In 2008, Dr. Kritsonis was inducted into the William H. Parker Leadership Academy Hall of Honor, Graduate School, Prairie View A&M University – The Texas A&M University System. He was nominated by doctoral and master’s degree students. Dr. Kritsonis Lectures at the University of Oxford, Oxford, England In 2005, Dr. Kritsonis was an Invited Visiting Lecturer at the Oxford Round Table at Oriel College in the University of Oxford, Oxford, England. His lecture was entitled the Ways of Knowing Through the Realms of Meaning. Dr. Kritsonis Recognized as Distinguished Alumnus In 2004, Dr. William Allan Kritsonis was recognized as the Central Washington University Alumni Association Distinguished Alumnus for the College of Education and Professional Studies. Dr. Kritsonis was nominated by alumni, former students, friends, faculty, and staff. Final selection was made by the Alumni Association Board of Directors. Recipients are CWU graduates of 20 years or more and are recognized for achievement in their professional field and have made a positive contribution to society. For the second consecutive year, U.S. News and World Report placed Central Washington University among the top elite public institutions in the west. CWU was 12th on the list in the 2006 On-Line Education of “America’s Best Colleges.” Educational Background Dr. William Allan Kritsonis earned his BA in 1969 from Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington. In 1971, he earned his M.Ed. from Seattle Pacific University. In 1976, he earned his PhD from the University of Iowa. In 1981, he was a Visiting Scholar at Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, and in 1987 was a Visiting Scholar at Stanford University, Palo Alto, California. Doctor of Humane Letters In June 2008, Dr. Kritsonis received the Doctor of Humane Letters, School of Graduate Studies from Southern Christian University. The ceremony was held at the Hilton Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana.

1. Practical Applications of
Educational Research and
Basic Statistics
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Prairie View A&M University
Lisa Horton, PhD
Prairie View A&M University
1

2. Practical Applications of Educational
Research and Basic Statistics
William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
&
Lisa Horton, PhD
Published by National FORUM Journals
17603 Bending Post Drive
Houston, Texas 77095
Copyright 2007/2008 by William Allan Kritsonis, PhD
Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act Of 1976, no part of this
professional publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the proper written
permission of Dr. William Kritsonis. Absolutely no unauthorized reproduction of this
text.
ISBN: 0-9770013-4-2
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
$79.00 (United States)
$89.00 (Canada)
$99.00 (All others)
Published in the United States of America
2

3. Practical Applications of Educational
Research and Basic Statistics
Author
William Allan Kritsonis
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
Lisa Horton
PhD Program in Educational Leadership
Prairie View A&M University
Member of the Texas A&M University System
Prairie View, Texas
3

4. Dedication
To all our students, past, present, and future. We wish to thank all the
people who devotedly concerned themselves with our professional and
personal development and improvement
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The purpose of the text is to provide content and knowledge in the area of
research with students at both the master’s and doctoral levels.
A list of acknowledgements and credits is provided in the Partial Listing
of Selected References and Acknowledgements at the end of this text.
CONTENTS
4

5. Page
PART I: Practical Applications of Educational Research and Basic Statistics ....6
Chapter 1: Development of Research .................................................................7
Chapter 2: Historical Research .........................................................................14
Chapter 3: Descriptive Research ......................................................................18
Chapter 4: Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research ............................22
Chapter 5: Qualitative Research .......................................................................30
Chapter 6: Methods and Tools of Research ......................................................33
Chapter 7: Descriptive Statistics and Normal Distribution ...............................39
Chapter 8: Inferential Data Analysis ................................................................55
Chapter 9: Parts of the Research Proposal .......................................................61
Chapter 10: Parts of a Field Study ....................................................................67
Chapter 11: General Statistics Information ......................................................73
Chapter 12: Types of Statistical Data ...............................................................77
Page
Chapter 13: Descriptive Statistics ....................................................................81
Chapter 14: Types of Distributions ..................................................................88
5

6. Chapter 15: Formulas .......................................................................................90
Chapter 16: Understanding and Using Statistics. The Basics ..........................92
Chapter 17: Getting Started With Research: Avoiding the Pitfalls ...................96
Chapter 18: Ethics and Research ......................................................................99
Chapter 19: Ethics in Research on Human Subjects and the role of the
Institutional Review Board. Frequently Asked Questions .............................101
Chapter 20: Working with the IRB Suggested Frame
of Mind for Researchers .................................................................................104
Chapter 21: Research, Writing & Publication ...............................................106
PART II: Fundamental Terms in Educational Research
and Basic Statistics .......................................................................................110
Fundamental Terms in Educational Research and Basic Statistics .................111
PART III: Partial Listing of Selected References
and Acknowledgements ...............................................................................144
Partial Listing of Selected References and Acknowledgements .....................145
PART IV: About the Authors .....................................................................154
6

7. PART I:
Practical Applications of
Educational Research
and Basic Statistics
7

8. Chapter 1
Development of Research
1. Key Points
a. Observations
b. Experience
c. Intuition
d. Hand me down
e. Revelation
f. Definition or Decree
g. Philosophy or Logic
h. Instinct
2. Centuries ago, medicine men, religious authorities, and elders were
knowledge sources? (No one questioned them.)
3. With time, people began to observe orderliness and cause and effect
relationships in the universe. Events were recorded and analyzed.
4. Some things could be predicted. Events could be predicted in relation to
the time of year and the seasons.
5. This brought on a conflict.
a. Religious authority versus curious thinkers
b. Authority versus empirical evidence
c. Elders versus personal experience
6. People eventually began to think systematically. A few great thinkers led
the way.
8

9. 7. Aristotle (Ancient Greece)
a. First approach to reasoning.
b. Deductive Method - moving from general assumptions to specific
Syllogism
1) Major Premise: All men are mortal.
2) Minor Premise: Socrates is a man.
3) Conclusion: Socrates is a mortal.
8. Centuries later-Francis Bacon
a. Direct observation of phenomena
b. Arriving at conclusions or generalizations through evidence of many
individual observations led to inductive reasoning.
9. Combining the deductive and inductive methods of reasoning results in
the emerging of the scientific method or scientific approach.
10. In 1930, John Dewey detailed the scientific method or scientific
approach as follows:
a. Identify and define a problem
b. Formulate a hypothesis
c. Collect, organize, and analyze data
d. Formulate conclusions
e. Verify or reject hypothesis, modify hypothesis
There are many ways to specifically approach the scientific method and
there are numerous generalizations of scientific approaches.
The deductive approach is hypothesizing and anticipating the
consequences of events.
11. Researchers go back and forth--inductive-deductive-inductive-deductive.
An example would be to hypothesize-observe and collect data-reject
hypothesis-reformulate new hypothesis-observe and collect more data-
partially accept hypothesis-then collect more data.
9

10. 12. Science
1) Definition: An approach to the gathering of knowledge, rather than a
field of study.
2) Two Functions of Science
i. Develop theory
ii. Test hypotheses deduced from theory
13. The Way a Scientist Works
a. Empirical Approach - collect data
b. Rational Approach - logical deductive reasoning
14. Researcher attempts to develop theories and predict events in
hopes of possibly controlling events.
a. Piaget’s Theories - Cognitive development
b. Behavior of gases - Air-conditioning, refrigeration
c. Atomic Theory - Nuclear power
d. Celestial Theory - Space travel, NASA, Satellites, and other
technical advances.
15. Two Types of Hypotheses
a. Research Hypothesis (Alternative Hypothesis) (Symbol=Ha)
1) Affirmative statement that predicts a single outcome
2) Examples:
i. Teaching Method A is better than Teaching Method B.
ii. Cigarette smoking causes heart disease.
iii. Extra curricular activities improve academic performance.
iv. Computer Assisted Instruction improves academic
achievement.
v. Homework improves academic achievement.
b. Null Hypothesis (Symbol=Ho)
1) This hypothesis is stated negatively so that the logic of statistical
analysis can be applied.
10

11. 2) The null hypothesis is saying the difference, if any, is due to
chance.
3) Rejecting the null hypothesis with a probability statement would
support the research hypothesis (Ha).
4) Examples:
i. There is no difference in heart disease between smokers and
nonsmokers.
ii. There is no difference in academic achievement between
Method A and Method B.
iii. There is no difference in grades between CAI students and
non-CAI students.
iv. There is no difference in academic achievement due to
participation in extra curricular activities.
16. Sampling Definitions
a. Population-----------------------parameter
b. Sample---------------------------statistic
c. Sample: a small proportion of a population selected for observation
and analysis
d. Statistic: a value from a sample used to infer the parameters of a
population
17. Types of Samples
a. Simple Random Sample: every subject has an equal chance to be
selected
b. Systematic Sample: every nth number
c. Stratified Random Sample: subdivide population and select sample
proportionally-A random sample of each of the subgroups is done.
d. Cluster Sample: most complex of all samples, used for very large
groups; costly and take time.
50 states---------------------Randomly choose 20 states.
20 states---------------------Randomly choose 80 counties.
80 counties------------------Randomly choose 50 school districts.
50 districts------------------Randomly choose 10 teachers from
each of the 50 school districts.
Total Sample 500 teachers
11

12. e. Non-probability Sample: (Use subjects available)
f. Purposive Sample: participants are chosen not by chance but
intentionally to yield data for evaluation purposes
18. Sample Size (Test for Beta, or use a table.)
a. The larger the sample, the less error.
b. The larger the sample, the better the sample represents the
population.
c. In utilizing a survey, be certain to have a large sample.
d. 32 (in a sample) is the magic number statistically, but
e. Try to obtain more (with randomness)
19. Purposes of Educational Research
a. Fundamental or Basic: The purpose of this laboratory-type of
research is solely to gain new knowledge. This research is often
referred to as the search for knowledge for knowledge’s sake.
b. Applied: The purpose is to improve a product (software, textbook,
etc.) or process (teaching, learning, etc.)- testing a theoretical concept
in a real actual problem situation. Most educational research is applied
research. With the passing of time, basic research usually spurns
further applied research. New knowledge gained eventually becomes
useful and lends to advances in knowledge, which then directs more
applied research to take place.
c. Action: The purpose and focus are on immediate application-not on
development of theory. The focus is on the here and now in a local
setting.
20. Two ways to Classify Research
a. Quantitative Research: (Measuring)
1) Data are analyzed in terms of numbers.
2) Educational, medical, and agricultural professions use this type of
classification.
b. Qualitative Research: (Judging)
1) People and events are described without numerical data. This
research consists of a rich, literal description in a prose form.
12

13. 2) Interviews of people, students, and other sources are used to collect
information. Research is written in prose form.
21. Assessment: Fact-finding activity that describes existing conditions
22. Evaluation: Fact-finding with judgment added
23. Types of Educational Research
a. Historical
1) A description of what was.
2) Application of the scientific method to the use of historical data to
answer historical questions or to test historical hypotheses.
b. Descriptive
1) A description of what is.
2) Application of the scientific method to the acquisition and use of
current data to describe current conditions
c. Experimental: description of what will be where certain variables
are carefully manipulated.
d. Qualitative: uses non-quantitative methods to describe what is
1) Basically, data are interpreted without numerical analysis.
2) Interviews, videos, and other methods are used to gather
information.
13

14. SUGGESTED ACTIVITIES:
1. Divide into groups of 3-4. Discuss the following question: What is your
definition of research, the steps you feel are needed to be taken to do
research, and what types of research have you read or become familiar
with in your profession and your educational experience? Share your
group activity with the entire class.
2. Each group should answer the following: What two things would you
like to see changed in your profession or questions answered? How
could you use research to address that change? What types of research
could you use to answer your questions? How would you set up the type
of research needed to answer these questions? Share your group activity
with the entire class.
3. Develop a research and a null hypothesis for each of the research ideas
identified in the previous activity. Share your group activity with the
entire class.
WEBSITES:
San Jose State University – http://www2.sjsu.edu/depts/itl/graphics/induc/ind-
ded.html
14

15. Chapter 2
Historical Research
Key Points
1. Is an attempt to arrive at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends
of past occurrences that may help explain past and present events and
predict future events.
2. Historical research describes what was.
3. Historical research involves investigating, recording, analyzing and
interpreting events of the past.
4. Sources of Information
a. Primary Sources
1) Records and reports of legislative bodies, records and/or memoirs
of superintendents, school newspapers, curriculum guides, grade
books, along with other sources.
2) Interviews with superintendents, school board members,
principals, teachers, and students.
3) Relics, such as buildings, furniture, textbooks and examinations.
b. Secondary Sources
1) Reports of a person who relates the testimony of an eyewitness.
2) Encyclopedia, textbooks and newspaper accounts
5. Characteristics of Historical Research
a. Guided by hypotheses or questions to be answered
b. Systematic collection of data
c. Objective evaluation of data
15

16. d. Limited to available data
e. Explanation—not just rehashing of the past—explains why it
happened as it did
f. May investigate individuals, ideas, movements, institutions, cultural
circumstances, and movements
g. Employs the scientific method
6. Limitations/Problems with Historical Research
a. Generalizations may not be feasible.
1) Too many uncontrollable factors.
2) Key individuals wield too much influence.
3) Situations won’t repeat themselves.
b. Historical documents may not be reliable.
1) Were not written as objects of research
2) No objectivity
3) Often second—not firsthand information
4) Information is often incomplete.
c. History is not verifiable by observation or experimentation.
d. Significant variables cannot be manipulated.
e. Lack of direct observation and control of variables
f. Uniqueness cannot be replicated.
7. Steps in Historical Research
a. Define the problem
b. Formulate the hypothesis or questions to be answered
c. Collect data
1) Primary sources
2) Secondary sources
d. Analyze the data
1) External criticism—authenticity
i. Was this person really present?
ii. Is this a real document from that time period?
2) Internal criticism—accuracy
i. Did the person give an unbiased account of what happened?
16

17. ii. Is the document telling a true story or did the author
have a “hidden agenda”?
iii. Did anyone tamper with the document
e. Synthesize data
1) Conclusions
2) Generalizations
3) Explanation or hypothesis
f. Report findings and conclusions
SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITIES:
1. In groups of 3-4 locate the answers to the following questions:
MAJOR QUESTION: How does your university compare today with the
institution which was 50 years ago?
SUBQUESTIONS:
A. What academic programs were offered sixty years ago that were related
to education?
B. What types of school facilities were available then?
C. What was the type of curriculum offered to students?
D. How large was the student body?
E. What was the ethnic make-up of the student body?
F. What role did the school play in the community, state and nation?
G. How many professors/instructors were employed?
Compare and contrast the data from 50 years ago with today.
17

18. Chapter 3
Descriptive Research
KeyPoints
1. Characteristics of Descriptive Research
a. Nonexperimental: deals with natural, not contrived relationships
b. Variables are not manipulated.
c. Ex post facto—a thing done afterward
d. Involves disciplined inquiry (scientific method)
e. Uses logical methods of inductive-deductive reasoning to arrive at
generalizations
f. Employs valid statistical procedures in collecting and tabulating data
g. Employs valid statistical procedures in reporting results
h. Adds to the body of knowledge
2. Three Types of Descriptive Research
a. Descriptive Research
1) This type of research is purely descriptive.
2) There is no hypothesis.
3) Researcher is just collecting data.
4) Example: 65% of principals are male; 35% are female. The
average age of principals is 43; the average age of teachers is 38.
18

19. b. Correlational Research
1) In this research, the researcher is measuring the relationship
between two or more variables.
2) The relationship between the variables may be strong, weak, or
there could be no relationship.
3) Correlational studies can be used to predict.
Example: ITBS scores and CAT scores have a correlation
Coefficient of .8.
c. Causal-Comparative Research
1) This type of research is interested in suggesting causation for the
findings. It is aimed at discovering potential causes for a pattern by
comparing a treatment group against a non-treatment group.
2) One should not say that a variable was the cause of an action,
unless all other variables were controlled. Just identify the
limitations of the study.
3) There is no experimental manipulative.
4) Example: Collective bargaining apparently had some effect on
teacher job satisfaction since satisfaction levels were higher after
collective bargaining than they were prior to collective bargaining.
19

20. SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Divide into groups of four to five students. Develop a chart listing the
different types of descriptive research. Compare and contrast each type
of research. Provide at least three examples of each type.
TYPE OF SIMILARITIES DIFFERENCES WITH EXAMPLES
DESCRIPTIVE WITH OTHER OTHER TYPES OF
RESEARCH TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
RESEARCH
1. Surveys Very similar to polls Use of a large number a. restaurant
in that you collect of cases to describe to a questionnaire
data according to a general population. b. general
set of questions. You can collect data on satisfaction
attitudes as well as survey for
other practices, products
occurrences, etc. Polls purchased
are usually much c. (add more to
smaller and are the the list)
collection of attitudes.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
2. Describe how you can use both activity analysis and trend analysis to
determine the types of teachers that will be needed in the next five years
for both an urban and rural school district. Look at factors of the individ-
ual’s job as well as the growth trends/declines and population changes
(increase in retirees opposed to school age children) for the area. Select
either an elementary, middle school or high school you are familiar with
and use both types of descriptive research methods to determine what
types of staff patterns would be needed for your school.
20

21. Chapter 4
Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research
Key Points
1. Definition: determining what will happen under certain circumstances—
a method of hypothesis testing—If this is done, what will happen?
a. Immediate purpose: “prediction” in a local setting
b. Ultimate purpose: “generalization” to a larger population
2. Law of the Single Variable: If all variables are held constant except
one, any changes in the outcome are due to changes in that one variable.
3. Experimental Grouping
a. Experimental Group vs. Control Group
1) Experimental Group: group exposed to variable under
consideration
2) Treatment Group: same as experimental group
3) Control Group: group not exposed to variable under consideration
b. Different Levels of the Same Variable: Subjects may also be
grouped according to type of treatment, not just absent of
treatment.
4. Variables
a. Definition: conditions or characteristics of the experiment that the
experimenter manipulates, controls, or observes
b. Independent Variable: variable manipulated by the researcher for
grouping.
1) Treatment Variable: factor that can be controlled by the researcher
2) Organismic Variable: attribute of the subjects that cannot be
controlled.
21

22. c. Dependent Variable: outcome; condition or characteristic that
appears, disappears, or changes according to manipulation of the
independent variable (Results).
d. Confounding Variable: aspect of a study that can influence the
dependent variable, which can be confused with the effects of the
independent variable.
1) Intervening Variable: aspect of a study that may modify the effect
of the independent variable upon the dependent variable.
2) Extraneous Variable: uncontrolled aspect of a study that is similar
in effect to the independent variable and may render subjects’
grouping invalid.
5. Experimental Validity
a. Internal Validity: extent to which the independent variable, not
extraneous variables, has a genuine effect on the dependent
variable.
b. External Validity: extent to which variable relationships established
by the study can be generalized to other settings.
6. Threats to Internal Validity
a. Maturation: change in subject(s) over time
b. History: events in the course of the study that may influence the
dependent variable
c. Testing: learning to take tests by taking tests
d. Unstable Instrumentation: use of unreliable data gathering devices
e. Statistical regression: regression to the mean: extremely low or high
scores tend not to repeat themselves.
f. Selection bias: nonequivalence of groups due to poor selection
22

23. g. Interaction of Selection and Maturation: When subjects can choose
the group to which they will belong, the variable that directed their
choices may have undue influence on the dependent variable.
h. Experimental Morality: loss of subject(s).
i. Experimenter Bias: If the researcher must evaluate a subject, prior
knowledge of the subject may have undue influence on the
researcher’s judgment.
7. Threats to External Validity
a. Interference of Prior Treatment: carryover of subjects’ knowledge
or skill from a previous situation that may be mistaken for an effect
of the independent variable.
b. Artificiality of the Experimental Setting: condition in which the
experimental setting is so controlled that it does not adequately
imitate the real-life situation for generalizations to be made.
c. Interaction Effect of Testing: condition in which a pre-test may
sensitize subjects to concealed purposes of the study and serve as a
stimulus to change.
d. Sampling Deficiencies: error or inability in random selection.
e. Lack of Treatment Verification: condition in which the treatment
was not applied in the manner prescribed by the study.
f. John Henry Effect: subjects work harder because they realize they
are competing with others.
g. Hawthorne Effect: subjects work harder because they are getting
attention. This is due to researchers giving them extra attention.
The experimental model comes from agricultural research.
8. Controlling Threats to Experimental Validity
a. Remove the Variable: variable is not considered in results.
23

24. b. Matching cases: selecting pairs with identical characteristics and
assigning them to different groups
c. Balancing Cases: assigning subjects to each group so that overall
group means and variances will be equal
d. Analysis of Covariance: statistical method that permits the
experimenter to eliminate initial differences in the experimental
groups
e. Random Selection: assignment to experimental groups by pure
chance; best way to make study valid
f. It is difficult to eliminate all extraneous variables, therefore it is best
to neutralize them. Remember, neutralize not eliminate!
9. Experimental Design
a. Definition: procedures of the study that enable valid conclusions by
controlling the following:
1) Selection and assignment of subjects
2) Control of variables: independent and confounding
3) The gathering and treatment of data
4) Development of hypothesis
5) Statistical testing of hypotheses
b. Purpose: elimination or neutralizing of threats to experimental
validity
10. Three Types of Experimental Designs
a. Pre-Experimental Design: provides no way for equating groups that
are used
b. True-Experimental Design: uses random selection for equating
groups that are used
c. Quasi-Experimental Design: used when random selection is not
available
24

25. 11. In studying experimental design, the following Campbell and
Stanley symbols are used:
a. R random assignment of subjects
b X exposure of a group to a treatment
.
c. C exposure of a group to a control or placebo condition
d O observation or test administered (data gathered)
.
12. What makes a good study?
a. Having a control group and
b. Using random selection
13. Pre-experimental Designs
a. The One-Shot Case Study Design
1) X O
2) No random selection and no control group
b. The One-Group, Pretest, Posttest Design
1) O X O
2) No random selection, no control group, and interference of
variables
c. The Static-Group Comparison Design
1) X O
C O
2) No random selection
25

26. Pre-experimental design, the least adequate of designs, is
characterized by the lack of a control group or a lack to provide
for the equivalence of one.
14.True Experimental Design
a. The Posttest-Only, Equivalent-Groups Design
1) R X O
R C O
2) Has random selection; has control group
b. The Pretest-Posttest, Equivalent-Groups Design
1) R O X O gain (X) = O – O (pretests)
R O C O gain (C) = O – O (posttests)
2) Has random selection; has control group
c. The Solomon Four-Group Design
1) R O X O
R O C O
R X O
R C O
2) Has random selection; has control group
3) Difficult to find enough subjects
15.Quasi-Experimental Designs
a. The Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent-Groups Design
1) O X O
O C O
2) No random selection
26

27. 3) Pretest is used as covariate.
b. The Time-Series Design
1) O O O O X O O O O
2) No random selection
c. The Equivalent Time-Samples Design
1) O X O X O X O X O
2) No random selection
d. The Equivalent Materials, pretest, Posttest Design
1) O X O O X O
2) No random selection
3) Can be conducted with just one group or two separate groups
16. Factorial Designs: used when more than one independent variable is
involved
SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITY:
1. Develop a Study (What problem do you want to address or solve?)
2. Why would I do it?
3. What do I already know or what has already been done on this problem?
4. What are your hypotheses/Research Question? (Research and null)
5. What would you do to conduct the research? (Steps, who to talk to,
permission for research, what instruments to collect data?)
6. Who are your participants?
7. How will you collect the data?
8. How will you interpret the data?
27

28. 28

29. Chapter 5
Qualitative Research
Key Points
1. Qualitative research is sometimes called naturalistic inquiry.
2. The main reason that we have qualitative research is to explain
phenomena.
3. Qualitative research is done often as supplemental research.
4. Three Data Collection Methods of Qualitative Research
a. Interview: Teachers, secretary, janitors, and other individuals in the
school.
b. Observations: Observe what goes on in gyms, cafeteria, library,
classrooms, and hallways.
c. Analyze written documents and records: test scores, attendance
records, discipline reports—suspension and expulsion ratio—
When you analyze these, you often employ quantitative steps, such
as more than half, 60% etc.
5. Triangulation is the use of multiple data collection techniques. For
example, it could include interviews, observations, and an analysis of
documents or records. It could be any two or all three. One could
interview three people from different backgrounds on the same topic.
6. The advantage of using multiple data collection techniques is that the
researcher gets a broader or more in-depth view of a school or a situation.
Reality will reveal itself this way.
7. Data are interpreted without using mathematical analysis.
8. The study is attempting to address four concerns.
29

30. a. The study is concerned with things that a number cannot answer about
a school, such as spirit, atmosphere, great extra-curricular
activities, and educational quality.
b. Real-world situations are studied—without manipulations.
c. Specific questions are asked.
d. It is a rich detailed description.
9. The disadvantage is that the researcher may get too close to the people
being interviewed. This can bias a study.
10. It is important to have empathic neutrality—complete objectivity is
impossible. Try to stay neutral and objective. Try to define any potential
bias.
11. Five Key Things the Researcher Should Do
a. Pre-organize: Organize ahead of time the things that you need to do.
b. Collect the data.
c. Organize the data.
d. Interpret the data.
e. Write a report.
12. In qualitative research, the researcher is bringing reality to a study.
A qualitative study can supplement
A quantitative study, which will present
A better picture of reality and truth.
30

31. SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITY:
1. Divide into groups of four to five students. As a group identify an area of
concern that you could develop a brief questionnaire to gather data.
(Examples could be: a) amount of additional fees charged to students at
registration; b) is recess beneficial to the academic development of
children? c) views on a policy issue in your graduate program, etc.)
Each member should write down five things they feel are important/their
views on the topic. Compare and contrast the viewpoints among the
group members. Are there patterns of concern or do you find a variety of
views on the topic.
2. Identify the steps needed to collect data on the topic discussed in activity
#1. What can each group member do to ensure they do not let their own
biases effect the collection of data? How could triangulation be used to
collect data on your group’s topic of interest?
31

32. Chapter 6
Methods and Tools of Research
Key Points
1. Qualities of a Good Test
a. Validity: A test is valid if it measures what it purports to measure.
b. Reliability: A test is reliable if it measures consistently over time.
c. A test can be reliable but still not be valid.
d. If a test is valid, it should be reliable and usually is reliable.
2. Types of Validity
a. Content: Questions should deal with content covered and the objective
taught.
b. Face: On the surface, it looks like a valid test or questionnaire.
c. Criterion: Two Types
1) Predictive: It can predict success in a certain criteria.
2) Concurrent: It is closely related to other measures.
d. Construct: Some other common measure is compared with the
construct.
32

33. 3. Correlation Coefficient: The procedure quantifies the relationship of
paired variables.
Example:
-1 0 .7.8.9 1
These numbers indicate a high
correlation.
4. Buros Mental Measurements Yearbook can be helpful when you want to
compare Test A with Test B. It provides reviews of tests.
5. Helpful Suggestions for Constructing Your Own Test or
Questionnaire
a. Secure a panel of experts to assist you in constructing your questions,
such as professors of English and research.
b. Pilot the test or questionnaire. Administer it to ten to fifteen people
who will not be a part of your actual study. Score it and calculate
the Cronbach Alpha Coefficient for each of the test items to determine
reliability of the instrument.
c. Some time later, repeat the process of administering the test/
questionnaire to the same individuals, and again calculate the
Cronbach Alpha Coefficient.
d. The scores should be nearly the same. The correlation coefficient
should be high (a Cronbach Alpha of .62 or higher is considered
acceptable for social science research).
e. It would also be beneficial for you to ask teachers to provide
suggestions for improvement.
f. It is to your advantage to use a professionally prepared questionnaire.
Remember to get permission from the publisher.
6. Types of Reliability of Test or Questionnaire/Opinionnaire
33

34. a. Stability over time (test-retest): This is a very important aspect.
b. Stability over item samples: Equivalent or Parallel forms.
Example:
If there are 50 questions on a test or questionnaire, answer only the
odd numbered items. Score this part. Next, answer only the even
numbered items, and score this part. Your score should be very close
on each part. This is also true for different forms of a test.
c. Stability of items (internal validity): All test questions should have
commonality (similarly related).
⇒ Kuder-Richardson Test (KR 21): This is the average of all
possible correlations (of split halves).
d. Stability over scorers (inter-scorer): Scorers must be consistent in
scoring criteria. They must not be biased.
e. Stability over testers: Testers must be consistent in test administration.
f. Standard error of measurement: To determine the standard error of
measurement the scores will be put into a formula and calculated.
g. No test is totally reliable or valid.
h. If you have a valid test, it is probably reliable.
7. Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
a. Covers a significant topic.
b. Looks important to respondent—State significance of topic.
c. Only seeks information that is not obtainable otherwise
d. Short as possible, clear and easy to complete
e. Attractive, neat, easy to duplicate.
f. Clear directions, define important terms
g. Avoid asking two questions in one item: Keep questions short and
concise.
34

35. h. Ask objective questions. Do not ask leading questions.
i. Questions should be presented from general to specific.
j. Avoid annoying, embarrassing questions.
k. If delicate questions are included, inform participants that all answers
will be kept anonymous. Code questionnaires to keep them
anonymous and to enable the researcher to identify which ones have
been submitted and which ones have not.
l. Easy to tabulate and analyze.
m. Computer tabulate, if possible.
8. Preparing the Questionnaire
a. Randomly mix subtest questions.
b. Give the questionnaire to friends to complete in order to obtain
feedback.
c. Pilot it in order to establish reliability.
d. Get permission from principal and superintendent to conduct research.
e. Include permission letter with the mailed questionnaire.
f. Include the following in the mail out:
1) Cover letter
2) Permission letter
3) Questionnaire
g. Inform participants that all information will be kept anonymous and
keep it anonymous.
h. Enclose a stamped, self-addressed return envelope.
i. Code the questionnaire for follow-up.
j. Inform participants the questionnaire is coded.
k. Scale to use.
35

36. Note: If one must use a scale, the Likert scale is the most common and
the most practical.
9. General Information Regarding Questionnaires
a. If you modify a questionnaire 25% or less, it is still valid. If you
modify it more than 25%, it is not valid.
b. To validate a questionnaire, get a group of professionals to review it.
c. When an instrument is reliable, it gets the same results over a period
of time.
d. A questionnaire must be reliable and valid.
e. To determine the reliability of a commercial test, the researcher should
write to the publisher of the test and request verification of test
validity. The publisher will provide this information to you. Buros
Mental Measurement Yearbook is available in university libraries.
This yearbook gives summaries of instruments.
SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITY:
1) Continue your activity from chapter 5. Develop a questionnaire (8–10
questions) on your group’s topic of interest. Include only open-ended
questions on the questionnaire. (Other types of questions, other than
open-ended, might provide quantitative data instead of qualitative.)
Share this questionnaire with other groups in your class to determine if
questions are clear and easy to understand and answer. (Decide if data
will be collected through passing out a questionnaire or by a face-to-face
interview. REMEMBER, FOR THE RESULTS TO BE RELIABLE,
EACH QUESTIONNAIRE MUST BE ADMINISTERED WITH THE
SAME METHOD!)
2) Pass out your questionnaire or conduct a face-to-face interview to ask
other individuals outside your class to respond to your questions. As a
group, review the data you have collected. Look at the data gathered on
each of your questions. Look for main themes and concerns or ideas.
Interpret what the findings mean and how the results could be used to
make changes, keep the status quo, etc. Report your findings back to
your class.
36

37. Chapter 7
Descriptive Statistics and Normal Distribution
Key Points
1. The reason for statistics is that there are numerical data in educational
research. You will have to interpret, understand, and treat data.
2. Two Ways to Classify Numerical Data:
a. Non-parametric Data: Data that are not normally distributed
1) Nominal
a) Names or classifies someone or something
b) Examples
i. Social security numbers
ii. License plate numbers
iii. Bank account numbers
iv. Student identification numbers
c. Not very useful in research
2) Ordinal
a. Names, classifies, and ranks someone or something
b. Examples
i. Class rank
ii. Sports rank
b. Parametric Data: Data that assume normality
1) Interval
a. Names, classifies, ranks, and has equal intervals between
numbers
b. Has no true zero point
37

38. 2) Ratio
a. Names, classifies, ranks, has equal intervals, and has a true
zero
b. Examples
i. Test scores
ii. Height of students
3. Descriptive Statistics: includes Measures of Central Tendencies and
Measures of Variability (also referred to as Spread, Dispersion, or
Scatter)
a. Measures of Central Tendencies
1) The mean is the arithmetic average.
i. The symbol for the mean is X .
∑X
ii. b. =X
N
iii. The mean indicates the arithmetic midpoint; it is the best
measure of centrality.
iv. Example:
2
4 4.8 = X
5 5 24.0
6 20
7 40
∑ X = 24 40
N = 5
X = 4.8
b. The median is the midpoint when the numbers are placed in an
ascending or descending order.
c. The mode is the number that occurs most often in a data set.
38

39. d. One purpose of the mean and median is to represent the “typical”
score.
e. When the distribution of scores is such that most scores are at one end
and there are relatively few at the other end (skewed distribution),
it is better to use the median because it is a better indicator of test
scores.
1) In a positively skewed distribution, the mean is pulled to the right
of the median.
2) In a negatively skewed distribution, the mean is pulled to the left
of the median.
4. Measures of Variability (may also be referred to as the Spread,
Dispersion, or Scatter)
a. Range: the highest number minus the lowest number
b. Sum of Squares: sum of squared units of deviation from the mean
1) Symbol: SS
(
2) Formula: X − X )2
c. Variance: the average squared units of deviation from the mean
1) Symbol
i. Sample: S 2
ii. Population: σ 2
2) Formulas:
2
−
(∑ X )2
i.
∑X
N
N
SS
ii.
N
39

40. iii. The variance is a value that describes the distance that scores
are dispersed or spread from the mean.
iv. This value is very useful in describing the characteristics of a
distribution.
d. Standard Deviation: average units of deviation from the mean
1) Symbol
i. Sample: S
ii. Population: σ
2) Formulas
i. σ 2
2
−
(∑ X )2
ii. ∑X
N
N
5. Normal Distribution (also referred to as Z Distribution, Z Theory, Normal
Curve, and Bell-Shaped Curve).
a. Characteristics of a Normal Curve:
1) It is symmetrical.
2) The mean, median, and mode are all at the same point – right down
the center.
3) The curve is the highest at the mean.
4) Most of the scores cluster or crowd around the mean and decrease
as they move away from the mean.
5) The curve theoretically never touches the baseline.
b. Some things in nature are close to being normally distributed, such as
the height of men and women, I.Q. test scores, and shoe sizes.
c. To get a normal distribution, sample size should be at least 32.
40

41. 6. Normal curve
Percent of cases
under portions of
the normal curve
34.13% 34.13%
13.59% 13.59%
2.15% 2.15%
.12% .12%
(Standard Deviation)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
68.26% Percentage of
frequencies in a
95.44% normal
distribution
99.74%
99.98%
Very few scores will extend above or fall below
three standard deviations from the mean.
7. Normal Distribution Percentiles
41

42. Percent of cases
under portions of
the normal curve
34.13% 34.13%
13.59% 13.59%
2.15% 2.15%
.12% .12%
(Standard Deviation)
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
.1% 2.3% 15.9% 50% 84.1% 97.7% 99.9% (Percentiles)
Very few scores will extend above or fall below
three standard deviations from the mean.
8. Two Ways of Computing Variance and Standard Deviation
a. Conceptual Way:
42

43. (raw ( SS ) (σ )
2
(σ )
score)
X (X − X ) ( X − X )2 SS
N
σ2
2 6 -4 16 8
4 6 -2 4 5 40 Square
of 8 = 2.8
6 6 0 0 40
8 6 +2 4
10 6 +4 16
∑ X =30 0 40
(
(Sum of Squares)
(
(Variance)
(Standard deviation)
Measures of Measures of
Central Tendencies Variability
X =6 SS = 40
Md = 6 σ2 =8
σ = 2.8
43

44. b. Computational Way
2 (∑ X )2 2 (∑ X )2
∑X − ∑X −
X X2 N N
N N
220 −
( 30) 2 ( 30) 2
2 4 220 −
5 5
5 5
4 16
6 36
8 64
10 100
∑ X = 30 220
900 900
220 − 220 −
X =6 5 5
5 5
6
5 30
220 − 180 220 − 180
N =5
5 5
40 40
=8
5 5
8 = 2.8
44

45. 9. Correlation
a. Correlation is the linear relationship between two or more variables.
b. The degree of linear relationship is measured by correlation
coefficient.
1) The symbol is “r” for Pearson’s r. (Karl Pearson)
2) Types of correlation
i. Positive correlation
a) A perfect positive correlation is +1, which is rarely if
ever encountered.
b) Correlations of .7, .8, and .9 indicate a high positive
correlation.
c) Examples of positive correlation: As one increases, the
other has a tendency to increase.
⇒ high IQ and high GPA
⇒ height and shoe size
Example of a positive correlation – As scores in X
go up, scores in Y go up
Time spent Studying Grades on Test
X Y
John 1 2
Bob 2 4
Mark 3 6
Bill 4 8
Jeff 5 10
45

46. b. Negative correlation
1) A perfect negative correlation is -1, which is rarely if ever
encountered.
2) Examples of negative correlation: As one increases, the other has a
tendency to decrease.
⇒ Total oil production and price per barrel
⇒ More graduate courses taken in college and free time
Example of a negative correlation – As scores in X go
up, scores in Y
go down.
Time spent Studying Grades on Test
X Y
John 1 5
Bob 2 4
Mark 3 3
Bill 4 2
Jeff 5 1
3) iii. A negative correlation does not necessarily mean that a bad
situation exists. For example, a person who increases exercise
would likely lose weight.
c. No correlation
1) A perfect lack of correlation is zero; however, rarely would it fall
exactly on zero, such as in case of 1, .2, or .3
2) Examples of no correlation
⇒ Height and IQ
⇒ Total rice production and the price of gold
10. Three ways to Interpret Coefficient of Correlation (Pearson’s r)
46

47. a. .90 .80 .70 Rule
(high) (strong) (moderate)
1) .90 indicates a very strong relationship.
2) .80 indicates a strong relationship.
3) .70 indicates a moderate relationship.
4) .60 indicates a fair relationship.
5) Below .5 indicates that it may be due to chance.
6) There is a stronger indication that no relationship exists as the
number gets closer to zero, such as .2 and .3.
b. r2 = Coefficient of Determination: When the percent of X is known,
one could determine a percent of what Y would be.
An estimate of common variance between variables can be determined by
squaring the correlation coefficient.
1) Formulas
(∑ X ) (∑Y )
∑ XY −
r= N
∑ X 2 − (∑ X )  ∑Y 2 − (∑Y ) 
 2 2
 N  N 
  
↑ ↑
Sum of Squares Sum of Squares
of X of Y
(∑ X ) (∑Y )
∑ XY − N
r=
( SS X ) ( SSY )
47

48. 2) Example
X X2 Y Y2 XY
John 1 1 2 4 2
Bob 2 4 2 4 4
Bill 3 9 3 9 9
Joe 4 16 4 16 16
Sam 5 25 5 25 25
∑ 15 55 16 58 56
56 − (15) (16)
r=
5
(10) ( 6.8)
SS X = ∑ X 2
−
(∑ X )2 = 55 −
15 2
= 55 −
225
= 55 − 45 = 10
N 5 5
SSY = ∑ Y 2
−
(∑Y ) 2
= 58 −
16 2
= 58 −
256
= 58 − 51.2 = 6.8
N 5 5
56 − 48
68
8
8.2
Pearson’s r = .97 (very high correlation)
48

49. X and Y have a lot in common.
r 2 = .94 (Given X, one could tell 94% of the time what Y would
be.
3) Coefficient of Determination: Given X, one could determine
94% of the time what Y would be.
4) Since correlation is concerned with prediction, it is more
difficult to predict the correlation as the correlation goes down.
c. t test: The test of the significance of the difference between two
means:
1) Think of a t-test as a correlation turned inside out.
2) A t-test indicates the difference between numbers, whereas a
correlation indicates the similarities between numbers.
11. Measures of relative position: standard scores
a. z score
1) When comparing scores in distributions where total points
may differ, a z score permits a realistic comparison of
scores and may allow equal weighting of the scores.
2) Formula
X−X
z=
σ
X = raw score
X = mean
σ = standard deviation
49

50. 12. Normal Distribution Problems
Directions: Treat each of the following as if distribution is normal. What
percent of scores lies between the two z scores for each of the following
pairs?
(1) 3 and -3 ______ (5) 1 and -1 ______ (9) -.5 and 1.2 ______
(2) 0 and 1 ______ (6) 0 and .5 ______ (10) 1.3 and 2.4 ______
(3) 0 and 6 ______ (7) 1 and -2 ______ (11) 1.5 and -1.5 ______
(4) 2 and -2 ______ (8) 0 and -6 ______ (12) 0 and 2 ______
Directions: Treat each of the following as if distribution is normal.
Identify the z score for each of the following percentiles.
(13) 50th percentile ______ (19) 99th percentile ______
(14) 60th percentile ______ (20) 40th percentile ______
(15) 65th percentile ______ (21) 30th percentile ______
(16) 70th percentile ______ (22) 16th percentile ______
(17) 90th percentile ______ (23) 5th percentile ______
(18) 95th percentile ______ (24) 75th percentile ______
Directions: Treat each of the following as if distribution is normal.
Population mean is 32. Population standard deviation is 3.
Identify the z score for each of the following raw scores.
(25) 29 _____ (28) 35 ______
(26) 38 _____ (29) 26 ______
(27) 28 _____ (30) 33 ______
50

51. Directions: Treat each of the following as if distribution is normal. What
percent of scores lie between each of the following pairs of raw scores?
(population mean = 32 population standard deviation = 3)
(31) 32 and 35 ______ (36) 23 and 41 ______
(32) 29 and 26 ______ (37) 32 and 30 ______
(33) 38 and 41 ______ (38) 26 and 23 ______
(34) 32 and 33 ______ (39) 23 and 20 ______
(35) 35 and 38 ______ (40) 32 and 34 ______
SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITIES:
Divide into groups of two to three students. USE YOUR CALCULATORS!
Use the following set of score to complete the following exercises:
63, 79, 88, 88, 87, 89, 89, 90, 90, 90, 93, 94, 95, 95, 98, 99
1. Compute the mean of the set of scores listed above.
2. Determine the median of this set of scores.
3. Does the mean differ from the median? Why or why not?
4. Find the range of this set of scores.
5. What is the mode of this set of scores?
6. Compute the variance of this set of scores.
7. Compute the standard deviation.
8. Using the mean and the standard deviation, plot these test scores to see
where they fall in a distribution around the mean.
9. Compare and contrast positive and negative correlation.
51

52. Chapter 8
Inferential Data Analysis
Key Points
1. Central Limit Theorem
a. The characteristics of sample means are detailed by this theorem.
b. Characteristics of sample means
1) Sample means are normally distributed.
2) The mean of sample means will be the mean of the population.
3) The sample means will have a mean (population mean) and a
standard deviation.
2. Null Hypothesis
a. A null hypothesis states that if there is a difference, it is due to chance.
b. By rejecting a null hypothesis, the researcher is providing a stronger
test of logic.
c. Additionally, by rejecting the null hypothesis, the researcher is
concluding there is a significant difference between the two means,
and this difference is not due solely to chance.
d. The .05 alpha level is often used as a standard for rejecting the null
hypothesis, which means that 95 times out of 100 the results are
not due to chance.
e. The .01 alpha level is a more rigorous test. It means that 99 times out
of 100, the results are not due to chance.
52

53. 3. z test: One-tailed Test
a. One-tailed Test at the .05 alpha level.
b. A researcher thinks the scores of the sample will be superior to
established scores.
Acceptance Area
95%
Rejection Area
5%
X +1.65 (z score)
95% Acceptance Area
53

54. 4. z test: Two-tailed Test at .05 alpha level
a. Two-tailed test at the .05 alpha level.
b. A researcher thinks the scores of the sample will be different from the
established scores.
Acceptance Area Acceptance Area
47.5% 47.5%
Rejection Area Rejection Area
2.5% 2.5%
-1.96 X +1.96
95% Acceptance Area
5. Critical value for z (rejection of null)
Test .05 alpha level .01 alpha level
One-tailed test 1.65 2.33
Two-tailed test 1.96 2.58
6. Degrees of Freedom
54

55. a. Definition: Conceptually, always N-1.
b. As the number of degrees of freedom increases, the strength of the
prediction increases.
7. Four Main Types of Tests Used in Educational Research
a. Independent t Test (very useful test)
1) Characteristics
2) No population mean
3) No σ
4) Compares the means of two different independent groups
5) Example
6) Group X has been taught with Method A; compute the mean.
7) Group Y has been taught with Method B; compute the mean.
8) The researcher wants to determine if one method is better than the
other method.
9) Formula for Independent t Test
X −Y
=

∑ X −
2 (∑ X )2  +  Y 2 − (∑Y )2 
 ∑ 
Independent t 
 N     N  
n ( n − 1)
X −Y
SS X + SSY
N ( N − 1) (Degrees of Freedom)
55

56. 4. Used in medical, agricultural, and educational research
b. Correlated t Test (paired) (very useful test)
1) Characteristics
i. Pre and post tests (pairs)
ii. Only involves one group
iii. c. D = X −Y
2) Formula
X −Y
=
2
−
( ∑ D) 2
Correlated t ∑D
N
N −1
N
3. Example
a. Pretest each group then compute the mean.
b. Teach group using a special method. (The treatment)
c. Post test the group and then compute the mean.
d. The researcher wants to determine if there is a significant difference
between the pre- and post mean. If there is a significant difference,
then the special teaching method id helpful. (Null hypothesis is
rejected.)
56

57. c. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
1) The Independent t Test is a subset of ANOVA.
2) Characteristics
i. Involves three or more groups.
ii. All groups are treated differently.
3) Also referred to as the F Test, which was named after the man who
invented the test.
4) Formula
d. Pearson’s r (correlation)
1) Characteristics
i. Measures the degree of relation between two variables.
ii. Determines the degree of linear relationship between two
variables.
2) Formula
(∑ X ) (∑Y )
∑ XY −
N

∑ X −
2 (∑ X )2   Y 2 − (∑Y )2 
 ∑ 
 N  N 
  
57

58. Chapter 9
Parts of the Research Proposal
Note: The research proposal is a framework for any research study. A
proposal should also clearly and succinctly reveal your intended plan. In
most instances, university policy and specifications for the length of research
proposals are adopted; however, it is quality not quantity that is important
when writing a prospectus for research.
1. Title Page
a. Use enough descriptive words to catalog it by ERIC and Resources in
Education.
b. Example:
The Effects of Collective Negotiations on Teacher Job Satisfaction
in the Temecula School District in southern California.
2. Introduction to the Study
a. This part should be relatively short and capture the reader’s attention.
b. It describes what the study will cover and should be written in a
manner that will make the reader interested in the topic.
c. A brief background of where the study will be conducted may be
included.
d. The operative word for this section is “brief”. Keep in mind, this is a
proposal not the completed study.
3. Review of Literature
a. This component reviews pertinent literature and information relevant
to your topic.
b. Previous research should be included.
c. Five to 10 citations are satisfactory for the proposal.
58

59. d. Citations should be relevant and recent.
4. Statement of the Problem
a. This part logically establishes the different underlying intellectual
motives for conducting the research on this specific topic.
b. Opposing conclusions are a good way to set up the statement of the
problem.
c. Example: There appears to be opposing conclusions in the research
concerning collective bargaining and its effect upon the plight of
the teacher. Smith (2005) found that the bargaining had not benefited
teachers. Jones (2005) noted that bargaining had greatly enhanced
teacher morale.
5. Purpose of the Study
a. This section succinctly describes what the researcher intends to find.
b. Example: The purpose of this study is to determine the extent to
which the collective bargaining process has influenced teacher job
satisfaction levels.
6. Research Questions
a. In this part, you will break down the Purpose of the Study into several
pertinent research questions.
b. It is important for the following parts to fall logically in line:
1) Statement of the Problem
2) Purpose of the Study
3) Research Questions
c. Examples: What was the level of teacher job satisfaction before
bargaining rights? What was the level of teacher job satisfaction
after bargaining rights?
59

60. 7. Hypotheses
a. The research questions are put in statistical terms in this section.
b. Example: There is no significant difference in teacher job satisfaction
following the acquisition of bargaining rights.
8. Definitions
a. In this part, define terms specific to your study that may not be
familiar to the outside reader.
b. Specifically define general terms the researcher assumes all
individuals would know but might be different in different school
districts in a state, region or nation.
c. Example: TAE-The school district affiliate of the National
Educational Association—Sixty-nine percent of all Temecula
School District teachers are members of this organization.
9. Assumptions
a. Any assumed aspect the researcher may take should be duly stated.
b. Example: The instrument used in this study will accurately measure
the job satisfaction levels of teachers.
10.Limitations
a. Any boundary or limitation of the study must be stated.
b. Example: The study will measure levels of teacher job satisfaction in
only one school district. Teachers surveyed may vary in years of
experience.
60

61. 11. Methodology
a. This section includes the following four parts:
1) Subjects
i. Describe subjects or sample (who and where).
ii. The population may be described in this part.
2) Instrument
i. Give details about the test or instrument and specific
materials.
ii. Validity and reliability may be discussed.
3) Procedures
i. Describe a step-by-step process of the researcher’s plan of
action.
ii. The timeline and permission to conduct the study may be
included.
4) Data Analysis
i. Describe how the data will be analyzed.
ii. The following information should be included:
iii. The type of statistical test that will be used, whether or not
means will be compared, and whether or not charts or graphs
will be included.
12.Significance of the Study
a. State why this study is worthy of the time and effort that will go into
it.
b. Substantiate the reasoning behind conducting a study of this type in
this district, state or region.
c. Example: Data derived from this study will serve as a guide to school
districts in similar settings that are also considering the collective
bargaining process.
61

62. 13.References
a. References should be relevant, recent, and cited in the American
Psychological Association (APA), Modern Language Association
(MLA), or any other required format.
b. A sufficient amount of references should be used. The number of
references will vary depending on the topic and resources
available.
SUGGESTED STUDENT ACTIVITIES:
1. Divide into groups of four to five students. Every group member should
contribute at least one area of concern that they would like to solve in
their role as educators. Identify one area of concern that is important to
the entire group. This will become the purpose of your study. Write three
to five research questions (what you want to know about the area of
concern).
2. Develop three to five hypotheses for your group study.
3. Define terms that may not be familiar to the outside reader that would be
related to your study.
4. Identify the methodology that would be used for your study. (Subjects,
instrument to be used to collect the data, procedures to be used to collect
the data, include a timeline of when this would be done, and the type of
statistical test you would use to analyze the data you will collect.)
62

63. Chapter 10
Parts of a Field Study
Note: Parts of the Field Study have been discussed in the section entitled
“Parts of a Research Proposal,” therefore only their titles will be listed
in this section. Additional parts and those parts that need to be
expanded will be listed and discussed in this section.
1. Title
2. Abstract
a. This is a summary of the complete study.
b. It is usually around a page in length.
3. Table of Contents
a. List the chapters of the study.
b. List only the page number on which each chapter begins.
4. Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
a. This chapter includes the following parts:
1) Introduction to the Study
2) Statement of the Problem
3) Purpose of the Study
4) Research Questions and/or Hypotheses
5) Definitions
6) Assumptions
7) Limitations
8) Significance of the Study
b. This chapter is basically the proposal minus the Review of the
Literature and the Methodology.
63

64. 5. Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
a. Expand the review of the literature.
b. Ten to twenty citations are sufficient.
c. Remember to keep the citations recent and relevant.
6. Chapter 3: Methods and Procedures
a. This is basically the part in the proposal that was labeled
Methodology. It will be expanded.
b. Describe in detail what was done in the study.
c. Some information in this section may have to be changed because the
information here will state what was actually done, not what the
researcher planned to do as was stated in the proposal.
7. Chapter 4: Analysis of Data or Results of Study
a. Describe in prose and in chart or graph form the numerical results of
the study.
b. Do not explain, summarize, or conclude in this chapter.
c. Tell and show only the results. Do not attempt to explain the results.
8. Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusion, and Recommendations
a. Summarize the results of the study.
b. An explanation may be given as to why the results turned out as they
did.
c. Try to consider all factors and variables that could have influenced
the dependent variable.
d. Recommendations for further study in regard to this topic should
be included.
e. Further study could likely be conducted on this issue at another
school or in a slightly different manner.
9. References
64

65. 10. Appendices
a. Make a list of the location of specific tables, charts, or graphs.
b. Remember to include the chapter and page number.
A CHECKLIST OF ITEMS FOR TRADITIONAL FIVE CHAPTER
DISSERTATIONS & THESES
The following is a checklist of items which are typically included in a graduate research project,
thesis, or dissertation. Not all of the suggested categories are necessary or appropriate for all
studies, and the order of items within chapters may vary somewhat. These items are intended to
serve as a guide:
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
________ Introduction
________ Background of the problem (e.g., educational trends related to the problem, unresolved
issues, social concerns)
________ Statement of the problem (basic difficulty - area of concern, felt need)
________ Research Questions to be answered or investigated
________ Hypothesis or Hypotheses statements if needed or specified by advisor.
________ Purpose of the study (goal oriented) -emphasizing practical outcomes or products
________ Importance of the study - may overlap with the statement of problem situation
________ Assumptions (postulates)
________ Delimitations of the study (narrowing of focus)
________ Limitations of the study
________ Definition of terms (largely conceptual here; operational definitions may follow in
Methodology Chapter)
________ Organization of the Study....Outline of the remainder of the thesis or proposal in
narrative form.
CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
________ Organization of the present chapter - overview
________ Historical background (if necessary)
________ USE KEY WORDS in each Research Question and follow with the literary review that
addresses each question.
Purposes to be Served by Review of Research Literature
________ Acquaint reader with existing studies relative to what has been found, who has done work,
when and where latest research studies were completed, and what approaches involving
research methodology, instrumentation, and statistical analyses: were followed (literature
review of methodology sometimes saved for chapter on methodology)
________ Establish possible need for study and likelihood for obtaining meaningful, relevant, and
significant results
________ Furnish from delineation of various theoretical positions, a conceptual framework affording
bases for generation of hypotheses and statement of their rationale (when appropriate)
________ Organize this chapter in the same order as the research questions are stated in chapter I. Be
very careful to fully align the review of literature with the research questions.
Note : In some highly theoretical studies the chapter "Review of Literature" may need to
precede "The Problem" chapter so that the theoretical framework is established for a
succinct statement of the research problem and hypotheses. In such a case, an advance
organizer in the form of a brief general statement of the purpose of the entire
investigation should come right at the beginning of the "Review of Literature" chapter.
65

66. Sources for Literature Review
________ General integrative reviews cited that relate to the problem situation or research problem such
as those found in Review of Educational Research, Encyclopedia of Educational Research, or
Psychological Bulletin.
________ Specific books, monographs, bulletins, reports, and research articles --- preference shown in
most instances for literature of the last ten year.
________ Unpublished materials (e.g.. dissertations. theses, papers presented at recent professional
meetings not yet in published form, but possibly available through another source.
________ Selection and arrangement of literature review often in terms of questions to be considered,
hypotheses set forth, or objectives or specific purposes delineated in problem chapter
________ Summary of literature reviewed ( very brief)
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY or the recipe/how to chapter
________ Overview or at least an introduction
________ Restate the research questions
________ Hypotheses stated in NULL FORM.
________ Description of research methodology or approach (e.g., experimental, quasi-experimental,
correlational, causal-comparitive, or survey)
________ Research design Spell out independent, dependent variables
________ Subjects of the Study (Clearly describe the sample and population.)
________ Instrumentation (tests, measures, observations, scales, and questionnaires)
________ Pilot studies (as they apply to the research design, development of instruments, data collection
techniques, and characteristics of the sample)
________ Validity--provide specifics on how you will establish validity or provide validity data specific
to your instrument from other studies with similar populations
________ Reliability--provide specifics on how you will establish reliability or provide data specific to
your instrument from other studies with similar populations
________ Procedures (Field, classroom or laboratory e.g., instructions to subjects and etc.
________ Data collection and recording
________ Data analysis (statistical analysis or qualitative analysis explained in detail)
________ Summary
CHAPTER IV : ANALYSIS OF DATA
________ Findings are presented in tables or charts when appropriate
________ Findings are reported with respect to furnishing evidence for each question asked
(ORGANIZED IN THE SAME ORDER AS HEADINGS IN CHAPTER I & III) or each
hypothesis posed.
________ Appropriate headings are established to correspond to each main question or hypothesis
considered
________ Other factual information kept separate from interpretation, inference, and evaluation (one
section for findings and one section for interpretation or discussion)
Note: In certain historical, case-study and other types of investigations, factual and
interpretive material may need to be interwoven to sustain interest level, although the
text should clearly reveal what is fact and what is interpretation.
________ Separate section often entitled "Discussion", "Interpretation", or "Evaluation" ties together
findings in relation to theory, review of literature, or rationale
________ Summary of chapter
CHAPTER V : SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
________ Brief summary of the study and findings portion of Chapter IV
________ Conclusions (Often restatement of the research questions key topics or variables and final
conclusions analyzing the answers)
66

67. ________ Recommendations (practical suggestions for implementation of findings)
________ Recommendation for further study
ORGANIZATION AND STRUCTURE OF THE DOCUMENT
1. Copyright Page
2. Title Page
3. Signature Page
4. Abstract
5. Dedication Page
6. Acknowledgments
7. Table of Contents
8. List of Tables
9. List of Figures
10. Body text, divided into chapters designated by upper case Roman numerals
11. References in the specified style manual format
12. Appendices and supporting documents
13. Human Subjects Review Approval document
14. Author’s Vita
TABLES/FIGURES
1. Tables and/or figures should appear no more than one page from where they are first
referenced
2. Tables and/or figures may be placed in the appendices and referenced in the body text
3. Tables and/or figures are identified by chapter and number. ( Example: Table 4.1
would be first table to appear in chapter 4)
MARGIN SETTINGS:
1. 1 ½’ Left margin and 1” inch top, bottom and right margin or other university set
specifications
SPACING
1. Double spaced throughout the document
2. Indent each paragraph first line .05”
PAPER
1. 100 percent cotton, 20-pound bond
FONT AND SIZE
1. Arial, Bookman, Times New Roman or similar font recommended
2. Size: Standard 12 font
PAGINATION
1. Every Page should be assigned a number
2. Preliminary pages, small Arabic numbers (i, ii, iii, iv …etc) in the center at bottom of
each numbered page
3. Abstract receives the first numbering at the bottom and in the center
4. First page of each chapter should be in the center at the bottom of the page in the
footer
5. All other pages should have numbers in the upper right hand side of the page
67

68. Dissertation Web Resources:
http://www.dissertation.com This site has a number of great tips, feature articles and a
monthly newsletter related to the dissertation process.
http://www.jsmusic.org.uk/students/dissertations/dissertations_checklist.html This
site contains a valuable checklist for help with organizing and completing the document.
http://www.gradresources.org/worksheets/gantt.htm This site contain a neat chart
with each component and a timeline to help guide you through the steps to completion.
http://www.lib.duke.edu/libguide/plagiarism.htm This site defines and explains
plagiarism in detail along with the consequences for the act.
http://www.lib.duke.edu/libguide/home.htm Duke university provides a great resource
for selecting the topic and researching library resources on this quality website.
http://frontpage.wiu.edu/~rlm119/writinglinks.html Dr. Marshall’s writing site
contains a good set of links to assist with grammar, punctuation, style and other writing
issues.
http://frontpage.wiu.edu/~rlm119/apalinks.html Dr. Marshall’s APA site has a number
of good links to assist with APA in-text and reference list formatting.
http://www.citationmachine.net Citation machine is a good tool to utilize in the quest
for proper APA or MLA references.
http://frontpage.wiu.edu/~rlm119/templates.html Dr. Marshall’s template site should
save you some time in formatting table of contents and other essential pages of the
document.
http://www.academicladder.com/dissertation/dissertation-coaching-help.htm
Academic ladder provides a free bi-weekly tips subscription to help conquer some of the
problems and issues that arise in writing the dissertation or thesis.
68

69. Chapter 11
General Statistics Information
Key Points
1. Definitions of Statistics
a. Statistics involves manipulations of numbers and conclusions based
on these numbers.
b. Statistics means to state numbers.
c. Statistics is the study of numerical variation.
d. Statistics is making decisions with incomplete data (without having
all the numbers).
e. Statistics is a numerical characteristic of a sample.
2. Examples
a. Agricultural statistics (acres, grain, water, and fertilizer)
b. Medical statistics (types of drugs, amounts, and patients)
3. Two Types of Statistics
a. Descriptive Statistics
1) Summarizing or describing test scores (data) with numbers
2) Includes the mean, median, mode (Measures of Central
Tendencies)
b. Inferential Statistics
1) Definitions
i. A method of reaching conclusions about unmeasurable
populations using sample evidence and probability
69

70. ii. A method of taking chance factors into account when using
samples to reach conclusions about populations
2) Most research is done with a sample.
3) When a sample is selected, there is a certain level of uncertainty.
(A probability table is needed.)
4) Example
5 million 5th grade students (population) Teach using Method A
100 students
Teach using Method B
randomly selected
(sample of
above set)
Mean (average) for students taught using Method A = 48
Mean (average) for students taught using Method B = 52
(Students were taught differently.)
4. Population
a. Definition: Consists of all members (scores) of a specific group
b. The researcher selects his or her population. The following are
examples:
1) All fifth graders in the United States
2) All fifth graders in Texas
3) All fifth graders in Waller County
5. Sample
a. Definition: A subset of a population
b. Example
70

71. 1) Of five million fifth grade students (population),
100 students were randomly selected (sample).
60 male 40 female
2)
students students
[Each is a sub sample of the above 1]
6. Parameter
a. Definitions
1) A numerical characteristic of a population
2) A statistic of a population
3) A measurement of a population
b. A constant
7. Statistic
a. Definitions
1) A numerical characteristic of a sample
2) A measurement of a sample
b. A variable
8. Experimental Design or Research Design
a. Definition: Concerned with all the things that influence the numbers
b. The way the researchers did their experiment may have influenced the
outcome.
c. Remember the definition of statistics – the manipulation of numbers
and the conclusion based on these numbers.
71

72. 9. Variable
a. Definition: Something that exists in more than one amount or form
b. Examples
1) Height
2) Gender
3) Weight
4) Test scores
i. I. Q.
ii. IOWA
iii. LEAP
iv. ACT
10. Types of Variables
a. Independent variable: The treatment (selected by the researcher)
(IV)
b. Dependent variable: The observed results (in education, test
scores) (DV)
c. Extraneous variable: A variable other than the treatment (IV) that
might affect the results (DV)
d. Remember: IV (treatment) may or may not affect DV (results).
e. Examples of treatment
1) Different book
2) Different teaching method
3) Male/female teachers
4) Experience of teachers
5) Time of day
72

73. Chapter 12
Types of Statistical Data
Key Points
1. Nonparametric Data: Data not normally distributed (Non-normal) –
Discrete data -
a. Nominal Data (Refers to things)
1) Just names something or someone
2) Examples
i. Social security numbers
ii. Phone numbers
iii. I. D. number
iv. Credit card number
v. Home address
vi. Bank account number
3. Nominal data are not very useful in research. Averages can’t be
computed with this type of data.
b. Ordinal Data (Refers to frequency)
1) Names and ranks (ranked data)
2) Numbers tell you relative positions or orders
3) Examples
i. Class rank (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.)
ii. Rank by height
iii. Sports rank
iv. Rank in a contest
4) More useful than nominal but still not that useful
5) Not exact
73

74. 6) Hides things
7) Intervals are not equal.
8) No math is involved
9) Ranking is not mathematical.
10) Can’t get an average rank
Example
Mrs. Smith thinks there is a correlation between how students rank in math
and science.
Mrs. Smith’s classes
_______________________________________________
Students Rank in Math Class Rank in Science Class
Mary 5 4
Joey 3 5
Alice 4 2
Sam 1 3
Bob 2 1
What does this “1” ranking really mean? We do not know how the class as a
whole performed. It could mean this student scored 60/100. That is why it is
maintained that ordinal data (ranking) hides information.
Instead of ranking, Mrs. Smith should use the actual test scores of students
because they are more specific data.
It is best not to use stanines either when comparing students.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Bottom
top
4% 7% 12% 17% 20% 17% 12% 7% 4%
74

75. 2. Parametric Data: Data that are normal. (Continuous)
1) Interval Data
2) Names, ranks, and has equal intervals between numbers
3) Example: Temperature (i.e. Fahrenheit)
4) Cant get good mathematical data
5) Cant get a mathematical average
6) Has equal units of measurement
7) Many educational and psychological studies have been done using
interval data.
b. Ratio Data
1) Names, ranks, has equal intervals, and has a true zero point
2) Examples
i. Height
ii. Time
iii. Distance
iv. Some test scores (i.e. a teacher’s test)
v. Speed
vi. Weight
vii. Income
3) Can compute mathematical operations
4) Can get an average
5) Can say something/someone is twice, three times, etc. as tall, fast,
heavy, etc.
75

76. Scales of Different Types of Data
Nonparametric Data (non-normal) (discrete data – just there)
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
Parametric Data (assumes normality) (continuous)
3. Interval Mathematical operations can be
4. Ratio computed with these types of data.
½ of the scores ½ of the scores
average
As you move farther from the average, the percentage gets smaller.
76

77. 77

78. Chapter 13
Descriptive Statistics
(Summarize or describe test scores)
1. Two Types of Descriptive Statistics
a. Three Measures of Control Tendencies
1) Mean: arithmetic average
2) Median: midpoint in a distribution of scores arranged in ascending
or descending order
3) Mode: the number in a data set that occurs most often
4) Examples
i. X
78

79. m
middle score (no score occurs more
than any other)
bimodal trimodal
30
Summation of
ii. Y
79

80. T
To obtain the median,
Note: To obtain the median, find
t
take the average of
the average of the two middle
t
the two middle
numbers, 5 and 6.
numbers
n
5.5 = median
+6 2 11.0
49 10
10
Summation of 10
1
80
7