SlideShare ist ein Scribd-Unternehmen logo
1 von 14
Downloaden Sie, um offline zu lesen
Standardisation of the english language
• Process by which conventional forms of language are
established and maintained
• May occur through natural development of a language in a
speech community
• May occur as an effort by members of a community to impose
one dialect or variety as a standard
• Re-standardisation refers to the way a language may be re-
shaped by its speakers and writers
• The standardisation of the English language happened as
a natural means, over centuries, out of a consensus, due
to a number of social factors
• The following slides take us through the process and
factors of English standardisation
• Old English originated in 500AD when West Germanic
invaders settled in the British Isles
• Celtic speakers were pushed out to surrounding areas,
leaving behind only a few Celtic words
• Also influencing English at this time were Vikings, which
introduced new north Germanic words
• Old English survived until 1100AD when the most important
event in the development and history of the English
language occurred; The Norman Conquest
• Modern English now is generally derived from foreign
words
• Only one sixth of Old English words have descendants in
today’s language
• However, one half of the most commonly used words in
our language today have old English roots
• For example
• Water
• Be
• Strong
• Middle English originated in 1066AD when the Duke of
Normandy invaded and conquered England
• This had a huge impact as the new overlords spoke a dialect
of Old French with considerable Germanic roots in addition to
basic Latin roots
• In 1204 AD, King John lost the province of Normandy to the
king of France, estranging Norman nobles of England even
further from their French cousins
• England became the chief concern of the nobility, as
opposed to their estates in France
• Consequently, the nobility adopted a modified English as their
native tongue
• In 1349, the Black Death swept through England, killing about one
third of its population
• As a result, the labouring and merchant classes became more
important to the economy and society and thus English grew in
importance too
• By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility and commoners
was largely over
• The statue of pleading was adopted, making English the language
of the courts and began to be used in Parliament
• The most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer’s
Canterbury tales
• While still difficult to read, it can be read by modern English
speakers
• Originated in 1500 through the revival of classical scholarship
• Brought many classical Latin and Greek words into the
vocabulary
• Early modern English came to prominence due to two main
factors
• The Great Vowel Shift
• Introduction of the printing press
• Change in pronunciation
• Began 1400
• Vowel sounds began to be made further to the front of the mouth
• The letter ‘e’ at the end of words became silent
• Linguistically, the shift was relatively sudden, the major changes
occurring within a century
• Cannot say the shift is over yet, vowel sounds are still shortening –
the change has slowed to a more gradual pace
• For example;
• Life was pronounced “leef”
• Name was pronounced “nam-a”
• Five was pronounced “feef”
• Down was pronounced “doon”
• William Caxton brought the printing press to England in 1476
• As a result books became more affordable and thus literacy
became more common
• Publishing for the masses became a profitable enterprise, and
works in English, as opposed to Latin, became more popular
• The printing press brought standardisation to the English
language
• The dialect of London, where most publishing houses were
located
• Spelling and grammar became fixed
• The first dictionary was published in 1604
• Shakespeare wrote during early modern English times
• Many familiar words and phrases were first recorded by him
• Clichés that were ‘invented’ by Shakespeare include;
• Vanish into thin air
• Flesh and blood
• Words he bequeathed include
• Critical
• Majestic
• Dwindle
• Originated in 1800 and the principal distinction between early
and late modern English is vocabulary
• Pronunciation, spelling and grammar are relatively the same,
but late modern English has a significantly larger vocabulary
• This phenomenon has occurred due to two reasons
• Industrial revolution and rise of technological society
• The British empire
• The industrial revolution (1760) and the rise of technological
society necessitated a number of new words to suit ‘things’
and ideas that not previously existed
• Neologisms were needed for new creations and discoveries
• English relied heavily on Latin and Greek for words such as
‘oxygen’, ‘protein’, ‘nuclear’ and ‘vaccine’ for their base
meanings
• This still continues today – ‘cyber’, ‘microchip’, ‘hard-drive’,
etc.
• At its height, Britain occupied a quarter of the world and as a
result, English adopted many foreign words and made them its
own
• The British Empire adopted the following words
• Shampoo, pyjamas, juggernaut (Hindi)
• Sauna (Finnish)
• Tycoon (Japanese)
• Bon voyage, vis-à-vis (French)

Weitere ähnliche Inhalte

Was ist angesagt?

Contact language, Pidgin & Creole
Contact language, Pidgin & CreoleContact language, Pidgin & Creole
Contact language, Pidgin & CreoleSK Emamul Haque
 
Language Shift and Language Maintenance
Language Shift and Language MaintenanceLanguage Shift and Language Maintenance
Language Shift and Language Maintenancemahmud maha
 
Language standardization: How and why
Language standardization: How and whyLanguage standardization: How and why
Language standardization: How and whyadm-2012
 
Language death and language loss
Language death and language lossLanguage death and language loss
Language death and language lossDesi Puspitasariku
 
Pidgins creoles - sociolinguistics
Pidgins   creoles - sociolinguistics Pidgins   creoles - sociolinguistics
Pidgins creoles - sociolinguistics Amal Mustafa
 
Who Speaks English
Who Speaks English Who Speaks English
Who Speaks English Aiden Yeh
 
Historical linguistics
Historical linguisticsHistorical linguistics
Historical linguisticsRick McKinnon
 
Chapter 5.sociolinguisitcs
Chapter 5.sociolinguisitcsChapter 5.sociolinguisitcs
Chapter 5.sociolinguisitcsShehnaz Mehboob
 
Language variartion and varities of language
Language variartion and varities of languageLanguage variartion and varities of language
Language variartion and varities of languageUmm-e-Rooman Yaqoob
 
Lingua franca
Lingua francaLingua franca
Lingua francaMd. Rana
 
Language Shift and Factors Contributing to Language Shift
Language Shift and Factors Contributing to Language ShiftLanguage Shift and Factors Contributing to Language Shift
Language Shift and Factors Contributing to Language Shiftnicaasoque
 

Was ist angesagt? (20)

Contact language, Pidgin & Creole
Contact language, Pidgin & CreoleContact language, Pidgin & Creole
Contact language, Pidgin & Creole
 
Language Shift and Language Maintenance
Language Shift and Language MaintenanceLanguage Shift and Language Maintenance
Language Shift and Language Maintenance
 
Language standardization: How and why
Language standardization: How and whyLanguage standardization: How and why
Language standardization: How and why
 
Standard english (slide)
Standard english (slide)Standard english (slide)
Standard english (slide)
 
World Englishes
World Englishes World Englishes
World Englishes
 
Language death and language loss
Language death and language lossLanguage death and language loss
Language death and language loss
 
Pidgins creoles - sociolinguistics
Pidgins   creoles - sociolinguistics Pidgins   creoles - sociolinguistics
Pidgins creoles - sociolinguistics
 
Who Speaks English
Who Speaks English Who Speaks English
Who Speaks English
 
Language variation
Language variation Language variation
Language variation
 
Historical linguistics
Historical linguisticsHistorical linguistics
Historical linguistics
 
Speech Community
Speech CommunitySpeech Community
Speech Community
 
Diglossia
DiglossiaDiglossia
Diglossia
 
Chapter 5.sociolinguisitcs
Chapter 5.sociolinguisitcsChapter 5.sociolinguisitcs
Chapter 5.sociolinguisitcs
 
Language variartion and varities of language
Language variartion and varities of languageLanguage variartion and varities of language
Language variartion and varities of language
 
Language recovery
Language recoveryLanguage recovery
Language recovery
 
8. intro to lang. americanism. archive features
8. intro to lang. americanism. archive features8. intro to lang. americanism. archive features
8. intro to lang. americanism. archive features
 
Lingua franca
Lingua francaLingua franca
Lingua franca
 
Language Shift and Factors Contributing to Language Shift
Language Shift and Factors Contributing to Language ShiftLanguage Shift and Factors Contributing to Language Shift
Language Shift and Factors Contributing to Language Shift
 
Language & Ethnicity
Language & EthnicityLanguage & Ethnicity
Language & Ethnicity
 
Diglossia
DiglossiaDiglossia
Diglossia
 

Ähnlich wie Standardisation of the english language

Rennaisance Ghazal.pptx Com Lec.pptx
Rennaisance Ghazal.pptx Com Lec.pptxRennaisance Ghazal.pptx Com Lec.pptx
Rennaisance Ghazal.pptx Com Lec.pptxsalarabbas7788
 
English history 141
English history 141English history 141
English history 141Roccaheather
 
How English Changed
How English ChangedHow English Changed
How English Changedliisamurphy
 
LINGUISTICS 101.pptx
LINGUISTICS 101.pptxLINGUISTICS 101.pptx
LINGUISTICS 101.pptxssusere9c54a
 
Present Day English Historical Background
Present Day English Historical BackgroundPresent Day English Historical Background
Present Day English Historical BackgroundBakiya G
 
Short History of the english language
Short History of the english languageShort History of the english language
Short History of the english languageIvan Pinto
 
1. history of english language
1. history of english language 1. history of english language
1. history of english language nataliaobi
 
History of the english language
History of the english languageHistory of the english language
History of the english languageLili Alzate
 
A History of the English Language
A History of the English LanguageA History of the English Language
A History of the English LanguageCool
 
History of English of the most beautifullanguage.pdf
History of English of the most beautifullanguage.pdfHistory of English of the most beautifullanguage.pdf
History of English of the most beautifullanguage.pdfandrei13371
 
Pdf BS unit 1 history of english (1) converted
Pdf BS unit 1 history of english (1) convertedPdf BS unit 1 history of english (1) converted
Pdf BS unit 1 history of english (1) convertedInvisible_Vision
 
History of english language
History of english languageHistory of english language
History of english languageManish Bharadwaj
 
Development of Language-Problems and Prospect-Old English to Modern English
Development of Language-Problems and Prospect-Old English to Modern EnglishDevelopment of Language-Problems and Prospect-Old English to Modern English
Development of Language-Problems and Prospect-Old English to Modern EnglishSheikh Saifullah Ahmed
 
History of English huihfihskfhdkshfkushfush
History of English huihfihskfhdkshfkushfushHistory of English huihfihskfhdkshfkushfush
History of English huihfihskfhdkshfkushfushasemmustafa583
 
Change of language in english
Change of language in englishChange of language in english
Change of language in englishesra66
 

Ähnlich wie Standardisation of the english language (20)

Rennaisance Ghazal.pptx Com Lec.pptx
Rennaisance Ghazal.pptx Com Lec.pptxRennaisance Ghazal.pptx Com Lec.pptx
Rennaisance Ghazal.pptx Com Lec.pptx
 
English history 141
English history 141English history 141
English history 141
 
How English Changed
How English ChangedHow English Changed
How English Changed
 
LINGUISTICS 101.pptx
LINGUISTICS 101.pptxLINGUISTICS 101.pptx
LINGUISTICS 101.pptx
 
History of-english
History of-englishHistory of-english
History of-english
 
Unit 7.pptx
Unit 7.pptxUnit 7.pptx
Unit 7.pptx
 
Present Day English Historical Background
Present Day English Historical BackgroundPresent Day English Historical Background
Present Day English Historical Background
 
History of England
History of EnglandHistory of England
History of England
 
History of the english language
History of the english languageHistory of the english language
History of the english language
 
Short History of the english language
Short History of the english languageShort History of the english language
Short History of the english language
 
1. history of english language
1. history of english language 1. history of english language
1. history of english language
 
History of the english language
History of the english languageHistory of the english language
History of the english language
 
What Is English
What Is EnglishWhat Is English
What Is English
 
A History of the English Language
A History of the English LanguageA History of the English Language
A History of the English Language
 
History of English of the most beautifullanguage.pdf
History of English of the most beautifullanguage.pdfHistory of English of the most beautifullanguage.pdf
History of English of the most beautifullanguage.pdf
 
Pdf BS unit 1 history of english (1) converted
Pdf BS unit 1 history of english (1) convertedPdf BS unit 1 history of english (1) converted
Pdf BS unit 1 history of english (1) converted
 
History of english language
History of english languageHistory of english language
History of english language
 
Development of Language-Problems and Prospect-Old English to Modern English
Development of Language-Problems and Prospect-Old English to Modern EnglishDevelopment of Language-Problems and Prospect-Old English to Modern English
Development of Language-Problems and Prospect-Old English to Modern English
 
History of English huihfihskfhdkshfkushfush
History of English huihfihskfhdkshfkushfushHistory of English huihfihskfhdkshfkushfush
History of English huihfihskfhdkshfkushfush
 
Change of language in english
Change of language in englishChange of language in english
Change of language in english
 

Kürzlich hochgeladen

Maximizing Impact_ Nonprofit Website Planning, Budgeting, and Design.pdf
Maximizing Impact_ Nonprofit Website Planning, Budgeting, and Design.pdfMaximizing Impact_ Nonprofit Website Planning, Budgeting, and Design.pdf
Maximizing Impact_ Nonprofit Website Planning, Budgeting, and Design.pdfTechSoup
 
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICEQuality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICESayali Powar
 
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptxmary850239
 
Philosophy of Education and Educational Philosophy
Philosophy of Education  and Educational PhilosophyPhilosophy of Education  and Educational Philosophy
Philosophy of Education and Educational PhilosophyShuvankar Madhu
 
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptx
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptxCapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptx
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptxCapitolTechU
 
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...CaraSkikne1
 
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17Celine George
 
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptx
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptxCAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptx
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptxSaurabhParmar42
 
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17Celine George
 
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptx
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptxPatterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptx
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptxMYDA ANGELICA SUAN
 
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.EnglishCEIPdeSigeiro
 
The Singapore Teaching Practice document
The Singapore Teaching Practice documentThe Singapore Teaching Practice document
The Singapore Teaching Practice documentXsasf Sfdfasd
 
How to Solve Singleton Error in the Odoo 17
How to Solve Singleton Error in the  Odoo 17How to Solve Singleton Error in the  Odoo 17
How to Solve Singleton Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
 
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxThe basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxheathfieldcps1
 
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17Celine George
 
Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive Education
Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive EducationBenefits & Challenges of Inclusive Education
Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive EducationMJDuyan
 
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptx
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptxUltra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptx
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptxDr. Asif Anas
 

Kürzlich hochgeladen (20)

Maximizing Impact_ Nonprofit Website Planning, Budgeting, and Design.pdf
Maximizing Impact_ Nonprofit Website Planning, Budgeting, and Design.pdfMaximizing Impact_ Nonprofit Website Planning, Budgeting, and Design.pdf
Maximizing Impact_ Nonprofit Website Planning, Budgeting, and Design.pdf
 
Finals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quiz
Finals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quizFinals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quiz
Finals of Kant get Marx 2.0 : a general politics quiz
 
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICEQuality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE
Quality Assurance_GOOD LABORATORY PRACTICE
 
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx3.21.24  The Origins of Black Power.pptx
3.21.24 The Origins of Black Power.pptx
 
Prelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quiz
Prelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quizPrelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quiz
Prelims of Kant get Marx 2.0: a general politics quiz
 
Philosophy of Education and Educational Philosophy
Philosophy of Education  and Educational PhilosophyPhilosophy of Education  and Educational Philosophy
Philosophy of Education and Educational Philosophy
 
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptx
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptxCapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptx
CapTechU Doctoral Presentation -March 2024 slides.pptx
 
Personal Resilience in Project Management 2 - TV Edit 1a.pdf
Personal Resilience in Project Management 2 - TV Edit 1a.pdfPersonal Resilience in Project Management 2 - TV Edit 1a.pdf
Personal Resilience in Project Management 2 - TV Edit 1a.pdf
 
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
5 charts on South Africa as a source country for international student recrui...
 
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
How to Add Existing Field in One2Many Tree View in Odoo 17
 
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptx
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptxCAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptx
CAULIFLOWER BREEDING 1 Parmar pptx
 
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
How to Make a Field read-only in Odoo 17
 
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptx
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptxPatterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptx
Patterns of Written Texts Across Disciplines.pptx
 
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
Easter in the USA presentation by Chloe.
 
The Singapore Teaching Practice document
The Singapore Teaching Practice documentThe Singapore Teaching Practice document
The Singapore Teaching Practice document
 
How to Solve Singleton Error in the Odoo 17
How to Solve Singleton Error in the  Odoo 17How to Solve Singleton Error in the  Odoo 17
How to Solve Singleton Error in the Odoo 17
 
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptxThe basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
The basics of sentences session 10pptx.pptx
 
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
How to Add a New Field in Existing Kanban View in Odoo 17
 
Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive Education
Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive EducationBenefits & Challenges of Inclusive Education
Benefits & Challenges of Inclusive Education
 
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptx
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptxUltra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptx
Ultra structure and life cycle of Plasmodium.pptx
 

Standardisation of the english language

  • 2. • Process by which conventional forms of language are established and maintained • May occur through natural development of a language in a speech community • May occur as an effort by members of a community to impose one dialect or variety as a standard • Re-standardisation refers to the way a language may be re- shaped by its speakers and writers
  • 3. • The standardisation of the English language happened as a natural means, over centuries, out of a consensus, due to a number of social factors • The following slides take us through the process and factors of English standardisation
  • 4. • Old English originated in 500AD when West Germanic invaders settled in the British Isles • Celtic speakers were pushed out to surrounding areas, leaving behind only a few Celtic words • Also influencing English at this time were Vikings, which introduced new north Germanic words • Old English survived until 1100AD when the most important event in the development and history of the English language occurred; The Norman Conquest
  • 5. • Modern English now is generally derived from foreign words • Only one sixth of Old English words have descendants in today’s language • However, one half of the most commonly used words in our language today have old English roots • For example • Water • Be • Strong
  • 6. • Middle English originated in 1066AD when the Duke of Normandy invaded and conquered England • This had a huge impact as the new overlords spoke a dialect of Old French with considerable Germanic roots in addition to basic Latin roots • In 1204 AD, King John lost the province of Normandy to the king of France, estranging Norman nobles of England even further from their French cousins • England became the chief concern of the nobility, as opposed to their estates in France • Consequently, the nobility adopted a modified English as their native tongue
  • 7. • In 1349, the Black Death swept through England, killing about one third of its population • As a result, the labouring and merchant classes became more important to the economy and society and thus English grew in importance too • By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility and commoners was largely over • The statue of pleading was adopted, making English the language of the courts and began to be used in Parliament • The most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer’s Canterbury tales • While still difficult to read, it can be read by modern English speakers
  • 8. • Originated in 1500 through the revival of classical scholarship • Brought many classical Latin and Greek words into the vocabulary • Early modern English came to prominence due to two main factors • The Great Vowel Shift • Introduction of the printing press
  • 9. • Change in pronunciation • Began 1400 • Vowel sounds began to be made further to the front of the mouth • The letter ‘e’ at the end of words became silent • Linguistically, the shift was relatively sudden, the major changes occurring within a century • Cannot say the shift is over yet, vowel sounds are still shortening – the change has slowed to a more gradual pace • For example; • Life was pronounced “leef” • Name was pronounced “nam-a” • Five was pronounced “feef” • Down was pronounced “doon”
  • 10. • William Caxton brought the printing press to England in 1476 • As a result books became more affordable and thus literacy became more common • Publishing for the masses became a profitable enterprise, and works in English, as opposed to Latin, became more popular • The printing press brought standardisation to the English language • The dialect of London, where most publishing houses were located • Spelling and grammar became fixed • The first dictionary was published in 1604
  • 11. • Shakespeare wrote during early modern English times • Many familiar words and phrases were first recorded by him • Clichés that were ‘invented’ by Shakespeare include; • Vanish into thin air • Flesh and blood • Words he bequeathed include • Critical • Majestic • Dwindle
  • 12. • Originated in 1800 and the principal distinction between early and late modern English is vocabulary • Pronunciation, spelling and grammar are relatively the same, but late modern English has a significantly larger vocabulary • This phenomenon has occurred due to two reasons • Industrial revolution and rise of technological society • The British empire
  • 13. • The industrial revolution (1760) and the rise of technological society necessitated a number of new words to suit ‘things’ and ideas that not previously existed • Neologisms were needed for new creations and discoveries • English relied heavily on Latin and Greek for words such as ‘oxygen’, ‘protein’, ‘nuclear’ and ‘vaccine’ for their base meanings • This still continues today – ‘cyber’, ‘microchip’, ‘hard-drive’, etc.
  • 14. • At its height, Britain occupied a quarter of the world and as a result, English adopted many foreign words and made them its own • The British Empire adopted the following words • Shampoo, pyjamas, juggernaut (Hindi) • Sauna (Finnish) • Tycoon (Japanese) • Bon voyage, vis-à-vis (French)