DEDICATED TO MY TEACHERS

2. DIABETES MELLITUS DR AFTAB AHMED RAJPUT FCPS PART 2 TRAINEE MEDICAL UNIT 2 PMCH,NAWAB SHAH

13. EFFECTS OF INSULIN

17. Pathophysiology of type 1 diabetes

20. Pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes

40. MANAGEMENT OF DM

47. Oral Hypoglycemics

49. Oral Anti-Diabetic Agents Sulfonylureas Drugs other than Sulfonylurea

50. Sulfonylureas (Oral Hypoglycemic drugs) Tolbutamide Acetohexamide Tolazamide Chlorpropamide Glipizide Glyburide (Glibenclamide) Glimepiride Short acting First generation Intermediate acting Long acting Long acting Short acting Second generation

51. FIRST GENERATION SULPHONYLUREA COMPOUNDS * Good for pts with renal impairment ** Pts with renal impairment can expect long t1/2 Tolbutamid short-acting Acetohexamide intermediate-acting Tolazamide intermediate-acting Chlorpropamide long- acting Absorption Well Well Slow Well Metabolism Yes Yes Yes Yes Metabolites Inactive * Active +++ ** Active ++ ** Inactive ** Half-life 4 - 5 hrs 6 – 8 hrs 7 hrs 24 – 40 hrs Duration of action Short (6 – 8 hrs) Intermediate (12 – 20 hrs) Intermediate (12 – 18 hrs) Long ( 20 – 60 hrs) Excretion Urine Urine Urine Urine

52. SECOND GENERATION SULPHONYLUREA COMPOUNDS Glipizide Short- acting Glibenclamide (Glyburide) Long-acting Glimepiride Long-acting Absorption Well Well Well Metabolism Yes Yes Yes Metabolites Inactive Inactive Inactive Half-life 3 – 4 hrs Less than 3 hrs 5 - 9 hrs Duration of action 10 – 16 hrs 12 – 24 hrs 12 – 24 hrs Excretion Urine Urine Urine

53. MECHANISM OF ACTION OF SULPHONYLUREAS 1) Release of insulin from β-cells 2) Reduction of serum glucagon concentration 3) Potentiation of insulin action on target tissues

54. SIDE EFFECTS OF SULPHONYLUREAS 1) Nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea 2) Hypoglycaemia 3) Dilutional hyponatraemia & water intoxication (Chlorpropamide) 4) Weight gain

55. CONTRAINDICATIONS OF SULPHONYLUREAS 1) Type 1 DM ( insulin dependent) 2) Parenchymal disease of the liver or kidney 3) Pregnancy, lactation 4) Major stress

56. Drugs other than Sulfonylurea Metformin Biguanides α-Glucosidase Inhibitors Thiazolidinediones Acarbose Rosiglitazone Pioglitazone Repaglinide Nateglinide Meglitinides

57. MEGLITINIDES e.g. Repaglinide, Nateglinide PHARMACOKINETICS Taken orally Rapidly absorbed ( Peak approx. 1hr ) Metabolized by liver t 1/2 = 1 hr Duration of action 4-5 hr

58. MEGLITINIDES (Contd.) MECHANISM OF ACTION Bind to the same K ATP Channel as do Sulfonylureas, to cause insulin release from β-cells.

59. MEGLITINIDES (Contd.) CLINICAL USE Approved as monotherapy and in combination with metformin in type 2 diabetes Taken before each meal, 3 times / day Does not offer any advantage over sulfonylureas; Advantage: Pts. allergic to sulfur or sulfonylurea SIDE EFFECTS: Hypoglycemia Wt gain ( less than SUs ) Caution in pts with renal & hepatic impairement.

60. BIGUANIDES e.g. Metformin PHARMACOKINETICS Given orally Not bind to plasma proteins Not metabolized Excreted unchanged in urine t 1/2 2 hr

61. BIGUANIDES (Contd.) MECHANISM OF ACTION 1. Increase peripheral glucose utilization 2. Inhibits gluconeogenesis 3. Impaired absorption of glucose from the gut

63. BIGUANIDES (Contd.) SIDE EFFECTS 1. Metallic taste in the mouth 2. Gastrointestinal (anorexia, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal discomfort) 3. Vitamin B 12 deficiency (prolonged use) 4. Lactic acidosis ( rare – 01/ 30,000-exclusive in renal & hepatic failure)

64. 1. Hepatic impairment 2. Renal impairment 3. Alcoholism 4. Heart failure BIGUANIDES (Contd.) CONTRAINDICATIONS

66. α-GLUCOSIDASE INHIBITORS e.g. Acarbose PHARMACOKINETICS Given orally Not absorbed from intestine except small amount t 1/2 3 - 7 hr Excreted with stool

67. MECHANISM OF ACTION Inhibits intestinal alpha-glucosidases and delays carbohydrate absorption, reducing postprandial increase in blood glucose α-GLUCOSIDASE INHIBITORS (Contd.)

68. SIDE EFFECTS Flatulence Loose stool or diarrhea Abdominal pain Alone does not cause hypoglycemia α-GLUCOSIDASE INHIBITORS (Contd.)

69. INDICATIONS Patients with Type 11 inadequately controlled by diet with or without other agents( SU, Metformin) Can be combined with insulin may be helpful in obese Type 11 patients (similar to metformin) α-GLUCOSIDASE INHIBITORS (Contd.)

70. THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVES New class of oral antidiabetics e.g.: Rosiglitazone Pioglitazone

74. INDICATIONS Type 11 diabetes alone or in combination with metformin or sulfonylurea or insulin in patients resistant to insulin treatment. THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVES (Contd.)

82. TYPES OF INSULIN PREPARATIONS 1. Ultra-short-acting 2. Short-acting (Regular) 3. Intermediate-acting 4. Long-acting

84. 3. Intermediate - acting insulins e.g. isophane (NPH) Turbid suspension Injected S.C.(Only) Onset of action 1 - 2 hr Peak serum level 5 - 7 hr Duration of action 13 - 18 hr Insulin mixtures 75/25 70/30 50/50 ( NPH / Regular )

85. 3. Intermediate - acting insulins (contd.) Lente insulin Turbid suspension Mixture of 30% semilente insulin 70% ultralente insulin Injected S.C. (only) Onset of action 1 - 3 hr Peak serum level 4 - 8 hr Duration of action 13 - 20 hr

86. 3. Intermediate - acting insulins (contd.) Lente and NPH insulins Are roughly equivalent in biological effects. They are usually given once or twice a day. N.B: They are not used during emergencies (e.g. diabetic ketoacidosis).

87. 4. Long – acting insulins e.g.Insulin glargine Onset of action 2 hr Absorbed less rapidly than NPH&Lente insulins. Duration of action upto 24 hr Designed to overcome the deficiencies of intermediate acting insulins Advantages over intermediate-acting insulins: Constant circulating insulin over 24hr with no pronounced peak. More safe than NPH&Lente insulins due to reduced risk of hypoglycemia(esp.nocturnal hypoglycemia). Clear solution that does not require resuspention before administration.

89. COMPLICATIONS OF INSULIN THERAPY 1. Severe Hypoglycemia (< 50 mg/dl )– Life threatening Overdose of insulin Excessive (unusual) physical exercise A meal is missed 2. Weight gain 3. Local or systemic allergic reactions (rare) 4. Lipodystrophy at injection sites 5. Insulin resistance 6. Hypokalemia