This handout sheds light on various types of electronic media used in distance education. These media are radio and television broadcasting and telephone. However, other types of media are discussed under these headings. For example, audio and videocassettes are discussed under broadcasting as a solution to the limitations in using live programmes.

1. TECH4101: Media & technologies used in DE 1 [Document #5]
Media and Technologies Used in Distance Education: Advantages and
limitations
Dr Alaa Sadik, Sultan Qaboos University, 2008
alaasadik@squ.edu.om
This handout sheds light on various types of electronic media used in distance education. These
media are radio and television broadcasting and telephone. However, other types of media are
discussed under these headings. For example, audio and videocassettes are discussed under
broadcasting as a solution to the limitations in using live programmes.
1. Radio and Television
In the 1930s, educational radio programmes were introduced, adding instruction by
radio to the usual array of print materials and correspondence by post (Hallwell, 1987).
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Although educational radio and television began decades ago, they are still the most popular
medium. There are several major reasons why broadcasting should continue to play a major role
in distance education, as reflected in the literature:
1. The broadcast element includes constituents which are unique to the medium and which
provide experiences not easily gained by other means (Robson, 1974).
2. Broadcasting reaches audiences that other forms of education do not reach;
3. Compared to other media, radio is extremely flexible, has a dramatic effect and can
stimulate the imagination of learners (Heinich et al., 1993).
4. With the development in communications satelites, radio and television can reach a long
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distance and use extra numbers of channels, with their potential for two-way signal carriage
(Kent, 1969; Bates 1984; Halliwell, 1987; Bates, 1995).
However, although radio and television broadcasting is a flexible and easy to access
technology, instruction goes in one direction, from the tutor to the audience and the medium
does not support transfer of information in the opposite direction (Cronje, 1996). Braun (1962)
found that these programmes had no significant effect, when compared with traditional
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2. TECH4101: Media & technologies used in DE 1 [Document #5]
instruction, unless they were used in situations where they were integrated with other activities
(e.g., problem-solving in mathematics) in a learning situation with an active role for the learner.
Spencer (1996) reviewed studies in TV instruction and concluded tha ‘over a wide
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range of subjects, there is no difference between class lectures and tv instruction’ (p. 22). The
following points summarise the limitations of broadcasting as reflected in the literature, in the
light of ACTIONS (Bates, 1995) and Smith and Dillon’s (1999) framework.
1. Broadcasting does not have many of the features available in printed materials, as an old
fashioned medium, such as learner control and self pace (Gunawardena and Dillon, 1992).
2. Although broadcasting is considered as a powerful tool for bringing the real world into the
classroom, programmes often lack strategies for involving learners actively in the
programme or in cognitive activities (Schwier, 1987; Krendl and Watkins, 1988).
3. Certain types of experiencescannot be transmitted by broadcasting, such as face-to-face
contacts and abstract ideas that need interaction and deep explanation, like mathematical
concepts (Costello and Gordon, 1965).
4. In terms of cost-effectiveness, Bates (1995) indicated that the costs of production,
equipment and transmission per hour are very high in comparison with other media.
5. Bates (1984) criticised radio saying that it is difficult for students to talk, practise skills or
understand difficult points unless teachers integrate broadcastng with other learning
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activities.
As a result of the limitations of radio and television, many solutions were suggested to
overcome them. These solutions include using audio- and video-casset es and two-way
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interactive radio/television to give the learner more control and to facilitate interaction between
the teacher and students.
Heinich (1993) pointed out that instructors (and students too) resist media that have to
be used according to a rigid pre-set schedule. The advantage of cassettes is that they allow
students to control and discuss the material as often and for as long as they wish (Brown, 1984).
Audiocassettes afford learners control over instruction because they can play, stop, forward or
rewind the tape. In addition, they offer flexibility in the way they can be used (e.g., at home,
school, etc.) and they are easily accessible to students, since they are cost-effective (McIsaac
and Gunawardena, 1996).
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3. TECH4101: Media & technologies used in DE 1 [Document #5]
With the low-cost of audio and videocassettes players, and their flexibility in use,
Crooks and Kirkwood (1990) argued that videocassettes can achieve learning more effectively
than television, due to the often inconvenient transmission times of broadcasting. Moreover,
cassettes can increase the amount and level of interaction between learners and the learning
materials and give more opportunity for human interaction (Bates, 1984).
2. Telephone and Audio-conferencing
The use of the telephone in distance education was a result of the limitations of
broadcasting as one-way medium. The main reason for using the telephone medium is to
establish a direct connection between the teacher and students at a distance. Using the
telephone, individually or in groups, students can gain learning experiences by interaction with
the tutor, receiving information, feedback or asking for immediate support. Using the telephone
takes two forms (Robinson, 1990): one-to-o telephone tutoring (teacher-to-student) and
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small-group audio-conferencing (students-to-students).
The purpose of the first form is to provide students with human support. However, the
purpose of the second form is to link students together for helpful dialogue and to socialise the
learning process. McConnel and Sharples (1983) argued that the telephone can overcome many
contact problems between students and tutors, whether in one-to-one links or in small group
conferencing.
A review of the literature showed that telephone-based courses use three main
techniques: voice mail, documents exchange using fax and audio teleconferencing. Usin
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additional equipment, a voice message (or messages) can be stored for distance students to
access at any time/anywhere. Voice mail has added many functions to the telephone and its uses
in distance education. Some of these functions are as follows:
1. Allowing connection to electronic grade book programmes.
2. Ability to check on a student’s progress which known as ‘homeworkhotlines’.
3. Obtaining test schedules.
4. Checking attendance records (Lucas, 1994).
Fax seems to be a suitable choice for distributing printed materials. Using fax, the tutor
can send course materials, homework and feedback. At the same time, students can submit their
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4. TECH4101: Media & technologies used in DE 1 [Document #5]
assignments or send their questions for more explanation. Graphic exchange over the telephone
has many advantages for distance education, for many subjects (e.g., mathematics), such as fast
transmission of printed materials (text and graphics) andease of access, since it uses the
telephone line which is available at schools and homes (Robinson, 1990).
Audio conferencing occurs when more than two telephones are linked together at the
same time. Telephone conferencing enables students to interact directly with the tutor or
experts, exchanging experiences or ask questions. Using loudspeakers, the telephone can link
learners in a small or large groups. A conference can consist of students at their homes or in
study centres (Kember and Murphy, 1994).
Idrus (1993) agreed with Robinson (1990) on the effectiveness of using the telephone
for tasks which involve information transmission, problem-solving and generating ideas, giving
and receiving information, asking questions and exchanging opinions. Idrus believes that
telephone can be as effective as face-to-face teaching and in some cases more effective than
correspondence.
Although the equipment needed for using the telephone in distance education is already
available, albeit at different levels, the telephone machine and fax have many limitations. Some
of these limitations are as follows:
1. Telephone tutorials do not allow full interaction between teacher and students, unlike face-
to-face instruction. Prepared materials have to be delivered by print or audio-tapes to the
learners in advance (Kember and Murphy, 1994).
2. Conference calls require special equipment know as a conference amplifier or conference
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bridge. This equipment is necessary to avoid the loss of power that would be caused by
connecting a large number of telephones in parallel (Open University Course Team, 1976).
3. Students do not make extensive use of the telephone and they usually prefer direct contact
to telephone dialogue (Gunawardena and Dillon, 1992).
4. Most science courses are heavily dependent upon visual representation, particularly these
that contain graphs, formulae and diagrams. These subjects need additional visual media
besides the telephone (Robinson, 1981).
5. The absence of visual presentation requires some adaptation in communication behaviour,
particularly among groups of students in audio conferences (Robinson, 1990).
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5. TECH4101: Media & technologies used in DE 1 [Document #5]
6. Individual calls are costly in time and money for the tutor and students (Choat, 1983).
7. Although the telephone is very common, audio teleconferencing usually requires the student
to travel to a nearby study centre, with a consequent loss of independence (Garrison,1990).
As a result of the limitations of telephone and audio teleconferencing, anew generation
of solutions has been found. The main objective of this generation is to conduct audio-
video/real interaction between the tutor and students, with visual capability.
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