Environmental Impact Assessment of Prototype Greenhouse Installation_draft

Adapt2change – LIFE09 ENV/GR/296
“Adapt Agricultural Production to climate change and
limited water supply”
Final Version 2012-07-23
Environmental Impact
Assessment of Prototype
Greenhouse Installation

www.greengears.eu info@greengears.eu
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Disclaimer
This document describes work undertaken as part of the 01/11/2011 tender between the
TEI of Larissa and the Emmanouilides and GreenGears Ltd consortium. All views and opinions
expressed therein remain the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily
represent those of the Institute.

Environmental Impact Assessment of Prototype Greenhouse Installation
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Table of contents
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 8
2 Environmental impacts of agriculture............................................................................... 9
2.1 Land and soil.............................................................................................................. 9
2.1.1 Soil erosion ........................................................................................................ 9
2.1.2 Soil structure ................................................................................................... 11
2.1.3 Salinity ............................................................................................................. 12
2.1.4 Soil acidity and alkalinity ................................................................................. 13
2.1.5 Sodicity ............................................................................................................ 14
2.2 Water....................................................................................................................... 14
2.2.1 Inefficient use of resource............................................................................... 15
2.2.2 Efficient irrigation management practices...................................................... 16
2.2.3 Inappropriate water quality ............................................................................ 17
2.2.4 Risk Assessment............................................................................................... 20
2.2.5 Risk Assessment of irrigation water quality .................................................... 20
2.2.6 Risk Assessment of downstream water quality............................................... 22
2.3 Chemicals................................................................................................................. 23
2.3.1 Inappropriate storage of chemicals................................................................. 23
2.3.2 Inappropriate application................................................................................ 25
2.3.3 Inappropriate disposal..................................................................................... 27
2.3.4 Spray drift........................................................................................................ 27
2.3.5 Use of chemicals risk assessment.................................................................... 32
2.3.6 Spray drift risk assessment.............................................................................. 32
2.4 Nutrients - fertilizers ............................................................................................... 33
2.4.1 Nutrient management risk assessment........................................................... 35
2.4.2 Nutrient application risk assessment .............................................................. 36
2.5 Biodiversity.............................................................................................................. 37
2.5.1 Biodiversity risk assessment............................................................................ 38
2.6 Waste....................................................................................................................... 39
2.6.1 Waste risk assessment .................................................................................... 40
2.7 Air ............................................................................................................................ 41
2.7.1 Odor management .......................................................................................... 41
2.7.2 Monitoring and recording ............................................................................... 42
2.7.3 Odour management risk assessment.............................................................. 43

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2.7.4 Dust management risk assessment................................................................. 44
2.7.5 Smoke management risk assessment ............................................................. 45
2.7.6 Noise management risk assessment ............................................................... 46
2.7.7 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment........................................... 47
2.8 Energy...................................................................................................................... 48
2.8.1 Energy management risk assessment ............................................................. 49
3 Environmental impact assessment and control procedures........................................... 50
3.1 Soil - Soil treatment................................................................................................. 50
3.1.1 Rotation........................................................................................................... 50
3.1.2 Objective – to minimize the potential for water to erode soil on the property.
51
3.1.3 Objective – to minimize the potential for wind to erode soil on the property.
52
3.1.4 Objective – soil structure is suitable for root growth, water infiltration,
aeration and drainage needs of the crop........................................................................ 53
3.3 Water....................................................................................................................... 54
3.3.1 Irrigation methods........................................................................................... 55
3.3.2 Objective – water quality is suitable for its intended use on the property and
does not negatively impact downstream water quality.................................................. 57
3.4 Chemicals................................................................................................................. 58
3.4.1 Storage of plant protection products.............................................................. 59
3.4.2 Objective – agricultural chemicals are used in accordance with label or permit
instructions; and all chemicals, including fuels and oils, are stored, handled, applied and
disposed of in a manner that minimizes environmental impacts................................... 59
3.5 Nutrient Management............................................................................................. 61
3.5.1 Instructions of inorganic fertilizer ................................................................... 61
3.5.2 Fertilizer application management tools......................................................... 61
3.5.3 Fertilizer storage.............................................................................................. 62
3.5.4 Objective – to effectively manage nutrient inputs to meet crop requirements
and soil characteristics. ................................................................................................... 62
3.5.5 Objective – to ensure nutrient application methods and timing maximize
benefits to the crop and minimize potential negative environmental impacts.............. 62
3.6 Biodiversity.............................................................................................................. 63
3.6.1 Suggested practices......................................................................................... 63
3.6.2 Soil biodiversity ............................................................................................... 64
3.7 Energy Management ............................................................................................... 65
3.7.1 Irrigation.......................................................................................................... 65

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3.7.2 Vehicles and equipment.................................................................................. 65
3.7.3 Fuel .................................................................................................................. 65
3.7.4 Lighting ............................................................................................................ 65
3.7.5 Renewable resources ...................................................................................... 66
4 Environmental impact of prototype “Adapt2Change” greenhouse................................ 67
4.1 Land and soil............................................................................................................ 67
4.2 Water....................................................................................................................... 67
4.3 Chemicals................................................................................................................. 67
4.4 Nutrients.................................................................................................................. 68
4.5 Biodiversity.............................................................................................................. 68
4.6 Waste....................................................................................................................... 68
4.7 Air ............................................................................................................................ 69
4.8 Energy...................................................................................................................... 69
5 Environmental risk assessment at the prototype “Adapt2Change” greenhouse ........... 70
5.1.1 Water management risk assessment .............................................................. 71
5.1.2 Risk Assessment of irrigation water quality .................................................... 72
5.1.3 Risk Assessment of downstream water quality............................................... 73
5.1.4 Use of chemicals risk assessment.................................................................... 74
5.1.5 Spray drift risk assessment.............................................................................. 76
5.1.6 Nutrient management risk assessment........................................................... 77
5.1.7 Nutrient application risk assessment .............................................................. 78
5.1.8 Biodiversity risk assessment............................................................................ 79
5.1.9 Waste risk assessment .................................................................................... 80
5.1.10 Odour management risk assessment.............................................................. 81
5.1.11 Dust management risk assessment................................................................. 82
5.1.12 Smoke management risk assessment ............................................................. 83
5.1.13 Noise management risk assessment ............................................................... 84
5.1.14 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment........................................... 85
5.1.16 Energy management risk assessment ............................................................. 86
6 Determination of changes in the environmental load at the prototype “Adapt2Change”
greenhouse.............................................................................................................................. 87
6.1 Land – Soil................................................................................................................ 87
6.2 Water....................................................................................................................... 87
6.3 Chemicals................................................................................................................. 87
6.4 Nutrients.................................................................................................................. 87

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6.5 Biodiversity.............................................................................................................. 87
6.6 Waste....................................................................................................................... 88
6.7 Air ............................................................................................................................ 88
6.8 Energy...................................................................................................................... 88
7 Reproducibility and transferability of technology........................................................... 89
7.1 Reproducibility ........................................................................................................ 89
7.2 Transferability of technology .................................................................................. 89
8 Eco friendly procedures and products ............................................................................ 90
8.1 Procedures............................................................................................................... 90
8.1.1 Hydroponics..................................................................................................... 90
8.1.2 Use of geothermal energy............................................................................... 91
8.1.3 Water recycling................................................................................................ 91
8.1.4 Waste reducing and recycling ......................................................................... 97
8.2 Eco friendly Products............................................................................................... 98
8.2.1 Greenhouse organic farming........................................................................... 98
9 Included standards .......................................................................................................... 99
9.1 Good Agricultural Practices..................................................................................... 99
9.2 Good Agricultural Practices (G.A.P.)........................................................................ 99
9.3 Food safety............................................................................................................ 100
9.4 Soil ......................................................................................................................... 100
9.5 Crop protection ..................................................................................................... 100
9.6 Sustainability ......................................................................................................... 101
9.7 Social responsibility............................................................................................... 101
9.8 Economic efficiency............................................................................................... 101
9.9 Hygiene.................................................................................................................. 101
9.10 Record keeping...................................................................................................... 102
10 References..................................................................................................................... 103

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1 Introduction
Recent intensification of agriculture, and the prospects of future intensification, will
have major impacts on the nonagricultural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems of the
world (Tilman, 1998). The doubling of agricultural food production during the past 35
years was associated with a 6.87-fold increase in nitrogen fertilization, a 3.48-fold
increase in phosphorus fertilization, a 1.68-fold increase in the amount of irrigated
cropland, and a 1.1-fold increase in land cultivation (Tilman, 1998).
Around half the EU's land is farmed. Farming is important for the EU's natural
environment. Farming and nature influence each other (EC, 2012):
 Farming has contributed over the centuries to creating and maintaining a
unique countryside. Agricultural land management has been a positive force
for the development of the rich variety of landscapes and habitats, including
a mosaic of woodlands, wetlands, and extensive tracts of an open
countryside.
 The ecological integrity and the scenic value of landscapes make rural areas
attractive for the establishment of enterprises, for places to live, and for the
tourist and recreation businesses.
The links between the richness of the natural environment and farming practices are
complex (EC, 2012). Many valuable habitats in Europe are maintained by extensive
farming, and a wide range of wild species rely on this for their survival (EC, 2012).
However, inappropriate agricultural practices and land use can also have an adverse
impact on natural resources, such as (EC, 2012):
 pollution of soil, water and air,
 fragmentation of habitats and
 loss of wildlife.
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) has identified three priority areas for action to
protect and enhance the EU's rural heritage (EC, 2012):
 Biodiversity and the preservation and development of 'natural' farming and
forestry systems, and traditional agricultural landscapes;
 Water management and use;
 Dealing with climate change.

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2 Environmental impacts of agriculture
2.1 Land and soil
Soil is a composite environment since it is the result of abiotic factors (independent
of human actions), that is to say of alterations to the bedrock (which provides soil's
mineral elements), atmospheric content (oxygen fixation, nitrogen cycle, water
cycle) and biotic factors (linked to the actions of living things) such as the content of
vegetation cover and decomposition of organic matter (GoodPlanet.info, 2009). Soil
analysis shows a superimposition of layers made up of different colors, chemical
compositions and sizes of material (GoodPlanet.info, 2009). Each superimposition of
layers creates a pedological profile (GoodPlanet.info, 2009).
Agriculture plays a large part in soil and land degradation, especially clearing,
irrigation, chemical fertilisers and pesticides, overgrazing and even the passage of
heavy farming equipment (GoodPlanet, 2009). Clearing and deforestation of large
plots of land to increase the agricultural surface area, change humus composition
and soil formation because of varied indigenous vegetation being replaced by
secondary vegetation (monoculture being the extreme) (GoodPlanet, 2009).
Tillage destroys superior layers of soil as well as the layer of humus and can even
cause a plough sole (lower layer of compact land) to form because of ploughs
regularly passing through soil at the same depth (GoodPlanet, 2009). Farming
equipment also contributes to soil compaction especially when it weighs more than
5 tons (GoodPlanet, 2009).
Irrigation and soil drainage can cause soil acidification and salination whilst the use
of chemical fertilisers and pesticides contributes to reducing soil capillarity (runoff)
as well as its consistency (GoodPlanet, 2009).
2.1.1 Soil erosion
Soil is naturally removed by the action of water or wind: such 'background' (or
'geological') soil erosion has been occurring for some 450 million years, since the first
land plants formed the first soil (Favis-Mortlock, 2007). In general, background
erosion removes soil at roughly the same rate as soil is formed but 'accelerated' soil
erosion loss is a far more recent problem stemming from human activities such as
deforestation, overgrazing and unsuitable cultivation practices (Favis-Mortlock,
2007). These activities intensify soil erosion and can lead to desertification especially
in arid Mediterranean areas with major topsoil loss. Furthermore, accelerated soil
erosion can affect both agricultural areas and natural ecosystems either off-site or
on site and it is one of the most widespread environmental problems worldwide
(Favis-Mortlock, 2007). The use of powerful agricultural implements has, in some
parts of the world, led to damaging amounts of soil moving downslope merely under
the action of gravity: the so-called tillage erosion phenomenon (Favis-Mortlock,
2007).

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Despite its global nature, data on soil erosion severity are often limited (Favis-
Mortlock, 2005). The Global Assessment of Human Induced Soil Degradation
(GLASOD) study estimated that around 15% of the Earth's ice-free land surface is
afflicted by all forms of land degradation, of which soil erosion by water is
responsible for about 56% and wind erosion for about 28% (Favis-Mortlock, 2005) as
shown in Figure 2.1. This means that the area affected by water erosion is, very
roughly, around 11 million km2
, and the area affected by wind erosion is around 5.5
million km2
, while the area affected by tillage erosion is currently unknown (Favis-
Mortlock, 2005).
Figure 2.1 The GLASOD estimate of global land degradation: note that this includes all forms of soil
degradation, not just erosion (Favis-Mortlock, 2005)
The Mediterranean region is particularly prone to erosion, as shown in Figure 2.1,
because it is subject to long dry periods followed by heavy bursts of erosive rainfall,
falling on steep slopes with fragile soils, resulting in considerable amounts of erosion
(Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). In parts of the Mediterranean region, erosion has
reached a stage of irreversibility and in some places erosion has practically ceased
because there is no more soil left (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). With a very slow rate
of soil formation, any soil loss of more than 1 t/ha/yr can be considered as
irreversible within a time span of 50-100 years (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). Losses of
20 to 40 t/ha in individual storms, that may occur once every two or three years, are
measured regularly in Europe with losses of more than 100 t/ha in extreme events
(Morgan, 1992 in Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). It may take some time before the
effects of such erosion become noticeable, especially in areas with the deepest and
most fertile soils or on heavily fertilised land (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000). However,

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this is all the more dangerous because, once the effects have become obvious, it is
usually too late to do anything about it (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000).
Figure 2.2 Soil erosion risk assessment in the EU (Van der Knijff et. al., 2000)
Because soil is formed slowly, it is essentially a finite resource. Therefore sustainable
agricultural practices, prevention and remediation measures must be further
researched and implemented.
2.1.2 Soil structure
When soil is compacted, its natural porosity is markedly reduced leading to severe
cases of water and air induced erosion and restricted root development (DEFRA,
2011). Factors adding to compaction are (DEFRA, 2011):
 Field operations carried out when the soil is too wet.
 Heavy equipment – the heavier the equipment, the drier the conditions
required unless different tires are used.
 Emphasis on early showing or drilling (particularly in the spring).
 Reducing the number and extent of tillage operations.
 Wheeling in furrow bottoms when plowing.
The effects of cultivation pans and weakly structured layers are: poor germination,
poor response to fertilizers, traffic damage, crop diseases and pests, draughtiness
(DEFRA, 2011).

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2.1.3 Soil salinisation
Soil salinisation is the process that leads to an excessive increase of water-soluble
salts in the soil (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). Accumulated salts include sodium,
potassium, magnesium and calcium, chloride, sulphate, carbonate and bicarbonate
(mainly sodium chloride and sodium sulphate) (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). A
distinction can be made between primary and secondary salinisation processes (EC
Joint Research Centre, 2012). Primary salinisation involves salt accumulation through
natural processes due to a high salt content of the parent material or in
groundwater. Secondary salinisation is caused by human interventions such as
inappropriate irrigation practices, e.g. with salt-rich irrigation water and/or
insufficient drainage (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). More specifically, salinisation
is often associated with irrigated areas where low rainfall, high evapotranspiration
rates or soil textural characteristics impede the washing out of the salts, which
subsequently build-up in the soil surface layers (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012).
Irrigation with high salt content waters dramatically worsens the problem (EC Joint
Research Centre, 2012). In coastal areas, salinisation can be associated with the over
exploitation of groundwater caused by the demands of growing urbanisation,
industry and agriculture (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). Over extraction of
groundwater can lower the normal water table and lead to the intrusion of marine
water (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012).
Soil salinisation is one of the most widespread soil degradation processes on Earth,
with an estimated 1 to 3 million hectares affected in the enlarged EU and mainly in
the Mediterranean countries, as shown in Figure 2.3 (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). It is
regarded as a major cause of desertification and therefore is a serious form of soil
degradation (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012).

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Figure 2.3 Saline and Sodic Soils in the EU (EC, 2008)
2.1.4 Soil acidity and alkalinity
Soil acidity and alkalinity depends on various components which determine its
properties (Lake, 2000). These include mineral particles (sand, silt and clay, which
give soil its texture), organic matter (living and dead), air and water (Lake, 2000). Soil
acidity and alkalinity are measured in pH units with a scale of 1 (most acidic) to 14
(most alkaline) and 7 being neutral, though extreme values do not occur in
agricultural soils (FAO, 2000). Values from 7 to 4 are increasingly more acid and from
7 to 10 increasingly alkaline (FAO, 2000).
A main effect of too high or too low pH is that certain nutrients become too available
and toxic to the crop, while others become less available and show up as crop
deficiencies (FAO, 2000). In acid soils aluminium and manganese can become very
soluble and toxic, but additionally, they reduce plant's ability to take up calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium and molybdenum (FAO, 2000). Phosphorus in particular is
unavailable in acid soils and if boron, copper and zinc are present they can become
toxic at low pH (FAO, 2000). In medium alkaline soils boron, copper and zinc become
deficient and phosphorus again becomes unavailable (FAO, 2000). Soil pH has
relatively little effect on nitrogen (FAO, 2000).
Causes of extreme soil pH are (FAO, 2000):

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 The soil is geologically very old and heavily leached, with high levels of
aluminium and iron oxides. These soils are acid.
 Acidifying fertilizers have been applied to the soil for many years. These
include those with ammonium nitrogen and superphosphate.
 Large amounts of organic matter have been added to a very wet soil over
many years with resulting acidification.
 The soil is inherently alkaline being derived from limestone parent materials.
2.1.5 Sodification
Sodification is the process by which the exchangeable sodium (Na+
) content of saline
soil is increased (EC Joint Research Centre, 2012). This process takes place in saline
soils, where much of the chlorine has been washed away, leaving behind sodium
ions attached to tiny clay particles in the soil (Mason, 2003). As a result, these clay
particles lose their tendency to stick together when irrigated – leading to unstable
soils which may erode or become impermeable to both water and roots (Mason,
2003).
Sodicity can occur in the top 30 cm or so of the soil, or further down, but it is in the
top 5 cm where the biggest problems occur (Mason, 2003). If sodicity occurs below
the root zones of plants, its effect on crop productivity may be less apparent but it
can still cause significant problems (AAS, 1999). Sodic topsoils in arid and semi-arid
regions are subject to dust storms, which create major environmental and human
health problems (AAS, 1999). Sodic soils on sloping land are also subject to water
erosion, which means that important fertile topsoil is lost from agricultural land
(AAS, 1999). When water flows in channels or rivulets, soil is washed away along
these lines forming furrows called rills and in some cases, even larger channels of soil
removal, called gullies, develop (AAS, 1999). In other situations where only the
subsoil is sodic on sloping land, subsurface water flowing over this sodic layer will
create tunnels, leaving cavities that eventually collapse to form gullies (AAS, 1999).
Sodic soils that are also saline contain high concentrations of both sodium and
sodium chloride (AAS, 1999). Strangely enough, such soils will usually not exhibit
symptoms of sodicity because the sodium and chloride ions formed by the dissolved
sodium chloride (an electrolyte) in the soil solution prevents clay particles from
dispersing (AAS, 1999).
2.2 Water
Second only to drinking water availability, access to food supply is the greatest
priority (FAO, 1996). Hence, agriculture is a dominant component of the global

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economy (FAO, 1996) inflicting great pressures on both water quantity and quality
especially in the Mediterranean region. Fresh water is a finite resource, widely but
not everywhere available, sensitive to external influences and environmental
degradation, difficult to manage as it is mobile under its own peculiar conditions,
and costly to control and develop (FAO, 1996). On the other hand, population
growth and socio-economic development lead to increasing demands, while climate
change and international geopolitics are increasing uncertainties (FAO, 1996). Thus,
intensifying pressure on vulnerable water and land resources, the task of sustainable
management in agriculture becomes vital and urgent.
2.2.1 Water availability
In recent years, a growing concern has been expressed throughout the EU regarding
water scarcity problems and the significant impacts on water resources by
agricultural activities (EC Environment, 2012). In Europe, agriculture has been
estimated to account for around 24% of total water abstraction, although in parts of
southern Europe, this figure can reach up to 80% (EEA, 2009 in EC Environment,
2012) while in Greece, Spain and Portugal this percentage rises to 90% of total
overall water consumption (Berman et. al., 2012). Irrigation of crops constitutes a
considerable use, especially in southern Member States where irrigation accounts
for almost all agricultural water use and over-abstraction remains a pressing issue as
shown in Figure 2.4 (EC Environment, 2012). Agriculture has also been identified as
the major sustainable water management issue in the implementation of the EU
Water Framework Directive (WFD) (EC Environment, 2012). For this reason, water
use management in agriculture has been identified as one of the key themes relating
to water scarcity and drought (EC Environment, 2012).

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Figure 2.4 Irrigation intensity in Europe (GMIA, Siebert et. al., 2007 in Berman, 2012)
All agricultural aspects of agricultural production require water and are broadly
subdivided in three types of uses: irrigation, animal rearing and on-farming
processing operations (Berman et. al., 2012). It takes approximately 3,500 litres of
water to produce the food a typical European consumes in one day (Berman et. al.,
2012). A large proportion of this comes from rainwater (so called “green water”),
however in southern Europe irrigated crop production may be entirely dependent on
surface and groundwater resources (so called “blue water”), for this there is
increasing competition (Berman et. al., 2012).
Therefore, sustainable water management is essential to maximize yields and
control product quality (Lovell, 2006). Sustainable water management considers
both the crop’s water demand and the amount of water available, while managing
irrigation in order to maximize efficient use of water applied (Lovell, 2006). Irrigation
efficiency is a term that helps define the proportion of irrigation water that is
actually taken up and used by the crop (Lovell, 2006). Improvement in irrigation
efficiency is normally associated with water savings, production gains and better
long-term environmental management (Lovell, 2006). Irrigation efficiency is
determined by factors such as (Lovell, 2006):
 Ensuring irrigation systems are operating to design specification and applying
water as evenly as possible;
 Ability to time, or schedule irrigation, based upon crop water needs;
 Clear understanding of soils’ water holding, infiltration and drainage capacity.
To manage irrigation efficiently, a number of management practices need to be
considered, starting with an understanding of water availability and crop
requirements (Lovell, 2006) as described below.
Efficient irrigation management practices
There are nine basic steps in the efficient management of irrigation (Lovell, 2006):
1. Identify: Define property goals and implications for water management.
2. Plan: Know your soils.
3. Design the most suitable irrigation system.
4. Develop a farm water budget.
5. Know your water supply/ies.
6. Do: Determine a basic irrigation schedule.
7. Implement strategies to manage nutrient input and salinity.
8. Monitoring and recording:
a. Monitor record and evaluate.
9. Check irrigation system performance.

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2.2.2 Water quality
Agricultural practices may also have negative impacts on water quality (Utah State
University, 2012). Pollutants that result from farming include sediment, nutrients,
pathogens, pesticides, metals, and salts (US EPA, 2005). Impacts from agricultural
activities on surface and ground water can be minimized by using management
practices adapted to local conditions (US EPA, 2005). Many practices designed to
reduce pollution also increase productivity and save farmers money in the long run
(US EPA, 2005).
There are two aspects of water quality that need to be considered (Lovell, 2006):
The first involves water quality for agricultural use (e.g. irrigation, agricultural
sprays, packing sheds);
The second aspect involves water quality protection from agricultural
activities, thus ensuring that the quality of water leaving the crop does not
negatively impact on downstream users and the environment (Lovell, 2006).
2.2.2.1 Water quality of irrigation water
If rivers or streams are used as water resources, upstream human activities may
impact agriculture (Lovell, 2006). Possible problems caused from poor quality water
use include (Lovell, 2006):
 Salinity (high total soluble salt content)
 Sodicity (high sodium content)
 Toxicity (high concentration of specific salts in the soil)
 Blue-green algae, which may be toxic
 Clogging of irrigation equipment and
 Corrosion of pipes and other equipment.
2.2.2.2 Water quality impacts from agriculture
Sedimentation. The most prevalent source of agricultural water pollution is soil that
is washed off fields. Rain water carries soil particles (sediment) and dumps them into
nearby lakes or streams (US EPA, 2005). Too much sediment can cloud the water,
reducing the amount of sunlight that reaches aquatic plants. It can also clog the gills
of fish or smother fish larvae (US EPA, 2005). In addition, other pollutants like
fertilizers, pesticides, and heavy metals are often attached to the soil particles and
wash into the water bodies, causing algal blooms and depleted oxygen, which is
deadly to most aquatic life (US EPA, 2005). Farmers and ranchers can reduce erosion
and sedimentation by 20 to 90 percent by applying management practices that
control the volume and flow rate of runoff water, keep the soil in place, and reduce
soil transport (US EPA, 2005).

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Nutrients. Farmers apply nutrients such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium in
the form of chemical fertilizers, manure, and sludge (US EPA, 2005). They may also
grow legumes and leave crop residues to enhance production (US EPA, 2005). When
these sources exceed plant needs, or are applied just before it rains, nutrients can
wash into aquatic ecosystems (US EPA, 2005). There they can cause algae blooms,
which can ruin swimming and boating opportunities, create foul taste and odor in
drinking water, and kill fish by removing oxygen from the water (US EPA, 2005). High
concentrations of nitrate in drinking water can cause methemoglobinemia, a
potentially fatal disease in infants, also known as blue baby syndrome (US EPA,
2005). To combat nutrient losses, farmers can implement nutrient management
plans according to the CAP Directives.
Animal Feeding Operations. Runoff from poorly managed facilities can carry
pathogens such as bacteria and viruses, nutrients, and oxygen-demanding organics
and solids that contaminate shell fishing areas and cause other water quality
problems (US EPA, 2005). Ground water can also be contaminated by waste seepage
(US EPA, 2005). Farmers can limit discharges by storing and managing facility
wastewater and runoff with appropriate waste management systems according to
the CAP Directives.
Livestock Grazing. Overgrazing exposes soils, increases erosion, encourages invasion
by undesirable plants, destroys fish habitat, and may destroy stream banks and
floodplain vegetation necessary for habitat and water quality filtration (US EPA,
2005). To reduce the impacts of grazing on water quality, farmers can adjust grazing
intensity, keep livestock out of sensitive areas, provide alternative sources of water
and shade, and promote re-vegetation of ranges, pastures, and riparian zones (US
EPA, 2005).
Irrigation. Irrigation water is applied to supplement natural precipitation or to
protect crops against freezing or wilting (US EPA, 2005). Inefficient irrigation can
cause water quality problems (US EPA, 2005). In arid areas, for example, where
rainwater does not carry minerals deep into the soil, evaporation of irrigation water
can concentrate salts (US EPA, 2005). Excessive irrigation can affect water quality by
causing erosion, transporting nutrients, pesticides, and heavy metals, or decreasing
the amount of water that flows naturally in streams and rivers (US EPA, 2005). It can
also cause a buildup of selenium, a toxic metal that can harm waterfowl
reproduction (US EPA, 2005). Farmers can reduce pollution from irrigation by
improving water use efficiency (US EPA, 2005). They can measure actual crop needs
and apply only the amount of water required (US EPA, 2005). Farmers may also
choose to convert irrigation systems to higher efficiency equipment (US EPA, 2005).
Pesticides. Insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides are used to kill agricultural pests
(US EPA, 2005). These chemicals can enter and contaminate water through direct

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application, runoff, and atmospheric deposition (US EPA, 2005). They can poison fish
and wildlife, contaminate food sources, and destroy the habitat that animals use for
protective cover (US EPA, 2005). To reduce contamination from pesticides, farmers
should use CAP Directive and EU techniques based on the specific soils, climate, pest
history, and crop conditions for a particular field (US EPA, 2005). The CAP Directives
encourages natural barriers and limits pesticide use and manages necessary
applications to minimize pesticide movement from the field.
2.2.3 Risk Assessment
The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable water
management implementation in agricultural practices like the proposed prototype
Greenhouses, based on international literature and practice (Lovell, 2006).

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2.2.3.1 Water Use Risk Assessment
Are you aware of the
anticipated water volume
required for planned
production?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Does water availability meet
this requirement?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is your irrigation system
working to design
specifications?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is the irrigation scheduling
system in place?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are there strategies to manage
nutrient input and salinity?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
LOW RISK

[21]
2.2.3.2 Irrigation Water Quality Risk Assessment
Has your water been
tested for:
pH, nutrient levels,
salinity, dissolved
oxygen, turbidity
NO
Is the irrigation water known to be:
Acid
High in nitrogen or phosphorus
Saline
Low in dissolved oxygen
Turbid
Are these problems occurring in the region?
NO
LOW RISK
YES
HIGH RISK
YES
Did test results meet
national guidelines?
NO
Is the source of irrigation water
known to be affected by any
other potential risk (heavy
metals, agricultural chemicals etc)
etc)?
NO LOW RISK
YESYES
HIGH RISK

[22]
2.2.3.3 Water Quality Impacts Risk Assessment
Has the risk of soil erosion been
assessed and any necessary
control measures
implemented?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are waterstreams passing
through the property protected?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are fertilizers, agricultural
chemicals and fuels stored so as
to minimize the risk of polluting
surface or ground water?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is the risk of contaminating water
resources addressed when
applying and handling fertilizers,
agricultural chemicals, fuels and
releasing used packing shed
water?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
LOW RISK

[23]
2.3 Chemicals
Agricultural chemicals are widely used in farming, pesticides or plant protection
products (EC, 2012). They fight crop pests and reduce competition from weeds, thus
improving yields and protecting the availability, quality, reliability and price of
production to the benefit of farmers and consumers (EC, 2012). However, their use
does involve risk, because most have inherent properties that can endanger health
and the environment if not used properly (EC, 2012). Human and animal health can
be negatively affected through direct exposure (e.g. industrial workers producing
plant protection products and operators applying them) and indirect exposure (e.g.
via their residues in agricultural produce and drinking water, or by exposure of
bystanders or animals to spray drift when they are applied) (EC, 2012).
Soil and water may be polluted via spray drift, dispersal of pesticides into the soil,
and run-off during or after cleaning of equipment, or via uncontrolled storage and
disposal (EC, 2012). In this context the EU seeks to ensure the correct use of
pesticides or plant protection products and to maintain public awareness (EC, 2012).
In this respect, the Common Agricultural Policy includes measures that help
promoting the sustainability in the use of plant protection products (EC, 2012):
decoupling,
cross-compliance,
operational programs of the fruit and vegetables regime,
agri-environmental measures (e.g. support to integrated farming),
training,
the use of farm advisory services.
Moreover, no pesticide can be used in the EU unless it is scientifically proven that it:
(EC, 2012)
Doesn’t harm people's health;
Has no unacceptable effects on the environment;
Is effective against pests.
Today, farmers are increasingly aware of the complex interrelationships between
agricultural practices and environmental quality (Hamilton et. al., 2006). Modern
farmers now consider the timing of agricultural chemical application and irrigation,
the amount and style of pesticide application, specific crop needs, and local weather
conditions in their pesticide and fertilizer use (Hamilton et. al., 2006).
2.3.1 Storage
Poorly stored pesticides and improper mixing/loading practices can present a
potential risk to our health and to the integrity of the environment (Kennedy, 2012).
The quality of surface water, groundwater and soil can be degraded in areas where

[24]
pesticides are stored under inappropriate conditions, improperly mixed and loaded
into application tanks and where equipment is washed and rinsed after application
(Kennedy, 2012). Accidents involving spills or leakages may have serious health and
environmental consequences (Kennedy, 2012).
Safety is the key element in pesticide storage (Kennedy, 2012). The safest approach
to any pesticide problem is to limit the amounts and types of pesticides stored
(Kennedy, 2012). The amounts and types of pesticides stored should be maintained
at the level that is immediately required and should not be stored beyond
immediate needs (Kennedy, 2012).
According to Australian Standards for minor storage (<10 kg or L of fumigants),
pesticides should be stored in a dedicated shed or room and not be used for other
than storage or measuring out pesticides (DPIWE, 2004). More specifically, the
following checklists should be followed while planning pesticide storage in a farming
area (DPIWE, 2004):
Site selection:
The site should be located at least:
 15 m from the property boundary
 10 m from buildings occupied by people or livestock
 5 m from watercourses, dams, drainage or sewage lines
 3 m from stored flammable materials
 well above maximum flood level
The site should preferably be:
 in an open area with low risk to wild-fires
 located to have good air circulation and avoid temperature extremes
 near to the tank mixing and filling area
The site must have access to:
 a clean and reliable water supply for tank filling and emergency use
Storage room structure/construction:
 structurally sound to wind and weather especially good roof with no leaks
 fire resistant structure and internal cladding is preferred
 wall and roof insulation to moderate storage temperature is desirable
 should have clear access and outward opening doors
The floor:
 must be impermeable and preferably graded to aid collection of spills and
wash down
 must be graded or bounded to contain 25% of the total liquid in the store.
Some schemes may require this to be 110% of the possible store contents.
Check that doorways and service entry/exits do not compromise
containment

[25]
 a normally closed pipe feeding an external lime pit for dilute wash down is
acceptable
 should be clear of fixtures and items to aid a total clean up in the event of a
spill
 should be non slip for worker safety.
Ventilation:
 must be adequate to prevent build up of chemical vapors; both lower vents
just above the bund and upper vents in the walls or roof are highly
recommended
Lighting:
 must be adequate to read labels in and to measure out chemicals; natural
light is preferred
Shelving:
 must be sturdy and made of non absorbent materials
 located on the coolest side of store and away from direct sunlight, electrical
and heat sources
 must be sufficient to avoid stacking and allow ease of use
Water supply:
 clean, reliable and capable of 15 minutes continuous flow to wash chemical
off any part of the body
Security:
 the store must be lockable and kept locked to prevent unauthorized entry
 windows and vents must be designed to prevent entry by children or others
 only authorized staff should have access to store keys
2.3.2 Application
Pesticide application refers to the practical way in which pesticides (including
herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, or nematode control agents) are delivered to
their biological targets (e.g. pest organism, crop or other plant) (Bateman, 2003).
Public concern about the use of pesticides has highlighted the need to make this
process as efficient as possible, in order to minimize their release into the
environment and human exposure (including operators, bystanders and consumers
of produce) (Bateman, 2003).
Farmers can adopt “low-input” production methods, although usually they avoid
these methods because they ignore agrichemical use external costs, especially
environmental damage, and because of possible lack of information describing low-
input farming techniques and government support (Fleming, 1987).
Pest control should be initiated only when a pest is causing or is expected to cause
more harm than is reasonable to accept (UK, 2005). Then, each euro spent for pest

[26]
control should return several euros in reduced losses or quality (UK, 2005). Often,
low or moderate pest numbers will not cause damage or economic loss. In these
cases, the cost of control is greater than the amount of damage that the pest would
cause (UK, 2005). When control is justified, an effective strategy should be selected
that is safe for the applicator and poses minimum potential harm to the
environment (UK, 2005).
The use of pesticides can threaten human health, the environment and wildlife; thus,
the decision to use a pesticide should only be taken when all other alternative
control measures have been fully considered (FAO, 2001). The three general pest
control goals are prevention, suppression, or eradication and it is important to select
the most appropriate one for every situation (UK, 2005). Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) is the combination of several appropriate pest control tactics
into a single plan to reduce pests and their damage to an acceptable level (UK,
2005). IPM, as described in the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution
and Use of Pesticides (FAO 1990 in FAO, 2001), offers a pest management system
that combines all appropriate control techniques to effect satisfactory results.
Pesticides are important tools to reduce outbreaks but continued reliance on them
can be very expensive and may lead to resistance to pesticides, outbreaks of other
pests, or harm to non-target or beneficial organisms (UK, 2005). With some pests,
using pesticides alone will not achieve adequate control (UK, 2005). The proposed
steps for the implementation of IPM according to international literature and
practice, include (UK, 2005):
Identify the pest or pests and determine whether or not control is needed.
Determine your pest control goal – suppression, eradication.
Evaluate the alternatives and select one that will be most effective and will
cause the least harm to people and the environment.
Evaluate the results and adjust your strategy as needed.
Pest control can fail for any of a variety of reasons and in the context of an IPM plan,
failures should be reviewed in order to try to determine what went wrong and
implement appropriate remediation and prevention measures (UK, 2005). More
specifically, the following checklist should be take into account (UK, 2005):
 Was the pest identified correctly? Sometimes a pesticide application fails
because the pest was not identified correctly and the wrong pesticide was
chosen or was applied at the wrong time.
 Was the pesticide rate used? Lack of calibration or faulty spray equipment
can cause control failures.
 Was the application timed correctly? Sometimes the pests are too large to be
controlled by a pesticide or in a less susceptible stage. In other cases, the
damage is already done and killing the pest has no impact on the problem.

[27]
 What were weather conditions before and after application? Weather can
impact pest control. Rain may wash off pesticide residues before the product
can work. Poor growing conditions may keep herbicides from being effective.
2.3.3 Disposal
Improper disposal of pesticides, rinsates and containers can cause water and soil
pollution either through surface runoff or through leaching (UK, 2005). Runoff and
leaching may occur when too much liquid pesticide is applied, leaked, or spilled onto
a surface, or too much rainwater, irrigation water, or other water gets onto a surface
containing pesticide residue (UK, 2005).
Runoff water may travel into drainage ditches, streams, ponds, or other surface
water where pesticide residues can be carried great distances offsite, while
pesticides that leach downward through the soil in the sometimes reach ground
water. (UK, 2005). Runoff water in the greenhouse may get into floor drains or other
drains and into the domestic water system (UK, 2005). In a greenhouse, pesticides
may leach through the soil or other planting medium to floors or benches below (UK,
2005).
Apart from water and soil contamination, pesticide runoff may harm fish and other
aquatic animals and plants in ponds, streams and lakes (UK, 2005). Aquatic life also
can be harmed by careless tank filling or draining and by rinsing or discarding used
containers along or in waterways (UK, 2005). Typical pesticide labeling statements
that alert users to these concerns and must be carefully followed, include (UK, 2005):
"Do not apply this product or allow it to drift to blooming crops or weeds if bees are
visiting the treatment area."
"Extremely toxic to aquatic organisms. Do not contaminate water by cleaning of
equipment or waste disposal."
Wildlife exposure to pesticides either directly through feeding and direct exposure or
indirectly through run off, leaching or soil contamination, may lead to accumulation
of certain toxic substances within the food chain (UK, 2005). Therefore, a careful IPM
plan must be implemented and pesticide disposal must follow product instructions
and labeling as well as measures proposed in the CAP Directives and Greek
legislation on pesticide use and dangerous toxic waste disposal.
2.3.4 Spray drift
The drift of spray and dust from pesticide applications can expose people, wildlife,
and the environment to pesticide residues, causing both health and environmental
problems (US EPA, 2009). Therefore, when using an approved pesticide, the
objective is to distribute the correct dose to a defined target with the minimum of

[28]
wastage due to drift using the most appropriate spraying equipment (FAO, 2001).
Pesticides only give acceptable field results if they are delivered safely and precisely
(FAO, 2001). Unlike other field operations, the results from poor spraying may not
become apparent for some time, thus it is essential that those involved in pesticide
selection and use are fully aware of their responsibilities and obligations, and are
trained in pesticide use and application (FAO, 2001).
2.3.4.1 Operator training
Operators of spray equipment must receive suitable training before handling and
applying pesticides (FAO, 2001). Training should be provided by a recognized
provider and courses are frequently offered by local training groups, agricultural
colleges, government extension departments, spray equipment manufacturers and
the chemical industry (FAO, 2001). The satisfactory completion of a course may
result in a recognized certificate of competence to cover:
 safe product handling,
 delivery of the product to the target
 instruction on using the relevant spray equipment.
2.3.4.2 Spray equipment selection
The selection of appropriate and suitable spray equipment is essential safe and
effective pesticide use (FAO, 2001). International and national equipment testing
schemes have been established in many countries where after thorough testing
under laboratory and field situations, sprayers are given certificates of approval
(FAO, 2001). Where testing is not in place equipment manufacturers can be required
to confirm that a sprayer complies with the requirements in countries where testing
is mandatory or the equipment meets the appropriate FAO guidelines (FAO, 2001).
Equally important when selecting spraying equipment is access to spare parts,
service and support facilities (FAO, 2001).m Ideally, equipment selection should not
be based primarily on cost; safety, design, comfort and ease of use must be major
considerations, and ease of maintenance must be a high priority (FAO, 2001).
Knapsack sprayer maintenance should require only simple tools (FAO, 2001). The
combination of operator training to a recognized standard, combined with the
selection of appropriate spray equipment will contribute to improving the accuracy
of pesticide delivery as well as protecting the environment (FAO, 2001).
2.3.4.3 Correct use
Pesticides should only be used if there is an economically important need and all
pesticides must be used strictly in accordance with their label recommendation
(FAO, 2001). Product selection must assess potential exposure hazard of the selected

[29]
formulation and determine what control measures and dose rates the label
recommendations advocate (FAO, 2001).
2.3.4.4 Managing operator exposure
The use of Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE) is essential for protecting operator
health and advice on its use will be found on the product label (FAO, 2001). Effective
health monitoring records will be able to provide early warnings and identify
changes in operator health, which may be attributed to working with pesticides
(FAO, 2001).
The public must be safeguarded as well, both during, and after spraying, for example
where they might have access to a treated area (FAO, 2001). Maybe livestock also
ought to be prevented from re-entering treated areas immediately after spraying
(FAO, 2001).
The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable pesticide
implementation based on international literature and practice (Lovell, 2006).

[30]
2.3.5 Chemical use risk assessment
Have you investigated
alternatives or environmentally
friendlier options?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are chemicals, fuels and soil
stored safely and according to
law, including an appropriate
spill kit?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are chemical mixing facilities
designed to contain / prevent
spread of any spillage?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are strategies in place to
minimize spray drift?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Do you use: agricultural,
cleaning, sanitizing chemicals,
fuels, oils?
NO
YES
LOW
RISK

[31]
LOW RISK
Is the personnel working with
chemicals appropriately trained
and are chemicals applied safely
effectively and according to
legislation?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are surplus chemicals (spray
and tank washing) and obsolete
chemicals disposed of safely
and according to legislation?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are empty chemical containers
(including plastic and metal
drums and paper and plastic
bags) stored and disposed of
safely and according to law?
NO HIGH RISK
YES

[32]
2.3.6 Spray drift risk assessment
Is wind speed between 3
and 15 Km/h?
AND
Is temperature lower than
30o
C?
AND
Is relative humidity
moderate (40-100%)?
NO
Are there neighbors or other
crops nearby?
NO
LOW RISK
YES
HIGH RISK
YES
Are there sensitive
environmental areas
nearby (wetlands,
natura sites, national
park, special habitats))?
NO
YES
HIGH RISK
HIGH RISK

[33]
2.4 Fertilizers - Nutrients
Agricultural production increases in the next three decades are to be no smaller in
absolute terms than those of the past three decades, although growth rates will be
significantly lower (Alexandratos, 2003). These future increases must be achieved
starting from a resource base that is much more stretched than in the past
(Alexandratos, 2003). Given the scarcities of suitable agricultural land in several
developing countries, a good part of the required production will stem from
increasing output per ha cultivated (Alexandratos, 2003). Therefore, agriculture will
become more intensive and the use of fertilizers must be more efficient and
environmentally friendly.
Intensive fertilizer application is linked to nutrient input in runoff and leaching,
which may lead to water body eutrophication, soil acidification and potential soil and
water contamination with nitrates (Alexandratos, 2003). Elements such as nitrogen
and phosphorus found in fertilizers can cause algae blooms and excess plant growth
in water bodies, which in turn can lead to oxygen depletion and toxic conditions in
aquatic habitats (Alexandratos, 2003). Nitrates leaching into ground water resources
is of great concern because they contribute to the "blue baby" syndrome in drinking
water (Alexandratos, 2003).
Any fertilizer in any form, whether organic or synthetic, can harm the environment if
misused. Whether you're using cow manure or commercial fertilizer, you need to
take precautions to protect the environment (EnviroGreen, 2012). There are several
things to keep in mind when using fertilizers, described as follows (EnviroGreen,
2012):
1) Get the soil tested regularly - Soil testing is the only way that will know what
nutrients are in the soil. If there are sufficient amounts of elements such as
phosphorus, then there is no need in applying extra phosphorus.
2) Know the nutrient needs of crop - If the crop only needs 1/2 pound of
nitrogen per thousand square feet, then only apply 1/2 pound of nitrogen per
thousand square feet. Any more than this will not do any good and will most
likely not be used. Unused fertilizer can be washed away into lakes, rivers and
streams or leached into ground water. Study the crop and learn about its
nutrient needs. Use this knowledge plus information from soil test to
determine the amount of fertilizer to apply.
3) Apply at the proper time - Know when the crop needs to be fertilized. There
is no need to apply fertilizer when the crop will not use it. Again, this unused
fertilizer can be washed away or leached before the plant can use it.
4) Take extra precautions on slopes - Applying fertilizers on slopes can lead to
the washing away of nutrients. This is how most of these nutrients wind up
into our surface waters. Take precautions to control runoff from property. Do

[34]
not allow fertilizer to drift onto the streets because this fertilizer will certainly
make its way into the storm drains. Above all, control soil erosion. Elements
that are tightly held by the soil, make their way into the surface waters on
soil that is washed away. Phosphorus is an example of this type of element.
5) If you use organic fertilizer sources, have them tested - Like the soil, the only
way that you can know what is in your organic fertilizer source is to have it
tested and the only way to know how much organic fertilizer to apply is to
know what is in it. The nutrient contents of organic materials vary
considerably, therefore information on average contents of individual
materials are not always reliable.
6) Apply fertilizers only to healthy plants or reduce the amount to unhealthy
plants - An unhealthy plant or in the case of a crop, poor plant stand, is not
going to use as much nutrient as a healthy crop. Applying the same amount
of fertilizer to an unhealthy plant can lead to unused fertilizer and can also
harm the plant. Find out what is causing the problem. Fertilizer may not be
the solution and if applied, could lead to polluting the environment.
7) Store your fertilizer materials properly - Keep fertilizer sources from being
washed away by rains. Keep them under a shelter and off of the ground so
the nutrients want get caught in rain water runoff.
8) Plant debris and compost is a source of nutrients - Remember that crop
residue left over from last year, mulch and compost contain plant nutrients.
These nutrients can also get into the environment as well. When deciding the
amount of fertilizer to apply, take into consideration the nutrients from these
sources and reduce the amount of fertilizer.
9) Break up fertilizer applications on sandy soils - Nutrients leach very readily on
sandy soils. If apply more than the plant can use at the time, one good rain or
irrigation can leach the nutrients down below the plant roots before it can
use them. On sandy soils, break up fertilizer applications into several smaller
applications instead of a few larger applications.
10) Follow up fertilizer applications with a light irrigation - A light irrigation is
good to activate the fertilizer, but a heavy rain or irrigation can leach or wash
away nutrients. Keep this in mind when applying fertilizer.
The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable nutrient
and fertilizer management based on international literature and practice (Lovell,
2006).

[35]
2.4.1 Nutrient management risk assessment
LOW RISK
RISK
Do you know the type and
quantity of nutrients your crop
needs? NO HIGH RISKYES
Do you know what nutrients are available to
your crop from your soil/substrate? Take into
account:
Major and minor nutrients
Soil texture, ph, salinity, organic matter and
crop residues
Quality of irrigation water
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are you losing nutrients
through leaching, surface water
runoff, wind erosion?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Are fertilizer applications/soil amendments causing
other environmental pollution such as heavy metal
contamination or soil acidification? NO
HIGH RISK
YES
Have you developed a nutrient
budget, farm budget nutrition? YES
HIGH RISK NO

[36]
2.4.2 Fertilizer application risk assessment
LOW RISK
RISK
Are fertilizer application
methods and timing chosen to
maximize benefit to the crops
and minimize potential negative
environmental impacts?
Consider: runoff, leaching,
volatilization
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is fertilizer application equipment:
Calibrated and maintained?
Checked for accuracy of
distribution?
NO HIGH RISK
YES

[37]
2.5 Biodiversity
Despite the fundamental importance of biodiversity and ecosystem services to the
Earth’s functioning and to human society, human activities are driving the loss of
biodiversity at an unprecedented rate, up to 1,000 times the natural rate of species
loss (UNEP, 2008). And despite the specific importance of crop and livestock
diversity, and of associated agricultural biodiversity, advances in agricultural
production over recent decades have been achieved largely without major regard to
the erosion of biodiversity (UNEP, 2008).
The biggest driver of terrestrial biodiversity loss in the past 50 years has been habitat
conversion, in large part due to conversion of natural and semi-natural landscapes to
agriculture (UNEP, 2008). Nutrient loading, particularly of nitrogen and phosphorus,
much of which derived from fertilizers and farm effluent, is one of the biggest drivers
of ecosystem change in terrestrial, freshwater and coastal ecosystems (UNEP, 2008).
Climate change is projected to become a major driver of biodiversity loss as well as a
serious challenge to agriculture, whose response, to adapt, will draw upon the
genetic diversity of crops and livestock and the services provided by other
components of agricultural biodiversity (UNEP, 2008).
Many modern practices and approaches to agriculture intensification aiming at
achieving high yields have led to a simplification of the components of agricultural
systems and biodiversity and to ecologically unstable production systems (UNEP,
2008). These include use of monocultures with reduction in cropping diversity and
elimination of crop succession or rotation; use of high-yielding varieties and hybrids
with the loss of traditional varieties and diversity together with a need for high
inputs of inorganic fertilizer; control of weeds, pests and diseases based on chemical
(herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides) treatments rather than mechanical or
biological methods (UNEP, 2008).
Land and habitat conversion to large-scale agricultural production, including
drainage of land and conversion of wetlands has also caused significant loss of
biodiversity (UNEP, 2008). The homogenization of farming landscape with
elimination of natural areas, including hedgerows, woodlots and wetlands, to
achieve larger scale production units for large-scale mechanized production has also
led to decline in biodiversity and ecological services (UNEP, 2008).
The following flow chart describes Risk Assessment steps for sustainable biodiversity
management in agricultural practices based on international literature and practice
(Lovell, 2006).

[38]
2.5.1 Biodiversity risk assessment
LOW RISK
RISK
Are there areas that are
degraded / overrun with exotic
species like lantana, blackberry,
and willow?
NO
HIGH RISK
Is there any native vegetation in
your farm?
YES HIGH RISK
YES
Are there areas managed to protect the habitat?
Fenced, spray drift minimized, misapplication of
fertilizer minimized, burning/fire risk, exotic pests
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Is there any area where native vegetation could be
established or that includes protected species?
Unsuitable for horticultural production, along access
roads, swappy or waterlogged land, steep slopes
YES
HIGH RISK
NO
NO
LOW RISK
RISK
DON’T KNOW
OR UNSURE

[39]
2.6 Waste
Agricultural waste is any substance or object from premises used for agriculture or
horticulture, which the holder discards, intends to discard or is required to discard. It
is waste specifically generated by agricultural activities (UK EA, 2012). For example,
waste which came from a farm shop or a vegetable packing plant would not be
agricultural waste (UK EA, 2012). Some examples of agricultural waste are: (UK EA,
2012):
 empty pesticide containers
 old silage wrap
 out of date medicines and wormers
 used tires
 surplus milk
 manure
 sewage sludge
 organic
Agricultural waste can be spread on land for many reasons. For example, wastes like
organic compost, digestive and food processing can reduce requirements for
manufactured fertilizers (UK EA, 2008). Other wastes can be used to improve the soil
by increasing organic matter content and soil structure (UK EA, 2008). Although the
use of waste as a fertilizer can provide significant benefits, if done incorrectly severe
impacts could be caused on the food chain, soil health, surface water and
groundwater and to sensitive habitats and species (UK EA, 2008). If waste is used as
as a soil improver or fertilizer it must be spread either in accordance with a
registered waste exemption or in accordance with an environmental permit (UK EA,
2008).
Activities involving waste storage, recycling or disposal generally require an
Environmental Permit, however some waste activities pose less of a risk to the
environment and human health so are exempt from requiring an environmental
permit (UK EA, 2008).
The following flow chart describes Risk Assessment steps for sustainable waste
management in agricultural practices, based on international literature and practice
(Lovell, 2006).

[40]
2.6.1 Waste risk assessment
LOW RISK
Can you identify the waste in
your farm?
NO HIGH RISK
YES
Can any of these products be
avoided? NO HIGH RISK
YES
Change inputs and/or practices
to minimize waste
NO HIGH RISK
YES

[41]
2.7 Air - Noise
Air pollution issues, particularly odors, dust, smoke and noise, can often be of most
significance to immediate residencies (Lovell, 2006). Primary producers need to
recognize that some activities can negatively impact neighbors and that at times it
may be appropriate to adjust activities as far as reasonable to minimize the impact
(Lovell, 2006).
2.7.1 Odor management
Odors can be caused by animal manures, fertilizers and chemicals, waste disposal
sites, composting sites and activities, mulches and waste management equipment
(Lovell, 2006). Therefore cultivation practices must be chose carefully (Lovell, 2006):
 Working soil to fine tilth in dry windy weather should be avoided if possible.
Pre-irrigation to wet dry soil before cultivation will help to reduce dust.
 Use slower cultivation speeds when there is a risk of dust.
 Uncultivated crop stubble provides protection against wind erosion.
 Minimize the amount of time soil is left without vegetation or a cover crop.
 Minimum tillage techniques should be used where practical.
 Inter-row spacing and headlands should have groundcover whenever
possible.
2.7.2 Dust management
Excessive dust can cause annoyance and in some cases health problems to neighbors
and staff (Lovell, 2006). Dust created around packing sheds can also settle on packed
produce, affecting visual quality and potentially having food safety implications
(Lovell, 2006). The combination of soil type, farming system and weather patterns
contributes to the risk of soil erosion by wind (Lovell, 2006).
Applying mulches to the surface of seedbeds after drilling on sandy soils is an
effective control measure (Lovell, 2006). Use of plastic mulch along plant rows will
also contribute to dust control (Lovell, 2006). Wetting down, sealing and use of
‘minimal dust materials’ (for example blue metal or hardstand) for the surfaces of
frequently used traffic ways (transport delivery and pickup areas, harvested produce
delivery points and forklift routes at the packing shed) will dramatically reduce the
dust problem (Lovell, 2006). Do not apply oil to traffic-ways due to the potential for
it to end up in waterways (Lovell, 2006).
2.7.3 Noise management
Noise many not seem like an environmental management issue for growers,
however Greek legislation for environmental protection includes noise as part of the
definition of the environment. For this reason, noise management is included in the
environmental assurance process for horticultural businesses.

[42]
Suggested practices include (Lovell, 2006):
Identify and consider local government regulations.
Buffer zones are useful to reduce noise and are also helpful to mitigate
impacts of off-target spray application.
Where pumps are located close to residential areas, consider changing from
diesel to electric pumps or creating a sound barrier around the pump. Electric
pumps will most likely be run at night time, when electricity tariffs are lower.
Consider muffling equipment where daytime intermittent noise levels are
excessive. Where normal methods are not sufficient to reduce noise to
acceptable levels, equipment that is continuously operated may require
soundproofing or artificial mounds to help absorb and deflect the noise.
Some forms of seasonal activity, or current and accepted industry practice
like harvesting, may require the use of machinery at night. Where sensitive
places are close to noise and night-time activities occur, consider starting
work closer to the sensitive area and moving away as night falls. The
converse applies for early morning activities.
The following flow charts describe Risk Assessment steps for sustainable odor, dust,
smoke, noise and greenhouse gas emissions management in agricultural practices,
based on international literature and practice (Lovell, 2006).

[43]
2.7.4 Odor management risk assessment
LOW RISK
Do you:
Store manure, fertilizers,
chemical?
Have a produced waste site?
Have other unpleasant odor
producing activities?
NOYES
Could the activity cause concern
to family, employees, neighbors
or community?
NO
YES
HIGH RISK
LOW RISK

[44]
2.7.5 Dust management risk assessment
LOW RISK
YES
Do any of the following apply to the site?
Soil type is lite to erosion,
Cropping/harvesting activity will leave soil
exposed during windy weather
Site is particularly exposed
NO
HIGH RISK

[45]
2.7.6 Smoke management risk assessment
LOW RISK
YES
Do you burn your waste?
NO
HIGH RISK
Are there disposal options other
than burning?
YES
NO
HIGH RISK

[46]
2.7.7 Noise management risk assessment
LOW RISK
Does the operation generate
excessive noise?
NOYES
Are there neighbors close to the
operation? NO
YES
Is the operation running during
sensitive times (e.g. between 10
am and 6 pm, or on weekends)? NO HIGH RISK
YES
LOW RISK
Are there sensitive environmental
areas, particularly with are or
endangered fauna, close to the
operation?
NO
NO

[47]
2.7.8 Greenhouse gases management risk assessment
LOW RISK
YES
Do you:
Undertake regular maintenance of all
equipment, particularly that requiring fossil
fuels and CFCs?
Regularly check insulation?
Strategically apply nitrogenous fertilizers?
Minimize unnecessary journeys and
cultivation passes
NO HIGH RISK

[48]
2.8 Energy
Agricultural and horticultural businesses carry out a wide range of different activities
but there are many common areas where energy is wasted (Lichfield District Council,
2012). There are several low and no-cost measures, as well as those requiring
investment, that farming businesses can put into place to lower energy consumption
and save money (Lichfield District Council, 2012).
Across all farming businesses, the major areas of energy consumption are lighting,
heating, ventilation, air circulation and refrigeration (Lichfield District Council, 2012).
The main areas of energy consumption by broad agricultural activity are (Lichfield
District Council, 2012):
 horticulture heating typically accounts for 90 per cent of the energy used in a
greenhouse
 pig farming - energy is used in a number of pig farming processes, including
welfare and feeding systems, building services and environmental protection,
waste management and emissions control
 poultry farming - most energy is used for maintaining good environmental
conditions for housing the flock
 dairy - cooling milk and heating water account for as much as 65 per cent of
the energy used, with lighting and pumping also significant consumers
 crop stores - the amount of energy required by a crop store is closely linked
to the thickness of the insulation and the difference between the storage
temperature and the temperature outside
 combinable crops - energy is often wasted in storing and drying these crops

[49]
2.8.1 Energy management risk assessment
LOW RISK
Do you monitor the amount of
electricity and fuel you use and
the use to which it is put? NOYES
Are you using the most efficient
and practical energy source? NO
YES
Are these things you can do to
minimize the energy usage of
your operation? YES HIGH RISK
NO
HIGH RISK
HIGH RISK

[50]
3 Environmental impact assessment and control
procedures
3.1 Soil treatment
Tillage is a means to an end and not an end in itself. It prepares the field for the next
crop, for seeding, to destroy and cover unwanted plants, to ensure proper aoil
drainage and aeration. Bare cultivated soil is vulnerable to wind and water erosion.
Therefore, soil treatment must be as limited as possible with the necessary
interventions. Excessive tillage increases required energy, inducing large and
unnecessary fuel consumption, and also has negative impacts on the soil. In order to
maximize tillage benefits and minimize its negative impacts, the following measure
will be followed:
The type of crop, soil and agricultural machinery available should be taken
into account before tillage. Provision should be taken, for fewer
interventions.
Process should take place when the soil is in the "right state for cultivation",
i.e. after the first autumn rains. It is desirable to avoid summer plowing,
unless it is necessary for perennial weed Control.
Avoid deep tillage below 40 cm, unless it is needed for weed eradication and
breaking deep-root impenetrable soil horizon. In the case of deep tillage, due
to breakage the reversal soil should not be impenetrable.
Where there is danger of flooding a special method will be used that assures
leveling plots using reversible plows.
When slopes are greater than 10%, plowing must be either parallel to the
contours or diagonal. Embankments created during contour plowing should
be diagonal (uncultivated areas with vegetative cover) with a range of 1-2 m.
Uncultivated soil between parcels and hedges, as well as the natural
vegetation of gullies and neighboring forests must be preserved.
Interventions involving water stream rerouting must be implemented only
when needed and after appropriate authorization by government authorities.
3.1.1 Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the process of growing different types of crops in the same field in
sequential seasons. It is one of the oldest and most effective cultural control
strategies (PAN Germany, 2012). The succeeding crop belongs to a different family
than the previous one (PAN Germany, 2012). Planned rotation may vary from 2 or 3
year or longer period (PAN Germany, 2012). Some insect pests and disease-causing
organisms are hosts’ specific, therefore crop rotation can contribute significantly to
pest control. Moreover, crop rotation (PAN Germany, 2012):
1. Prevents soil depletion.
2. Maintains soil fertility.

[51]
3. Reduces soil erosion.
4. Controls insect/mite pests. The process is most effective when pests present
before the crop is planted with no wide range of host crops; attack only
annual/biennial crops; and do not have the ability to fly from one field to
another.
5. Reduces reliance on synthetic chemicals.
6. Reduces the pests' build-up.
7. Prevents diseases.
8. Helps weed control.
3.1.2 Objective – to minimize the potential for water to erode soil
Maintaining soil cover: Soil cover protects the soil from erosion by reducing
the displacement (movement) of soil particles caused by rain or overhead
irrigation droplets, and by slowing the movement of water across the site.
Types of soil cover include:
 grassed waterways on drainage and sump areas;
 inter-row groundcovers in orchards, vineyards and ground crops;
 green manure/cover crops planted between (in space and time)
commercial crops;
 organic mulches, plastic, slashed inter-row material or crop residues
spread over the exposed soil; and
 products such as PAM (polyacrylamide), PVA (polyvinyl acetate) or
molasses which bind soil together.
Managing soil cover:
 avoiding soil tillage (where possible) during times of the year when
heavy rainfall events are likely, especially in tropical areas;
 avoiding cultivation of light sandy soils subject to regular flooding;
 using minimum tillage systems that minimize mechanical disturbance
of the soil;
 using permanent bed systems that improve soil structure and soil
stability through maintaining or improving soil organic matter levels;
 planting green manure or cover crops during the period between
commercial crops to cover the soil and increase soil organic matter
levels for improved soil structure, stability and fertility;
 under sowing or planting in the inter-row area at the same time as
commercial crops;
 leaving crop residues (where possible) on site until the site is next
required;
 minimizing the time soil is left exposed between harvest and planting
of the next crop; and
 establishing permanent grass or vegetation cover on areas that are
not cropped.

[52]
Controlling run-off water: Controlling the direction of flow, volume and speed
of run-off water on site can minimize soil erosion. Long, gentle slopes are just
as prone as short, steep slopes. Good planning and drainage design before
planting can prevent problems later.
Improving soil structure: Adding organic matter increases soil resistance to
erosion. Organic matter can either be left on the soil surface as a mulch or
incorporated into the soil to improve soil organic matter levels and soil
structure.
Establishing sediment traps: Sediment traps or ponds (also called silt traps or
ponds/sediment retention basins) aim to hold run-off water long enough to
allow soil particles to settle. They can be small ponds or weirs, or large dams
that capture and re-use run-off water. Artificially constructed wetland
systems may be established to capture sediment and remove the nutrient in
run-off waters.
Monitoring and recording - Visual inspection: Immediately after a rainfall
event, go and have a look at how run-off is flowing across the farm. Is erosion
occurring? How dirty (turbid) is the water?
 Assessing water turbidity: In addition to a visual inspection of water
leaving the property or returning to farm dams, a turbidity tube can
be made and used to gauge basic changes in water turbidity. Turbidity
meters are also available for more precise assessments.
 Assessing soil erosion losses: Place a piece of 100x50 mm timber, or
similar, on the ground and, over time, look at the amount of soil that
accumulates behind it.
3.1.3 Objective – to minimize the potential for wind to erode soil
Maintaining soil cover: Soil cover protects the soil from erosion by minimizing
soil exposure to the physical force of the wind.
Managing soil cover.
Moderating wind speed.
Improving soil structure.
o Plenty of organic matter in the soil will strengthen soil structure and
make it less prone to wind erosion.
Monitoring and recording – Visual inspection: Wind erosion can be visually
assessed – have a look at an exposed site with light soils on a windy day.
However, the effects of erosion are often subtle and require an extended
period of time to become obvious. In this case it may not be possible to
clearly distinguish between the causes of erosion, but an understanding of
your own property, soil type and weather patterns should help you
determine the most significant influences so that appropriate control
measures can be instigated.
Assessing soil erosion losses: Measuring wind erosion can be difficult because
of its patchy nature.

[53]
Irrigation can be applied immediately prior to, or during, wind events to
increase the cohesion between soil particles, thereby reducing erosion
(Lovell, 2006). Cultivating so as to leave a rough, raised and very uneven
surface.
Planning when setting up new sites, particularly where major ground works
are concerned, should include consideration of the likelihood of wind
extremes and managing or avoiding the periods when they are likely to occur.
Using remnant vegetation or shelter belts within or adjacent to the new site
can minimize soil erosion.
3.1.4 Objective – soil structure suitable for root growth, water infiltration,
aeration and drainage needs of the crop.
Cultivation method: Most tillage for fruit and vegetable crops occurs prior to
planting to enable suitable contact between the soil and the planted
material. This primary tillage is an important part of initial land preparation
and cannot really be avoided. Secondary tillage operations should be
minimized where possible.
Cultivation timing: The soil moisture content during tillage has an important
effect on soil structure. Where the water content is too great, the soil acts
like plasticine, smearing and compacting with tillage and traffic. Don’t go
onto paddocks with machinery when the soil is wet. Similarly, soils can be too
dry to work, requiring excessive amounts of energy to produce a seed bed.
Remedial action: If a hard pan or compaction layer is present, then additional
cultivation may be needed depending on whether the cause is cultural or due
to sodicity. If the condition is not due to sodicity, cross-ripping under the
correct soil moisture levels will help to shatter the pan, loosening and
breaking clods that will break down further when exposed to the weather.
 Increasing organic matter: Increasing organic matter through use of
crop rotations and green manure crops promotes good soil structure.
Stubbles and crop residues can also be returned to the soil.
 Crop rotation: Using rotations and green manure crops will provide
short-term soil structure benefits through better soil aggregation. This
helps optimize the soil’s water-holding capacity, ability to hold
nutrients, workability and water infiltration.
Monitoring and recording: Soil compaction can be assessed by determining
how difficult it is to dig. The assessment should bear in mind any short-term
tillage and effects of soil moisture.
Penetrometer (screwdriver) test: A simple test of compaction is to see how
far you can push a screwdriver into the soil using reasonable. It is a way of
simulating the difficulty that roots have pushing through the soil. Try it after
decent rainfall or irrigation.
Visual assessment: Soil compaction affects the ability of plant roots to
penetrate the soil and root systems are often stunted. Dig up some plants
and assess their root systems and also assess the overall vigor of the plants.

[54]
Stunted or sharply-bent roots mean small, feeble, low-yielding plants that are
prone to drought. It can be useful to compare roots from different areas,
such as under fence lines where compaction may be less. Take a closer look
at the clods and aggregates. Many large clods mean the soil will need to be
kept wetter to allow roots to penetrate. Sharp angular aggregates with
smooth faces indicate poor structure. Well-structured soils have a range of
aggregate sizes (2-10 mm), with irregular or rounded shapes and porous
faces.
3.2 Water
Water resources are now considered essential for developing any kind of activity and
the maintenance of ecological balance and life in general. In recent decades the
rapid development of agriculture, resulted in increasing water demands, which
combined with reckless use and pollution have caused serious problems for future
development and sustainability. Future development depends both on the quality
and quantity of irrigation water. As a minimum contribution farmers must
implement and follow all necessary precautions for water resources protection and
efficient management.
Water management considers both the crop’s water demand and the amount of
water available. It also involves management of irrigation to maximize efficient use
of water applied (Lovell, 2006). Drainage water and run-off also need to be managed
to avoid any impact, such as nutrient pollution, on groundwater or waterways and
wetlands (Lovell, 2006). Irrigation efficiency is a term that helps define the
proportion of irrigation water that is actually taken up and used by the crop.
Improvement in irrigation efficiency is normally associated with water savings,
production gains and better long term environmental management. (Lovell, 2006).
Irrigation efficiency is determined by irrigation management factors such as (Lovell,
2006):
ensuring irrigation systems are operating to design specification and applying
water as evenly as possible;
ability to time, or schedule irrigation, based upon crop water needs; and
clear understanding of soils’ water holding, infiltration and drainage capacity.
In order to manage irrigation efficiently, a number of management practices need to
be considered, starting with an understanding of water availability and crop
requirements (Lovell, 2006). There are nine basic steps involved in the efficient
management of irrigation:
Identify: define property goals and implications for water management
Plan
 Know your soils

[55]
 Design the most suitable irrigation system
 Develop a farm water budget
 Know your water supply/ies
Do
 Determine a basic irrigation schedule
 Implement strategies to manage nutrient input and salinity
Monitoring and recording
 Monitor, record and evaluate
 Check irrigation system performance
3.2.1 Irrigation methods
Surface irrigation with ditches: This method is used for crops such as cotton, maize
vegetables and others. For the success of this type of irrigation the crops must be
sown linearly. This method has significant disadvantages:
 high water consumption
 nutrient leaching
 uneven watering
The aforementioned disadvantages appear more intense in sandy soils, where field
slopes are greater than 2-3% increasing surface runoff.
Artificial rain: With this system, water is applied on the field evenly. The rate of
irrigation should be the same as the rate at which the soil absorbs water in order to
prevent surface runoff. For this purpose, the choice of nozzle and provision of
sprinklers should be done in such a way that the intensity of rain is equal to the soil
infiltration rate and the average hourly rainfall is proportional to height, which
corresponds to the soil type of the field. The timing of irrigation should be such as to
prevent leaching into deeper soil layers.
With this system losses may occur because of wrong timing (noon 11 am-3 pm) due
to evaporation, or uneven watering due to weather conditions (strong wind). With
these conditions it is advisable to avoid irrigation. Artificial rain drops break the
structure of the surface soil with high pressure launchers. This system should be
avoided when irrigation water quality is not good because salts and other residues
can collect on plant leaves and shoots.
Drip Irrigation: This method is applied to a part of the soil and specifically in the area
of the root system. Water injections require very small amounts of water, 2-3 liters
per hour and the water is filtered through the soil without surface runoff. Since
irrigation is repeated daily for 2-3 hours to replace evapotranspiration, deep leaching
is avoided.

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