for age / knowledge level (e.g., focus on common
words, common structures, simple naming, defining ...)
– Assessment by teachers + other professionals (child
pedagogy / psychology / sociology counsellors...)
• Animations / graphics / visual aspects > motivation in
MULTIMODALITY (e.g., audiovisual references in
metadiscourse, interpersonal addresses, etc)
• Interaction via Computer & networking: learning and
playing too
Applications / Implications

47. • Think about the fields / topics that are
important for 12-15 year old teenagers:
>What words are more important and why?
Also think about how to best have
students acess and exploit them…?

48. The vocabulary / grammar
component in speech?
Determine what components can be observed (e.g.,
vocabulary, grammar, text, register…? Explain why)
a)Dunno about that, maybe, I ain’t sure, maybe
b)Had I known back then, then that’d’ve made some
difference!
c) Could you just shut up once and for all!
d) Whatever he’s thinking, he sure chews it up
e)How’re you doing? Fine, thanks
f)Needless to say, need I say more!
g)Just going for a stroll…!