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  Social Media, Identity, Acculturation and the Military Spouse ____________________ Presented to the Faculty Regent University School of Communication and the Arts ____________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy In Communication By Veronica Anna de los Santos Approved by: William Brown, Ph.D., Committee Chair School of Communication and the Arts John D. Keeler, Ph.D., Committee Member School of Communication and the Arts Markus Pfeiffer, Ph.D., Committee Member School of Communication and the Arts April 2015
All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 UMI 3700873 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. UMI Number: 3700873
 ii                                           ©2015   Veronica  Anna  de  los  Santos   All  rights  reserved.            
 iii   Acknowledgements I am certain that through Him all things are possible. I thank God for giving me the grace and perseverance to complete this program. I thank my parents who guided my faith and led me closer to God who alone has given me the strength to accomplish my goal. “I can do all things, through Him, who gives me strength” (Philippians 4:19). I am so blessed that my father, Miguel A. de los Santos, instilled the importance and value of education within me. His love of others and the value he placed on diversity and cultural appreciation has helped me better understand the world. Hefty, you are so much part of my identity. The last five years would not have been successful without your support. I cannot thank you enough for all of your patience and love that you have given me through this process. You have made me who I am today and I thank God for you. I look forward to anything that God has planned for our future. My beautiful children, I thank you for your help and patience as you endured the last five years. I am so proud of you and love you from the bottom of my heart. Thank you to my committee for your guidance and help. I am overjoyed to be reaching this point in the program and you have made this possible. Also, I want to thank my special colleagues who have demonstrated the utmost care and respect that individuals should give to one another. Your support was invaluable and you fulfill the Lord’s teaching to “Carry each other’s burdens, and in this way you will fulfill the law of Christ” (Galatians 6:1-2). You looked beyond your own interests but to my interests as well (Philippians 2:4). Also, I give a special thanks to my outside reader Michelle Mehta, and editors, Pat McAbee and Elisa Ketter.      
 iv   Abstract This study is an empirical study of military spouses of the United States military and their use of social media. With today’s growing social media use, this study sought to determine how social media affects their identity and their ability to adapt to new environments. Drawing on the communication theory of identity, cross-cultural adaptation and identity management theory, this study sought to advance theory through the application of social media use. Additionally, this study sought to gain knowledge of how social media impacts military spouses to aid with military life satisfaction. Results indicate that social media aids military spouses; however, only in particular circumstances. Implications of these findings and future research of military spouses are discussed. Keywords: Social media, military spouses, identity, acculturation, military life satisfaction
 v   Table of Contents Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... iii Abstract................................................................................................................................. iv Tables……………………………………………………………………………………….ix Chapter  1:  Introduction  ..............................................................................................................................  1     Identity,  Acculturalation  and  Social  Media  ..................................................................  2     Military  Spouses  and  Social  Media  ..................................................................................  6   The  Problem  ....................................................................................................................................................  8     Challenges  for  the  Miltiary  Spouse  ..................................................................................  8     Social  Media  and  the  Military  Spouse  .............................................................................  13   Purpose  of  Study  ............................................................................................................................................  17   Significance  of  Study  ....................................................................................................................................  19     Advancing  Communication  Theory  .................................................................................  21     The  Need  to  Aid  Military  Spouses  ....................................................................................  23     The  Need  for  Social  Media  Study  among  Spouses  .....................................................  24   Chapter  2:  Literature  Review  ...................................................................................................................  27     Hurdles,  Hardships  and  Hindrances  ...............................................................................  30     Identity  Issues  ..........................................................................................................................  32     Acculturation  Issues  ...............................................................................................................  40     Well-­‐being  of  Military  Spouses  ..........................................................................................  43  
 vi     Military  Retention  ...................................................................................................................  48     Social  Media  Usage  for  Miltary  Spouses  ........................................................................  51   Social Media and the General Population........................................................... 54 Social Capital and Social Media......................................................................... 54 Well-Being & Social Media................................................................................ 55 Identity & Social Media...................................................................................... 59 Social Media & Culture ...................................................................................... 61 Foundational Theories ........................................................................................ 63 Research  Questions  and  Hypotheses  ..............................................................................  71   Chapter  3:  Methodology  .............................................................................................................................  75   Quantitative  Method  ....................................................................................................................................  75   Study  Design  ....................................................................................................................................................  77     Survey  Distribution  ................................................................................................................  77   Data Collection ................................................................................................... 79 Sample Characteristics........................................................................................ 80 Instrumentation ................................................................................................... 82 Statistical Methods.............................................................................................. 85 Chapter  4:  Results  .........................................................................................................................................  86   Quantitative  Method  ....................................................................................................................................  86   Factor Analysis ................................................................................................... 88 Factor 1 ............................................................................................................... 89 Factor 2 ............................................................................................................... 89
 vii   Factor 3 ............................................................................................................... 90 Composite variabless .......................................................................................... 90 Resaerch Question 1: .......................................................................................... 92 Resaerch Question 2: .......................................................................................... 93 Resaerch Question 3: .......................................................................................... 94 Hypotheses.......................................................................................................... 95 Hypothesis 1........................................................................................................ 96 Hypothesis 2........................................................................................................ 97 Hypothesis 3........................................................................................................ 98 Hypothesis 4........................................................................................................ 100 Qualitative Research Component ......................................................................................... 100 Theme One: Social Media as a Beneficial Tool ................................................. 101 Theme Two: Social Media as a form of Identity ................................................ 103 Theme Three: Social Media as a Method of learning and aquring Knowledge . 105 Theme Four: Relocating and Frequent Change .................................................. 107 Theme Five: Negativity ...................................................................................... 109 General Theme.................................................................................................... 111 Chapter  5:  Conclusion  .................................................................................................................................  114   Discussion  of  Major  Findings  ...................................................................................................................  114   Theoretical Implications ....................................................................................................... 120 The Communication theory of identity............................................................... 120 Cross-cultural adaptation .................................................................................... 122 Identity management theory ............................................................................... 124
 viii   Practical Implications............................................................................................................ 127 Strengths  of  Study  .........................................................................................................................................  129   Limitations  of  Study  .....................................................................................................................................  131   Future Resaerch Opportunties............................................................................................... 134 Concluding Remarks............................................................................................................. 135 References............................................................................................................................. 137 Appendix A........................................................................................................................... 160 Appendix B........................................................................................................................... 166
 ix   List  of  Tables     Table 2:1. Research Area Diagram................................................................................... 29 Table 3:1. Likert Scale Questions from Survey................................................................ 84 Table 4:1. Primary Used Social Media Site...................................................................... 87 Table 4:2. Rotated Component Matrix ............................................................................. 91 Table 4:3. Descriptive Statistics ....................................................................................... 92 Table 4:4. Correlations of SMAT, FSMU, and MLS ....................................................... 92 Table 4:5. ANOVA for Demographic Characteristics on FSMU..................................... 93 Table 4:6. ANOVA for Military Life Related Characteristics on FSMU......................... 94 Table 4:7. Regression for FSMU and Rank Related Question Table............................... 95 Table 4:8. Multiple Regression for Adaptation Times and SMAT and FSMU................ 95 Table 4:9. Regression for FSMU and Identity Perceptions .............................................. 97 Table 4:10. Multiple Regression for Identity Related Questions .................................... 98 Table 4:11. Multiple Regression for SMAT and FSMU on MLS.................................... 99 Table 4:12. Multiple Regression for FSMU, SMAT and MLS on Q39 ........................... 99 Table 4:13. Recurring Themes........................................................................................ 101
 1   Chapter One: Introduction The growing use of social media continually shapes interpersonal communication. Social media enables users to operate within and outside of physical social networks and offers capabilities that most users “do not possess in traditional social networks” (Kane, Alvari, Labianca, and Borgatti, 2014. p. 54). Social media pierces the permeable walls of interpersonal communication and alters perceptions and attitudes of its users. Military spouses are among the millions of people electing to use social media. The military lifestyle, which typically involves separation from family members and friends, and frequent change due to relocating, may pose detrimental effects on many military spouses (Skomorovsky, 2014; Faulk, Gloria, Cance and Steinhardt, 2012; Burrell, Durand, Fortado, 2003; Faber, Willerton, Clymer, MacDermind, & Weiss, 2008; Jacobson, 1986). This lifestyle presents the perfect situation to stimulate social media use and focus on its valuable qualities. This study seeks to better understand the communicative nature of identity and acculturation through social media use for military spouses. The overall goal is to identify and explore how social media affects military spouses’ perceptions of identity and acculturation (the process of cultural change within a new environment). Drawing on concepts established in the communication theory of identity (Hecht, Warren, Jung, & Krieger, 2005), cross-cultural adaptation (Kim, 2005), and identity management theory (Imahori & Cupach, 2005), this study establishes a foundation for understanding identity and acculturation through the social media lens. Each of these communication theories interrelates identity and culture and consequently is an ideal platforms for understanding the communicative ability of identity and what behavior materializes through this style of communication. Studying these theories within the social media context offers a unique perspective for these theories and advances them into the digital age.
 2   Furthermore, studying these theories in the context of a military spouse’s lifestyle offers the opportunity to apply these theories to an understudied subculture – one often left out of mainstream research. One reason that social media remains so attractive to the military subculture is the fact that a normal aspect of their lives requires them to frequently relocate and live at a distance from family members and friends (Masten, 2013; Venkatraman, 2011). The frequent relocations associated with this lifestyle require spouses to continually adjust to new environments, knowing that within a few years they will start the adjusting process over again at a new location (Morris and Age, 2009; Braseby, 2010). Online social networking offers the fluidity of relationship maintenance sans distance. Overall “personal motivation and immediacy may be stronger factors than demographic and structural factors that drive the use of social media for military families” (Matthews Juarez, Juarez, & Falkner, 2013, p. 770). Military spouses, not unlike most social media consumers, rely on this online communication method to connect with others quickly and frequently, despite the lack of the physical presence of their social connections. When relying on social media to connect with others, social media intrinsically affects people’s identities and their ability to acculturate; however, the extent of these effects are unknown. Identity, Acculturation and Social Media Communication articulates one’s identity—one’s sense of self. Hecht, Jung, Warren and Krieger (2005) explained, “A person’s sense of self is part of his or her social behavior, and the sense of self emerges and is defined and redefined in social interaction” (p. 260). Social interaction occurs within the virtual walls of social media where messages are continually exchanged. Social media unquestionably offers excellent communication opportunities; however, a person’s identity remains obscure when filtered through a computer; and therefore changes
 3   behavior. Berger (2013) argued that social media creates shifts in communication trends towards (1) written versus oral communication, (2) undirected communication, (3) anonymity, (4) message broadcasting, and (5) reduced social presence, all of which shape the information people share online, and explains why they choose to share it online (p. 295). Behavior both internally and externally becomes altered due to these communication shifts. While people communicate in a natural manner through sharing and/or commenting on messages, photos, or videos, the very nature of these acts remain filtered by the communicator or the messenger who chooses which messages to share on social media. The selected messages that are shared are broadcasted among many messages and therefore, a person’s identity may remain obscure. Poignantly, broadcasting messages to masses via social media “does very little to move people from their natural tendency to self-focus and, as a result, encourages self-presentation” (Berger, 2013, p. 294). The larger audience and reduced physical social presence can deceive individuals who use social media and entice them to share more information about themselves thus leading to identity construction and management. Van Dijck (2013) affirmed that, “social media are not neutral stages of self-performance—they are the very tools for shaping identities” (p. 213). Identity construction is a key factor of social media use; yet, users may not realize this manifestation. Identities are not simple constructions but are complex, layered formations developed over time and social media plays a large role in constructing or maintaining one’s identity. Hecht (1993) described four multi-faceted identity frames for individuals that vary at times, being layered, juxtaposed, interpenetrable and dialectical (p. 79). These four identity frames include, 1) personal, 2) enacted, 3) relational, and 4) communal, which constitutes one’s overall identity (Jung & Hecht, 2004, p. 266). Inevitably, an individual’s identity frames will
 4   collide and may be incompatible, obscuring a person’s sense of identity. At a time when social media are standard communication methods, a person’s identity frames may become fragmented as a result of distorted communication among a social media platform. This situation raises question of how social media might be used to express these communicative frames. The blurring effect on identity frames may be exacerbated with the use of social media. Information sent or received through the social media lens affects the authenticity of communication—distorting the true meaning of a message. Self-presentation online can easily be distorted as messages may lose authenticity (Medizahdeh, 2010; Michikyan, Dennis, & Subrahmanyam, 2014). While this may be problematic, it is necessary to not lose sight of the broad reasons that people adopt social media. Many people use it to brand themselves for self- promotion or to advertise services they offer, while others simply use it as a messaging service. Social media users fall within various categories within this spectrum of use. Farnham and Churchill (2011) discovered that the incompatibility among individuals’ multi-faceted identities impacts a person’s use of computer-mediated communication. These scholars indicated that people will turn to it as a viable means of communication based upon particular situations, and at times, only amongst limited scopes of personal networks. Since messages shared within a social media setting are typically brief and isolated, it is difficult to grasp the full scope of any particular message communicated via social media. A person’s multi-faceted identity, altered through use of social media, may also affect their ability to acculturate within new environments. Kim (2001) highlighted that “Closely related to adaptation motivation is flexibility in identity” (p. 111). A person may or may not be able to adapt to new environments, and this depends on the strength and flexible nature of their identities. Furthermore, Kim (2005a) identified that a person’s bandwidth for functioning
 5   interculturally is established through a person’s “adaptive capacity to deal with relatively high levels of unfamiliarity, anxiety, and psychological distance” (p. 560). This adaptive capacity is rooted in the fluidity of identity, as individuals may have to shift their thoughts, ideas and opinions of themselves and of others in order to accommodate and function in a new environment. The relationship among identity and acculturation must be studied through the social media lens, as social media use has become common practice. When people use social media, their social standing remains “always at play, always at risk” (Carr, 2010, p. 121). People’s lives are being permanently imprinted on the Internet. Deuze (2012) asserted that social media use uncovers a “life where every past act and occurrence remains permanently in view” (p. 75). These past acts and occurrences are bits and pieces of one’s identity. Regardless of the positive or negative opinions towards social media, it remains a prevalent communication method. Social media are revolutionary much like the printing press was in the 15th century, the telegraph in the 19th century and, more recently, the photograph, motion picture, radio, telephony and television in the 20th century. Social media users have enabled social media to flourish, lavishly offering a connective presence despite distance. In turn, social media alters our thoughts and perceptions by sharing and interpreting bits and pieces of one’s identity. Furthermore, social media may create a fluidity or viscidity to our identities, influencing how we adapt to change. Through careful study of social media from these angles questions arise about how this form of computer-mediated communication impacts 1) a person’s identity; and 2) one’s ability to adapt to new environments. We know from Farnham and Churchill (2011) that identity intrinsically affects types of digital media use, and that identity contributes to acculturation as Kim (2005a) argued. Relations among the three forces of identity, acculturation and social media coalesce,
 6   again raising questions about their effects on each other. Military Spouses and Social Media Military spouses are prime sources to study this fusion of identity, acculturation and social media due to their unique lifestyles, forcing them to live a challenging lifestyle that is always changing and encompasses strong cases of uncertainty. Identities may be challenged and changed upon relocation, as every relocation presents a different lifestyle; therefore, military spouses must be able to have pliable identities in order to be more adaptable to a new environment. Clark, Jordan, and Clark (2013) explained that several problems that challenge the lives of military families are “spouse employment, childcare, unique demands on nontraditional families, home ownership and living off post” (p. 112). In addition to many of the traditional stressors average American families encounter, a military family will also face frequent relocations and disrupting stability, forcing them to continually make and remake stressful decisions such as living arrangements, purchasing and selling homes, educational choices for themselves and their families, and employment options or lack of employment options. Upon every relocation, military families must develop new relationships, both personal and business- related, which become normal activities for them; for some, this can be a significant hardship. Dana (2006) observed a great paradox with regard to military spouses. They must operate with the military dictating important aspects of their lives, such as where they will live, how long they will live there, decision windows for promotion and retention, and their linked social status based on their active-duty spouse’s rank. At the same time the military expects military spouses to be highly functioning independent people who are able to handle “highly uncertain and highly unstable circumstances” (p. 107). The military spouse assumes the brunt of the stressors as their tied identity to their spouse poses ambiguity within their lives and thus, identity. Eubanks (2013)
 7   emphasized that military spouses assume multiple roles that are ever changing, and that they must learn to be resilient; yet, they may face identity struggles as an unofficial component to the United States military, feeling obliged to live up to expectations of volunteering and event participation while not receiving a paycheck or a title to go along with these duties. Their identities may fluctuate and they must learn to repeatedly acculturate. In the digital age, where social media are nearly replacing all other forms of communication, a military spouse may be able to begin relationship-building prior to moving to any particular location. They may be able to learn of an area and ask questions regarding employment and educational opportunities in advance to better prepare them for their upcoming move (Rea, 2014). Furthermore, social media allows military spouses to continue regular conversations with their distant friends and family and create a virtual environment of being “near” their valued relationships. These benefits do not come without drawbacks. There are some negative effects to social media use (Chou & Edge, 2012; Krasnova, Wenninger, Widjaja, & Buzman, 2013; and Buechel & Berger, 2014). A person’s social media use may pose problems for individuals, depending on how and why they use it and their understanding of the mediated nature of social media messages. Matthews-Juarez, Juarez, and Faulkner (2013) contended that “as life challenges increase for military families, the use of social media may heighten the emotional response or awareness of social or emotional concerns” for service members, their families and friends (p. 770). This situation elevates the need for the immediacy that social media provides. Matthews-Juarez, Juarez and Faulkner additionally point out that for military families “social media have the capacity to change lives and offer satisfaction and a sense of connectedness that other forms of communication such as letter writing cannot” (p. 774). While these opportunities are too
 8   worthwhile to be overlooked, this study seeks to uncover specific effects of social media’s use that determine how social media affects a military spouse’s identity and ability to acculturate. The Problem Challenges for the Military Spouse Though deployment significantly affects families, (Faulk, Gloria, & Steinhardt, 2013; Green, Nurius, & Lester, 2013; Skomorovsky, 2014), the military lifestyle alone can pose significant threats to a military spouse’s well-being. The United States Government efforts itself to strongly support military families as Obama (2011) noted; the United States military also efforts itself to understand and aid the well-being of military spouses. Military deployments spurred much academic research in the wake of 9/11, and deployment is a significant concern for the military and the many troops and their families that remain stateside. Often overlooked in academic research is the military lifestyle as a whole. Undeniably deployment poses difficulty upon many military families; however, other factors of the military lifestyle are elements that hinder the successful functioning within this lifestyle. These factors need attention and a perfect place to start is with the military spouse who remains entangled within the military lifestyle by default of his/her marriage. The situations involved with the military lifestyle such as the state of constant change, the lack of control over frequent changes in lifestyle such as choices in relocations, living arrangements, and family career and or educational opportunities, and the lack of permanence in one particular area, all contribute to this challenging lifestyle. With the current state of sequestration that the United States military faces, including a reduction in military personnel (“Defense Budget Priorities”, 2013) and with the United States currently seeking “to refine, and ultimately repeal, the AUMF’s (Authorization to Use Military
 9   Force) mandate” (Obama, 2013, para. 65), shifts in military personnel and military duties abound. The political atmosphere remains uncertain around the globe and the United States military remains entrenched in our nation’s defense at all times. The large numbers of military personnel serving the nation face continual challenges of additional duties and relocations. Several years ago an operation emerged from the White House to address the needs of military families as a result of the problematic issues military families encounter. Supported by First Lady Michelle Obama and Dr. Jill Biden, Joining Forces was established to offer “opportunities for all Americans to step up and show their gratitude to our service members and their families” (“About Joining Forces,” 2014, para 2). This organization’s establishment alone raises concern for the state of military families. Military families are finally being more widely recognized on a national scale and awareness of their needs is being addressed. Cozza (2014) contended that due to recent media attention the needs of “military children and families have come to the broader attention of the public and scientists around the country” (p. 1). Evidently, military families lacked support and attention in the past and with efforts to change, much study is emerging on the military family. Military families face the residual impacts of the continual changes that the military implements. Though not evidently problematic to the goals of military leaders, the residual impacts can significantly affect the military as a whole. The military will adjust its needs accordingly for national defense purposes based upon political world affairs. These adjustments create concern for the morale and stability of military personnel and their families because they inherently assume the consequences of the changes. In particular, military spouses, the tied-migrants who trails their spouses’ military careers, are foundational to the military family (Hisnanick, 2014). Eubanks (2013) asserted, “Military
 10   spouses are as much a part of the military as the service member who serves his or her country; the spouse can be considered the rock that holds a military family together” (p. 98). Arguably, military spouses play significant roles in the military; however, since their roles are “behind the scenes,” ambiguous, and less significant to the direct defense of national defense, this topic is less discussed. A military lifestyle may provide much satisfaction and comfort for some military spouses, and this ultimately depends on their adaptability levels, strength of identity, their personal backgrounds, and previous exposure to the military lifestyle. It is essential to point out that much good and positivity evolve from this lifestyle and not all military spouses will encounter these problems. Although some scholars note the ambiguity in identity for military spouses (Eubanks, 2011), and evidence suggests that this can be a potential problem for some military spouses, it is necessary to not overlook the situation. This research is geared towards the military spouse who uses some type of social media to any extent. One of the goals of this study is to determine personal identity levels for military spouses and unveil how social media impede or facilitate their identity. Additionally, a spouse’s ability to adapt to typical situations that coincide with this lifestyle may be aided or damaged due to the pervasiveness of social media in his/her life. Among the multitude of factors that hinder coping with the stressful military lifestyle is the issue of identity management, a hidden problem for the military spouse. Since the military lifestyle keeps trailing military spouses in a state of constant fluctuation, they experience change upon every move, which can shape their identity. Much of their identity is attached to their spouses’ military rank and career as they receive allocations and expectations based on their spouses’ military rank, such as housing allowance, admission to exclusive clubs and
 11   organizations, admission to special facilities, and volunteering and participation expectations. Eubanks (2013) explained that military spouses assume the role of ensuring psychological and emotional satisfaction of their active-duty counterpart at the expense of their own personal identities (p. 99). Depending on their active duty spouses’ career field, this continual change may continue for a large portion of their lives and blurred lines of personal and relational identities may persist. Due to this problem, it is no surprise that military spouses may turn to social media, as it may become the only static environment, albeit a virtual environment one, with which they interact over long periods of time. Undoubtedly, military spouses have unique circumstances, much like the circumstances of others who frequently relocate for employment purposes, such as business executives, researchers, international aid workers and missionaries. The act of living a migratory lifestyle in support of their spouses’ active-duty military career may lead to some obscurity in identity while assuming obligatory burdens with no financial compensation. Knowing that their spouses’ military career is paramount to our nation’s defense system may offer satisfaction; nonetheless, it does not alleviate their problems. With much fluctuation in their lives, they encounter problematic situations that result in sacrificing some components of their own personal self because they remain in a constant state of change. Simple availability of resources, such as education, employment, residence, relationship intimacy levels within their communities, and acquisition of social capital may become ambiguous to military spouses and thus affect their personal identity. These resources, which help form a person’s identity, are not always accessible for military spouses. Military spouses may need to search elsewhere to help dictate their identity or may not care to do so if content with their role as a military spouse. Frequent relocations associated with this lifestyle require spouses to adapt and adjust to
 12   new environments frequently, knowing that within a few months to a few years they will start the process adapting process all over again (Morris & Age, 2009; Braseby, 2010). Cozza (2014) explained, “The culture of the modern military gives families the capacity to help children [and civilian military spouses] see their experiences as a badge of honor rather than a burden” (p. 2). Though this idea of pride is strongly promoted today, though historically it has always existed. Baker (2005) noted that civilian military spouses in the 19th century “ascribed their loyalty to the army as an element to their past, they described it as an overwhelmingly important element to their present (p. 25). Military culture is rooted within many military spouses from the beginning of their assumed role; however, this rooting does not necessarily help with the challenges they encounter. Over time, as women’s roles have changed in their homes and workforce, the roles of military spouses have also needed to change. However, this change has been less progressive within military culture than it has been in the civilian sector, which is why this sub-group needs attention. The demand to study military families coupled with the increasing use of social media among the general public, which includes military spouses, may unveil dilemmas, despite the worthwhile benefits. Military spouses may face difficulties with their fluctuating identities as they grow, change, and adapt to new environments on a regular basis. This dilemma can easily go unnoticed due to the rapid diffusion of social media and its ubiquity within society. As military spouses encounter frequent relocations and must adapt to new surroundings on a regular basis, social media are serving a function regardless if is acknowledged or not. It is necessary to determine exactly what this function of social media is in their lives.
 13   Social Media and the Military Spouse Negroponte (1995) described digital media as “a force of nature” and because it continues to grow and its growth cannot be stopped, “it is almost generic in nature” (p. 229 – 230). Social media has taken on this “generic in nature” form but before researchers have a chance to study one aspect of it, a newer more popular form of social media has already erupted. Approximately 73 percent of online adults use some type of social media and nearly 45 percent use multiple types of social media (Duggan & Smith, 2013). There is no doubt that social media are ubiquitous within American society. Among social media’s millions of users, military spouses, in particular, remain an overlooked group. Military spouses must rely on social media statistics based on populations at large, since much social media research has targeted either populations at large or other social groups, which may or may not include military spouses. As social media usage remains prevalent, its outcomes may lead towards a better understanding of its presence within the lives of military spouses. Its ubiquity, coupled with the current state of the United States military, opens an area for study as this intersection raises inquiry. How does the use of social media affect military spouses? It is imperative that continual study of military spouses remain substantial to the social and military sciences because “a healthy family unit remains integral to service members readiness, retention and performance” (Green, Nurius & Lester, p. 766, 2013). With social media’s pervasiveness, it is necessary to understand its effects on military families, and especially the military spouses who indirectly affect their active duty spouses’ career decisions, ability to perform job duties, and overall well- being (Kohen, 1984; Segel, 1986; Gill & Haurin, 1998; Burrell, 2003 & 2006). In a digital age, the challenges military personnel and their families face may be aided through the use of social media, eliminating informational barriers and the difficulty of
 14   communicating from a distance. However, social media’s widespread and relatively convenient use may be hindering military spouses’ ability to successfully live this challenging lifestyle. Schoenebeck (2014) reported of Twitter users choosing to take social media breaks due to “concerns about spending too much time online, tradeoffs of not spending time elsewhere, and concerns about the disconnect between time online and ‘real life’” (p.7). These concerns erupt from subjective feelings towards social media use; nonetheless, they indicate some sort of apprehensiveness towards social media. Kross, Verduyn, Demiralp, Park, Lee and Lin (2013) confirmed that the continued use of Facebook predicted “declines in affective well-being and cognitive well-being” and suggest that the use of Facebook “may constitute a unique form of social network interaction that predicts impoverished well-being” (p. 4). If well-being is altered due to social media use, it is imperative that its effect be studied on military spouses since this group of individuals already possesses distinct lifestyle challenges that may affect well-being. As dependents of the military members, the problems that affect them respectively fall back on the United States Government, through health care costs and, more importantly, on their active duty military spouse whose well-being may be indirectly affected. On a microscopic level, social media have managed to not only alter communication styles but also alter feelings, perceptions, identities, and ability to function within physical communities. Social media cannot be avoided in communication studies as it is integrated into our daily lives. Social media are ubiquitous and are not restricted to mainstream platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, Instagram, etc. Nearly all internet-based websites for large organizations have some form of social media component, whether it be an area to post
 15   comments on a news story on Cable News Network (CNN), or a place to reply to a personal blog. Military organizations are becoming more social-mediated and organizations from top levels down to basic organizations use social media to unite members and disseminate information. Public Affairs departments for military organizations now have social media divisions. Due to the proliferation of the military’s embrace and regular use of social media, along with the understanding that most of the members in the Air Force are actively using social media for personal reasons, the Air Force has an established a Social Media handbook, which is now in its fourth edition, to offer tips and practices of acceptable social media use for its members (Scully 2014). Military leaders use social media to disseminate information and connect with their members. Fajardo (2014) asserted, “Social media can improve and enhance a [military] leader’s influence and provide additional tools to leverage in a geographically dispersed, rapidly changing, and resource-constrained environment” (p. 13). Therefore, social media are not just for younger generations or simply used as an outlet for enjoyment. Social media are useful as the military is using it to their advantage and has even established guidelines for its use; however, the effects on hundreds of military spouses that are using it remains unknown. With the proliferation of social media in this digital age, military spouses have adjusted well to using new media to their advantage. Of the multitude of new media technologies, such as electronic mail, text-messaging services, Voice over Internet Protocol (platforms such as Skype, and face time), and online social networking, social media have received much attention academically over the past years due to its growth. Perhaps social media are adapting to human communication concurrently with human adaptation to social media use. In the social media
 16   environment, communication can be both synchronous and asynchronous; however, it is increasingly becoming more synchronous as humans rely on it to communicate freely, openly, and sometimes instantaneously. Military spouses enjoy this form of communication due to its convenient features, making social media difficult to undermine, especially if it can serve as a tool to improve a tumultuous lifestyle. Since social media qualities remain participatory in nature, typically carry low or no financial obligations, and is ubiquitous in society, it needs consistent study to determine how and why it is being used, as well as what effects it causes. While it may be free of financial obligations, its effects may be viewed as a cost to users. This study seeks to understand the costs of social media to military spouses’ sense of identity and ability to acculturate upon relocation. Various studies have addressed the motives for using social media. Stutzman, Gross, and Acquisti (2012) indicated that people use Facebook “as a vehicle for identity formation and expression” and therefore this was a primary reason people sought out social networking. A different perspective comes Zhao and Lindley’s (2014) claim that people use social networking sites as a form of digital archive for their personal lives. Since social media allow one to present information of choice, Sleeper, Balebako, Das, McConahay, Wiese & Cranor (2013) claimed that users adhere to a selective sharing principal, which limits full disclosure of personal identity. Many people still flock to social networking sites for the simple “fear of missing out” as Przybylski, Murayama, De Haan, & Gladwell (2013) noted, despite the common concern of social networking sites tracking human behavior (Zhang, De Chourdhry & Grudin, 2014). Military spouses’ motives for social media use may operate under these various intentions, but the most important reason military families use social media is to feel connected to other military families and family members. especially during deployment (Greentree, Johnson, & Lore, 2012,
 17   p. 36). Military spouses may seek out social media for connectivity from a distance. While not salient, repercussions may erupt when using social networking sites. With every intention of using social media as a tool to connect with others, which indeed is a positive aspect of social media, unexpected consequences may arise. Furthermore, using social media may affect and influence this sub-culture differently from the average social media consumer, as military spouses function differently than most of mainstream American society and these differences set this sub-group apart from the general population of social media users. Purpose of Study The overall purpose of this research is to identify and explore the communicative nature of identity and acculturation through the use of social media for military spouses. Rooting this study in communication theory, there are three communication theories which aid the understanding of identity and acculturation: the communication theory of identity (CTI), cross- cultural adaptation (CCA), and identity management theory (IMT). These three communication theories have lacked applicability in the social media arena with the exception of CCA, which has had little application to social media. This empirical research should contribute to these communication theories, serving as a collision among of concepts of acculturation, identity and social media. This study serves two aims to aid the purpose. First this study seeks to understand social media’s influence on military spouses’ perceived layers of identity as developed in CTI and further explained later in this chapter (Hecht Warren, Jung, and Krieger, 2005). Secondly, this study seeks to understand social media’s influences on military spouses’ perceived level of acculturation (i.e. their ability to adapt to new environments). Through the outcomes of this
 18   study and given the specific sample of military spouses, this study will gather enough data to understand how social media’s effects on this often overlooked population may also be applied to other groups, further aiding to theory advancement. Since social media act as a “force of nature” (Negroponte, 1995), the general public should have clear evidence about social media’s effects on various groups. Military spouses are an overlooked population among study in the social media arena albeit their unique circumstances. They often forced to rely on information about social media’s effects from studies conducted on the general public, specific age groups, and even college students. Due to the rapid growth of the social media phenomena, this study seeks to investigate social media from a distinct angle—one that has yet to be fully addressed. This study targets a less examined sample of the United States population: the military spouse. The majority of social media research targets either the general public (Ellison, Vitak, Gray, & Lampe, 2014; Krasnova, Wenninger, Widjaja, & Buxmann, 2013), college students (Buechel & Berger, 2011; Chou and Edge, 2012; Davenport, Bergman, Bergman & Ferrington, 2014), young adults (Davis, 2013; Kross, Verduyn, Demiralp, Park, Lee, & Lin, 2013; Michikyan, Subrahmanyam & Dennis, 2014) adolescents (Moreno, Jelinchick, Egan, Cox, Young, Gannon, et al, 2011), gender bases (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011; Rose, Mackey-Kallis, Shyles, Barry, Biangini, Hart, et al, 2012), or specifically intercultural (Rui & Stefanone, 2012; Sandel, 2014; Sawyer & Chen, 2012) . There is significantly less research about social media specifically pertaining to military spouses (Jennings-Kelsall, Aloia, Solomon, Marshall & Leifker, 2012; Venkatraman, 2013), therefore, military spouses often must obtain information about the effects of social networking that may not be pertinent to their circumstances. With the use of this specific sample, this study should uncover details about this particular sub-culture’s
 19   use of social media and how it impacts their lives specifically. In turn, this research will aid the United States military in finding ways to better serve the family members of active-duty members. Furthermore, this study is foundationally based on three communication theories: Hecht Jung, Warren and Krieger’s Communication theory of identity (CTI), Cupach and Imahori’s identity management theory (IMT), and Kim’s theory of cross-cultural adaptation (CCA); therefore, a final and subset goal for this study is to solidify the interconnectedness among communication principles, identity, and acculturation to determine how computer mediate- communication relates to concepts of identity and adaptation. Using these theories as foundational aspects for the literature review and research development, this study should provide contributions to communication theory. Significance of Study Stressful circumstances of military life may affect a military spouses’ identity and therefore affect their ability to acculturate. Acculturation, regardless to what extent, is a necessary ability for most military spouses, who will likely relocate every several years. With the shift in the military’s attitude of banning social media to embracing it, the ubiquity of social media among the military and their families is pervasive (Matthews-Juarez, Juarez and Faulkner, 2013, p. 770). Though military members are required to uphold the Uniform Military Code of Justice (UMCJ) when using social media, dependent spouses of military personnel do not fall under this code, and have free reign to broadcast concerns about their military lives via social media problematic issues that may arise (p. 770). Additionally, social media provide a communication outlet unlike any other and may aid the military spouses’ well-being, possibly helping shape and solidify their identities and helping
 20   them cope with acculturation—which will affect military retention. Furthermore, social media may hinder identity formation and dislodge people from reality as Wohn and Bowe (2014) asserted, “The individual’s sense of reality will thus depend on the information that he or she is exposed to, and his or her attitude towards that information” (p. 262). Since this study seeks to better understand how social media are impacting the lives of military spouses, the findings should suggest educational directions for social media’s use among this subculture. This research should engage the United States military to develop targeted programs, services, informational sessions, and instruction for military spouses to effectively use social media to benefit their well-being and protect the uniformed services, while lessening the burdens and ramifications of its use. In addition, this study seeks to aid the United States military through studying the military spouse. Using a sample of military spouses, this research will identify the social media needs of this population and should aid in determining how social media may influence their layered identities (Jung and Hecht, 2004, p. 266) and how it may influence their ability to cope with their nomadic lifestyle. Since military spouses are subject to frequent relocations and remote living from family members, social media can be a positive influence in their lives. With the continued and growing use of social media, I want to determine how it can help or hinder a military spouse’s ability to adapt to new environments. Despite the many challenges this sub-group encounters, they are among the millions of social media consumers who use it for various reasons and to varying degrees. Because their lifestyle remains unique, it is necessary to conduct research solely on this sub-group so that the outcomes will yield results that are specific to the needs of this group. Informative research findings about social media are often presented to military spouses based on sample populations unlike their own. In order to provide quality information to aid in adaptability to the military
 21   lifestyle, military spouses should be studied in a sample of their own. This study hones in on social media, identity, and adaptation, specifically of American military spouses; hence, several research questions and hypotheses are to be addressed. Advancing Communication Theory The field of communication lends itself well to this area of research due to the behavioral and psychological outcomes that arise from the sharing and interpreting of messages of this unique population entrenched with social media use. Hall (2012) contended that though military culture faces obvious challenges, it is necessary to look beyond those apparent challenges and “be aware of what is not being said” about military culture to get a more comprehensive understanding of “the restricted nature of the military with its many boundaries, rules, regulations and habits” (p. 5). As layers beneath the obvious characteristics of the military lifestyle are uncovered, other problematic issues may emerge. Social media’s ubiquity cannot be ignored among the study of military spouses, as it serves as a method of communication and therefore articulates and shapes their identities and abilities. What is sometimes not being said in public might be voiced through social media. Through the lens of military spouses’ perceptions of their social media use, we may be able to uncover what is not being discussed about the military lifestyle and find ways to target these issues. Social media indeed affects its users in different ways and with the help of established communication theories, we may be able to better understand how much of an impact social media have on military spouses and therefore how it indirectly affects the military. This study further seeks to contribute three communication theories. The first communication theory this study seeks to advance is Hecht, Warren, Jung and Krieger’s Communication theory of identity (CTI) as this study is original in applying the use of social
 22   media to CTI. CTI has yet to be applied among social media contexts; yet, it has a seemingly distinct connection since CTI discusses individuals’ layered identities and social media offers the ability to manifest multi-faceted identities (Farnham & Churchill, 2011). Additionally, this study seeks to advance Imahori and Cupach’s (2005) Identity management theory (IMT), which like CTI, explains an individual’s multi-tonal identities; however, it also explains methods of competence in which people of two different cultures can interact acceptably. IMT claims that a person’s identity actually consists of multiple “overlapping aspects or sub-identities” that is managed through personal relationships (p. 197). These personal relationships and cultural identifications affect how humans manage their personal identities, and they also influence our communication competence. IMT helps “our understanding of identity management in intercultural interactions” (p. 207). Since military spouses operate in a diverse network of the military culture, they are always interacting with people from various cultures and American sub-cultures. They may also have to interact with the various subcultures around them that are not military related, which can be challenging since the military relation, the common link connecting them to a culture, is missing. Lastly, this study adds to Kim’s cross-cultural adaptation (CCA), observing cultural adaptation at a microscopic level in the form of American sub-cultures and sub-groups adapting to other American sub-cultures and sub groups. Since CCA is typically studied among broad intercultural or interethnic groups such as non-native Americans integrating with native Americans (Kim, McKay & Semmler, 2013), this study aims to apply this theory to sub-cultures using the United States military as a sub-culture within America. Social media allow us to manage our identities through online interaction with others. Through various online encounters people choose with whom to communicate and when to
 23   communicate. People also choose what to post, when to post and how to post particular messages via social media. Through this process we can better understand how individuals perceive themselves, and are better able to learn about their competence in dealing with different cultures, which affects their adaptation abilities. The Need to Aid Military Spouses Americans, regardless of their attitudes toward the United States military, undergo daily protection for continual freedom as the United States military defends our nation. This daily defense relies on the fact that our nation has a volunteer-based military personnel. The United States military is traced back to our nation’s independence and over the years has grown stronger with the aid of the servicemen and their contributions. Paramount to our nation’s defense, the United States military operates under strict rules and regulations based on a rank-structured system that has effectively operated over hundreds of years. This successful system by which it has functionally operated for years may lead to ambiguity for active-duty member’s spouses as they remain in states of static uncertainty. Though their active-duty spouse will have degrees of stability with job security, the very nature of that job security includes being at the will of the military to place them into necessary jobs to meet the mission of the military. These jobs may be located anywhere in the world and military members are informed and aware of this situation prior to volunteering for service. Spouses of the active duty members are encumbered to life at the will of the mission of the military. The lines of personal identity and relational identity are undoubtedly blurred as they are not receiving a pay check, do not fulfill a necessary military job, and are not factored into the mission of the military. Many studies have been conducted on military personnel of this large operation, and the
 24   research has extended into studying military families as well. Much of the research on military families deals with marital relations and how the stress of military lifestyle affects a married dyad (Call & Teachman, 1996; Gimbel & Booth, 1994; Hogan & Seifert, 2010; Allen, Rhoades, Stanley, and Markman, 2010 & 2011). Inquiry regarding married couples face additional challenges when the variables of the military lifestyle is involved remain in question. Military spouses have been studied intermittently through the past several decades; however, has been significantly less studies on military families as a whole or the lives of military children. Facing added challenges of their spouses’ drive to fulfill military duties, promote and improve the quality of work within the military, compete for selective programs to secure promotions and maintain the ability to remain in the military, along with lower pay scales than their civilian counterparts with equal education and experience levels, the military officers’ spouse may carry the burden of this lifestyle. McGowan (2008) noted, “Senior Officer’s wives shoulder added specific expectations and responsibilities associated with the rank of their military spouses” (p. 3). The military is rank-driven and expectations result from the rank system. These expectations can cause a strain on the military spouse who did not volunteer for military service. The Need for Social Media Study among Military Spouses Though times have changed, military spouses still undergo the additional duties that not too long ago were required in order to aid their spouses’ promotion abilities, such as volunteering. The military spouse has been neglected in academic study as more emphasis is placed on the family as a whole or among children of military families. Due to this paucity of research, military spouses tend to be grouped in with the general public, with a lack of concern for their specific needs.
 25   This particularly occurs with social media research. Social media research findings are presented to the military spouse as generalizations. Few studies focus on the use of social media among military spouses. With social media on the rise, and quickly evolving, much study arises from its use. Many social media studies are conducted among population samples of young adults and teenagers; however, there is not enough study on the use of social media and adults, so this study will help to increase our knowledge in that area. The United States military greatly needs this research to better serve their members and their families. Social media penetrate the lives of military members and their families so rapidly that its effects go almost unnoticed. In order to continuously acquire a solid volunteer force of people willing to serve in the military, to keep attrition rates low, and aid retention in the military, the military must address the needs of the trailing military spouse and by learning how social media affect their identities and their ability to acculturate, the military can acquire the knowledge they need to better serve their members. In an age where digital media is prevalent and where safety concerns overwhelm the concerns of social media use, this study will help the military develop targeted programs and workshops to provide information on constructive use of social media while exposing the unrequited feelings of military spouses. This study is needed so that military support services, health care, professionals, and non- military communities can better understand what the spouses of service members experience. With a thorough understanding of this lifestyle, they can better address the needs of the military spouse, which will in turn address the needs of military personnel. The military would be wise to address their needs so that the military will have a more cohesive force in which families support their active duty spouse. Coupled with this support includes lower attrition rates and higher
 26   recruiting rates, ensuring a stronger military. Through communication processes, military spouses can attempt to ease this burden of identity which will in turn help remove the stress involved with the lifestyle challenges that inundate the lives of so many. Additionally, this study is needed so that the military can realize this issue and address it as they address other areas of family readiness. The goal of this research is to help find methods by which military spouses can express their personal identities and share their methods with others, helping them cope with the military lifestyle. In order to implement programs at family support centers within the military, facilitators can engage military wives in developing personal identities early in their husbands’ careers to better prepare them for their future. Family support facilitators can also help increase communication among military spouses to ensure that the social outlets offered improve and help their lifestyle and do not become counter-productive. This research will also be helpful for health care professionals to better understand this particular issue that military spouses face and in being more aware and sensitive to their needs.
 27   Chapter Two: Literature Review New marriages may pose hardships and trials for couples, which is an area of relationships that is continually studied. Due to growing divorce rates and military-related separation among military marriages, much attention has been given to the study of military marriages (Hogan & Seifert, 2010; Karney & Crown, 2011; Kotrla & Dyer, 2008; Maguire, Heinemann-LaFave, & Sahlstein, 2013) . Additionally, the well-being of military families in general has steered academic research to study the military family as a whole with much emphasis on children (Aronson & Perkins, 2012; Aronson, Caldwell, Perkins, & Pasch, 2011; Clark, Jordan, & Clark, 2013; Clever & Segal, 2013; Cozza, 2014; Crum‐Cianflone, Fairbank, Marmar, & Schlenger, 2014). Recent research has focused on the military spouse as a unit of the military family (Blakely, 2013; Blakely, Hennessy, Chung, & Skirton, 2014; Green, Nurius and Lester 2013; Hisnanick, 2014; Padden, Connors, Posey, Ricciardi, & Agazio, 2013; Skomorovsky, 2014; Trewick & Muller, 2014) . This is a worthwhile area of study considering a military spouse’s well-being will influence the well-being of the entire family including the active-duty military member, which could be detrimental to the military. The fact that there is more research is erupting on the military spouse suggests the importance to further study this group; however, research among this subculture includes a number of issues that challenge the lifestyle for a military spouse, such as cross-cultural adaptation, employment concerns, identity issues, the use of social media, deployment, and overall well-being. There remains a paucity of research on the intersection of these areas of study. Research in these areas should be pieced together to obtain a better understanding of what occurs within the lives of military spouses; otherwise the research will remain fragmented.
 28   Furthermore, within the last half-decade social media research has exploded with continual research being done regarding its effects, uses, and gratifications. More specifically, Zhang and Leung (2014) discuss four general themes of social media research that has erupted since 2006: (1) impression management and friendship performance, (2) network and networking structure, (3) bridging online and offline networks, and (4) privacy; however these general themes are not exhaustive (p. 6-8). The difficulty with social media research is that it evolves and changes so rapidly that the current research cannot keep pace with its actively progressing nature. Despite this concern, continual research is needed so that we can understand how this type of media affects people. In just the last several years an abundance of social media research has been published, but little focuses specifically on identity and acculturation. Research regarding specifically a military spouse’s sense of identity and ability to acculturate due to his or her use of social media is even more scarce. Figure 2:1 demonstrates intersecting research areas of social media, identity and acculturation and military spouses. As shown, current research regarding social media use and military spouses exists; there is also additional research about social media use and identity and acculturation. Furthermore, research exits on military spouses and identity issues or acculturation issues. However, research integrating these three realms of inquiry has yet to be conducted. Just recently scholars have begun to research social media within the military as the military has redirected their perspectives of social media use and now embrace its use (Matthews-Juarez, Juarez, & Faulkner, 2013). Research on military spouses’ use of social media is scarce, albeit a recent dissertation has placed a focus of study on the roles of social media for
 29   military spouses (Rea, 2014). Despite the overabundance of research on social media use, very little has applied Figure 2:1 specifically to the military spouse. This research is particularly needed with military spouses who partake in “the toughest job in the military” as the adage describes. Applying social media use to their lives in regards to identity and acculturation remains indispensable because these are two necessary characteristics that must remain flexible for military spouses’ ability to function within this lifestyle. To the best of my knowledge, and after a careful review of all related literature, a study in this specific area has yet to be accomplished. This literature review will cover multiple research areas encompassing the military spouse as the focal point. The first section will cover the challenges for military spouses, including identity concerns, acculturative issues, and spousal well-being. The second section will cover areas of social media use that include identity formation and maintenance, acculturation and social media use. Lastly, well-being and social media use will encompass the final portion of this literature review, and will cover foundational communication theories as a basis for this study. Social  Media  Use   Identity  &   Acculturation   Military   Spouses  
 30   Hurdles, Hardships and Hindrances Approximately 93% of all United States military spouses are women (“2012 Demographics,” p. 123), which is why this research will focus on female military spouses, or what this study will refer to as military spouses as a general term, with the understanding that a military spouse very possibly could be male. Upon marriage, the military wife assumes multiple roles, either welcomed or unwelcomed, not unlike any marriage in the United States. Marriage within the military occurs at younger ages than those of the general United States population, which leads to relationship problems and even high divorce rates (Hogan & Siefert, 2009). Although it is not the case for all military families, the military lifestyle poses gratifying career options and job security early within military careers, which may encourage people to make quicker relationship choices than others without such job security. Clever and Segal (2013) pointed out that military relocations impose military members and their significant others “with an immediate context for making relationship decisions” such as marriage in order to remain together and receive financial and healthcare related benefits (p. 20). As the military executes necessary missions involving relocation of soldiers, an underlying outcome is marriage at younger ages, and with this outcome the military needs to address the needs of soldiers with families. Families of soldiers are given significant attention in the military, although the family programs currently established may need evaluating (Weber, 2012). Clever and Segal (2013) reported, “The geographic mobility that the military expects of active-duty families can be a source of both stress and excitement” -- while facing multiple moves, some long-distance moves such as across country, out of state moves and even moves to foreign countries. On the average, most military families encounter a military-related move “once every two to three years” (p. 26). As in all families, either one parent or both becomes the
 31   foundation for helping to keep the family secure and healthy while ensuring proper care. Military spouses become vital to the military family’s cohesion, assuming the traditional parent and spouse duty of ensuring their family’s well-being. They typically assume the role as the primary caregiver in a family due to the constant uncertainty of their active-duty spouse’s career, including possible separation that may occur at any time, as well as unpredictable work hours. Military spouses assume the additional challenge of relocating frequently in addition to normal caregiver responsibilities. A wealth of research has been conducted over the years regarding military families in both the deployment and non-deployment arenas. Segal’s (1986) seminal research described that the United States military and military families are in a state of conflict, as both make demands from the military service member. Segal called for more support services from the military to improve the quality of life for military families. While these programs must be evaluated from time to time to determine their level of impact, we also need continuous data from trailing military spouses to determine their individual needs, which in turn will benefit their military counterpart. As such, the military will experience lower attrition rates of active-duty members, fewer personal and mental health care problems, and a stronger personal well-being of their active duty members. Many studies have covered the grounds of military youth and adolescents and their psychological adjustments (Ashby, 2003; Drummet, Coleman & Cable, 2003; Weber & Weber, 2005; Morris & Age, 2009; Chandra, Lara-Cinisomo, Jaycox, Tanielian, Burns, Ruder et. al, 2010). Military youth is an area of obvious concern, since stress can affect them negatively as they age. When military children undergo stress, their parents or guardians are also affected. This is an area of concern since the military spouse is typically the primary caregiver for these
 32   children while the active-duty member is fulfilling military obligations. Several scholars focus on military youth and their school transitions (Aronson, Caldwell & Perkins 2011; Aronson & Perkins 2012). This specific research is important because as children adapt to educational changes, their level of learning is also affected. While these children are affected by military transitions, their parents, who are military spouses, also absorb the stress. Though the military has made strides to strengthen military families and aid military spouses in adapting to their environment, finding work, continuing their education, and offering leisure options for them to cope with their lifestyle, there remains the questions of what is happening psychologically, socially, and emotionally to these spouses as they undergo these difficulties. Everson and Payne (2012) pointed out that that there are various ways that a military spouse copes with this type of stress; however, if they seek therapy, a professional should be fully aware of their “cultural uniqueness” (p. 212), which has not always been addressed in the past. One aspect of their lives that needs attention is that as they feel more comfortable upon relocating with the number of relocations they experience, their identities change as they acclimate to their surroundings and accept what activities, jobs, living conditions, etc. are available to them. Identity Issues Cooney, De Angelis and Segal (2011) applied the concepts of both a “tied migrant” and a “tied-stayer” to military spouses in that the family as a unit makes the decision to move in order to keep the family together and in turn they become tied-stayers, obliged to the military assignment location. Military spouses markedly hold the four frames of identity that Jung and Hecht (Jung & Hecht, 2004) describe (personal, enacted, relational and communal); however, due to the lack of permanence, they encounter multi-faceted identities as they assume multiple
 33   roles and encounter frequent change, creating a sense of ambiguity in their lives. Their multi- faceted identities may be rigid or flexible which may hinder or help their ability to adapt to new environments. Baker (2005) observed through historical memoirs of Army wives that although many women wrote of hardship, they also identified themselves “at the center of the values and traditions of the army” (p. 22). Evidently, these women assumed a persona that welcomed and supported military life and “forcefully identified with army culture” (p. 25). Yet, as unpaid “members” of the military, their status remained ambiguous. Memoirs aid with the understanding of what military wives’ perceptions may have been like in the past; yet, these memoirs may be tainted with nostalgia and glory while reminiscing. Baker’s research, however, does set a baseline for understanding that throughout history, military wives may have faced both adversity and harmony, and despite troubles, much positivity resulted from their roles as a military spouse. It is helpful to understand while a number of military spouses are content with their role of military spouse as an important aspect of their identity, not all military spouses will initially or ever want to identify with the military lifestyle. Although these opinions can be respected, the military should find ways to help military wives find a satisfactory level of both personal identity and their tied relational identity. Jans (1989) indicated that ultimately it is up to the wife (as this study only researched female military spouses) to either accept or reject “the idiosyncrasies of military life” (p. 347). In some cases, prior to marriage, a future wife may decide to not “tolerate these anticipated conditions” of the military lifestyle and may choose to not marry and become a “military wife.” As such, the population of military spouses, are, to a certain extent a self- selective group of individuals who knowingly chose to enter this lifestyle and accept the challenges that accompany the lifestyle. With this in mind, we may accept the idea that many
 34   military spouses are satisfied with their lives and this lifestyle. Jans’ research notes that the strongest psychological factor that influences a military wife’s identification with her husband’s career is her quality of life. The more she perceives her quality of life to be good, the stronger she will identity with the role of military wife (p. 347). This research suggests that there are distinctions with satisfaction of the lifestyle based on quality of life. While different people may be more or less willing to tolerate particular situations, living arrangements, frequent moves, lack of job opportunities, etc., they may be more or less likely to be overall satisfied with their lifestyle and ambiguous role as a military spouse. Although military spouses may find accord with this lifestyle and enjoy the role of military spouse, problematic issues may arise when personal identity is substantially attached to their serving military spouse. Eubanks (2013) described military spouses as living capricious lives making personal sacrifices to support their service member (p. 98). This indeed occurs for some military spouses, and though some are comfortable, proud, and content with this identity, many military spouses may desire to develop a personal identity, isolated or partially isolated from their military counterpart’s duty and rank. This can be extremely challenging as the military lifestyle is prone to stressful demands, such as “prolonged separation and frequent moves,” very common in military culture, “living in foreign countries, long and unpredictable duty hours, pressure to conform to high standards of behavior” and living within a male-dominated culture (Clever & Segal, 2013, p. 27). Similar demands, such as these, are relevant in various civilian career fields as well; however, Clever and Segal point out that the military lifestyle presents all of these issues as fundamentally common, generally understood and occurring all at once. (p. 27). Undoubtedly, these issues occur simultaneously in this lifestyle and this is precisely why stress is typically understood to be an issue for military spouses. As military spouses deal with
 35   multiple stressors, a less obvious one is the concern of personal identity loss. The United States has progressed since the inception of the military in regards to opportunities for women. As the military has experienced an influx of females into the armed forces, the military has also experienced more male trailing military spouses. Additionally, the military is dealing with more military spouses choosing to work. Military spouses have found that next to frequent relocation, their status as a military spouse offers a negative stigma and hinders their ability to find work (Castaneda & Harrell, 2008). Family support centers on military bases have instituted programs to help military spouses locate employment opportunities in the local area. The military has even instituted a spousal preference program within the government’s civilian sector for military wives who want to secure employment despite their forced relocation (“Military One Source,” 2013). Organizations supporting military families have been created to help military wives find flexible “work from home” options that may better fit with their military lifestyle. Though well-being may not be directly correlated, this research questions what types of changes that a military spouses undergoes, allowing for there to be no direct connection to underemployment and well-being when there are connections to this with civilian workers. In a 2005 Rand Corporation study, Harrell, Lim, Castaneda, & Golinelli, found that “military spouses out of the labor force are not all women who lack a “taste” for working” (p. 112). It is a combination of their unique situation in a regular relocation rotation and “level of involvement that the military requires from its personnel” which warrants significant obstacles to their ability to work and hinders some in the desire to seek employment (p. 112). Trailing military spouses juggle multiple roles. If they choose or desire to work outside the home, their careers are faced with additional challenges. Dana (2006) illustrates that military
 36   spouses must “act to verify valued identities not only through behavioral adjustments but through cognitive adjustments, or definitional renegotiation, as well” (p. 269). While military spouses weigh employment options, they also are negotiating other roles and must come to a consensus based on their personal and family needs. Sometimes the desire to work and have a personal career changes based on the negotiation and management of these multiple roles. Mehta (2012) asserted, “A lifestyle of frequent relocation and constant accommodation requires a military wife to become a reflexive self or [she may] risk losing a significant part of herself completely” (p. 148). The case in point is not necessarily the challenges that military spouses encounter with employment options, it is more the case of the required sense of flexibility for the military spouse—especially flexibility of identity. Military spouses’ identity have traditionally been tied to their active-duty military spouses. McInnis (2014) reported that middle 19th century military officer’s wives “mirrored their husband’s social disposition” (p. 380). These women came from upper middle class families and were most likely formally educated (p. 381). Although they never “signed a diplomatic treaty or ordered a regiment into battle,” they did however, assume military-style roles and “generated an elite female identity” (p. 408). Through their roles as women, and through their empowered roles of elite military status, which in turn was due to their husband’s military rank, these military wives “generated spaces of empowerment” and “wielded very real power” (p. 408). Our social milieu has changed significantly from the mid-19th century, and along with those changes women’s roles have progressed. In a society where we see not only women, but also mothers, holding high levels of military positions, it may seem that society has placed this tied identity of a military spouse to her active duty husband aside. Women have been able to attain a significant level of independence untied to their spouse in our current society and
 37   the military has had to adjust to these changes. Conversely, Harrell (2001) argued that while traditional military wives’ roles of the past may seem to be diminishing, they are still very much alive in today’s Army. Harrell insisted that “formal expectations for many officers’ wives have increased, and that wives’ performance and adherence to expected role behavior is again a feature of the officer evaluation process for many officers in command assignments” (p. 56). Though it may seem that a military spouse is simply handling family duties at home, the military spouse is actually impacting his or her spouses’ military career from a separate vantage point. This may not occur in every branch and at every rank in the military; however, Harrell’s research showed that it did occur in some instances. Harrell’s research compliments Segal’s (1989) study of the military and the military family as both greedy institutions conflicting with each other. As women’s roles have progressed throughout history and as the military has changed in regards to recruiting more female members, the military spouse’s role remains even more ambiguous. Though the military is making adjustments to meet the needs of military families and much academic study arises from this issue, problematic issues persist in this area and need much more attention (Clark, Jordan & Clark, 2013; Crum‐Cianflone, Fairbank, Marmar, & Schlenger, 2014; Segal, 1986; Weber, 2012). Additionally, Harrell (2001) has pointed out that a dilemma remains in regard to the attached identity a military spouse has with his or her active-duty spouse, in which a civilian spouse of an active-duty service member can actually affect his or her spouse’s career with regard to performance ratings, promotions, job assignments, etc. Evidently, a military spouse has a tied-identity to his or her active-duty military member. As mentioned earlier, frequent relocations are typical of the military lifestyle. Due to this issue, employment is a concern for military spouses. Maury and Stone (2014) reported that
 38   approximately 90 percent of military officer spouses are underemployed. Cooney, De Angelis and Segal (2001) confirmed that upon each military move, a military spouse is subject to a two percent decrease in salary (p. 376). These employment concerns pose problems, especially when viewed in light of identity, since a person’s work is often tied to his or her identity. Cooney, De Angelis, and Segal (2011) found that minority spouses of military personnel were less likely to find work upon relocation of a spouse’s duty station. Also, spouses of enlisted personnel were more likely to find work upon relocation than officers’ spouses. With this in mind, the question redirects to find reasons for this disparity. Financial situations and child- rearing possibly could factors in this finding as the need to work due to financial constraints may add to the urgency and dedication to find work. Also, the costs of child-care versus employment earnings affect the lucrative benefits of employment. Cooke and Speirs (2005) found that frequent relocating due to military changes of duty station did affect the labor market status for military spouses regardless of gender. Military spouses either chose not to work upon relocation or settled for employment that constituted less pay and/or less working hours. These studies are helpful in realizing the magnitude of the problem; however they do not take into account the fact that some military spouses choose to not work for personal reasons, or choose to take jobs in which they are underemployed due to flexibility with the job which they value more intensely than job earnings or status. Most importantly, these studies explain a problem that occurs for military spouses, regardless of a spouse’s decision to work or not, or to accept a position that is equal to or below their appropriate level of employment or not. Underemployment, previously noted as being relatively high for military spouses, is an issue that can lead to social and psychological problems as McKee-Ryan and Harvey (2011) noted. Their study was conducted with a sample of civilian
 39   personnel not related to the military, so it is difficult to translate the findings specifically to military spouses. Lim and Schulker (2010) claimed that unlike the research findings for civilian populations, which had direct links to an individual’s well-being, underemployed military spouses did not show a strong connection between these two variables. Though a clear connection was undetermined, the sample was only of female spouses among various ranks within the four major branches of the military-- Army, Military, Navy and Marines. Despite having a large sample of over 35,000 respondents, this sample remains too broad to gain specific data, as the range of military spouses is diverse. On another note, well-being could be interpreted differently among the participants within this sample, so although there was no direct connection found in this study, other factors that constitute overall well-being should be sought to determine a clear understanding of how underemployment affects a military spouse. Weber (2012) used recollections of different military wives’ memoir books and in-depth interviews of military wives to determine what the conditions are in which this group of women live. The author claimed that military wives are subjected to a patriarchal society and are grouped into a set of structured gendered identities. She determined that the military instigates this structure and that femininity is emphasized through memoir books. Though Weber made excellent claims, this research is widespread and does not take into account how the wives felt prior to marrying into the military. It is far too easy to generalize military spouses as feeling forced into this lifestyle. There are many military wives who were raised in a military family, otherwise known as “military brats,” and to them, this lifestyle is normal and comforting. Weber does not take into account the overall goal of the military, which is the defense of our nation. While femininity may be emphasized, it is not on the military’s agenda. The National Guard’s programs were developed to support military families. This article leads to the fact that
 40   more research should be conducted to determine where the military wives identity lies. Much of it, as Weber noted, is through support to their active duty husband to which they feel their identity is attached, or tied to their active duty spouse. The question remains if military spouses actually feel that this is part of their identity or if it is simply as a subset of their identity. With consistent employment problems, tied-identity to their active-duty spouse, and ambiguity of role maintenance, military wives encounter hurdles where they must constantly decide if they will proceed, or remain in their current state. These cases all pose hindrances to their marriage and personal well-being as well the hardships they encumber. Any ambiguity in identity, stemming from ambiguous roles, employment, and frequent change create the possible chance for identity gaps to erupt. Jung and Hecht (2004) defined identity gaps “as and discrepancies between or among the four frames of identity” which are personal, relational, enacted and communal layers of identity (p. 268). These scholars indicate that “larger identity gaps lead to more negative outcomes [and] . . . Reduced identity gaps in communication may result in better outcomes” (p. 280). With identity as a component of stress, the other factor of frequent relocations is a constant battle. Although some literature concerning frequent relocations has been discussed in light of employment challenges, it will be further developed to examine the magnitude of acculturation as a problem for military spouses. Acculturation Issues An important factor to keep at the center of study is the frequent relocating of military personnel and their families. When military personnel are relocated, there is clear definition as to their purposes for relocation when they receive a job description for their new position. This is not the case for trailing military spouses who must assume the responsibility of adapting to the new environment, situating their family into a new community and finding employment if they
 41   choose to do so. Correlations have been made between a person’s psychological state and having to relocate (van Aswegden, 2009). During relocation, individuals are forced to adapt and may face problematic issues, as when a person’s identity may suffer when adapting to their new surroundings. When identities are tampered with they become ambiguous and can in turn create additional problems. In many instances identity can be affected, such as during a time of job loss (Schöb, 2013) transition to motherhood (Heisler & Ellis, 2008), during divorce (DeGarmo & Kitson, 1996), and during acculturation when someone is forced to live in an environment that he or she is not used to (Oommen, 2012). Though these factors are applicable to the lives of many Americans from time to time, trailing military spouses encounter these situations not as an unexpected occurrence but as a way of life, with major life changes recurring every several years on average, with the understanding that a sudden life change can occur at a moment’s notice. Nonetheless many American’s experience frequent lifestyle change in jobs throughout the duration of the military career, trailing spouses encounter this regularly with the added stressor of knowing that at any given moment a major life change could occur with little time for physical or mental preparation. Weber and Weber (2005) found in a sample of military families that “relocation stress is not necessarily detrimental to child behavior or to parents' perceptions of the effects of relocations” on their children” (p. 641). Though this finding is helpful to know, it does not reveal the stress associated with the relocation in the first place. The study contends that the more moves a family experiences, the more capable they are of handling the effects of the move. Coincidentally, with more military-related moves, the family gains greater control of their position, and can more quickly adapt to the situation. This does not alleviate the stress that is associated with the relocation and the acculturation process that nonetheless take place.
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SocialMedia_Identity_Acculturation_and_TheMilitarySpouse

  • 1.   Social Media, Identity, Acculturation and the Military Spouse ____________________ Presented to the Faculty Regent University School of Communication and the Arts ____________________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy In Communication By Veronica Anna de los Santos Approved by: William Brown, Ph.D., Committee Chair School of Communication and the Arts John D. Keeler, Ph.D., Committee Member School of Communication and the Arts Markus Pfeiffer, Ph.D., Committee Member School of Communication and the Arts April 2015
  • 2. All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 UMI 3700873 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. UMI Number: 3700873
  • 3.  ii                                           ©2015   Veronica  Anna  de  los  Santos   All  rights  reserved.            
  • 4.  iii   Acknowledgements I am certain that through Him all things are possible. I thank God for giving me the grace and perseverance to complete this program. I thank my parents who guided my faith and led me closer to God who alone has given me the strength to accomplish my goal. “I can do all things, through Him, who gives me strength” (Philippians 4:19). I am so blessed that my father, Miguel A. de los Santos, instilled the importance and value of education within me. His love of others and the value he placed on diversity and cultural appreciation has helped me better understand the world. Hefty, you are so much part of my identity. The last five years would not have been successful without your support. I cannot thank you enough for all of your patience and love that you have given me through this process. You have made me who I am today and I thank God for you. I look forward to anything that God has planned for our future. My beautiful children, I thank you for your help and patience as you endured the last five years. I am so proud of you and love you from the bottom of my heart. Thank you to my committee for your guidance and help. I am overjoyed to be reaching this point in the program and you have made this possible. Also, I want to thank my special colleagues who have demonstrated the utmost care and respect that individuals should give to one another. Your support was invaluable and you fulfill the Lord’s teaching to “Carry each other’s burdens, and in this way you will fulfill the law of Christ” (Galatians 6:1-2). You looked beyond your own interests but to my interests as well (Philippians 2:4). Also, I give a special thanks to my outside reader Michelle Mehta, and editors, Pat McAbee and Elisa Ketter.      
  • 5.  iv   Abstract This study is an empirical study of military spouses of the United States military and their use of social media. With today’s growing social media use, this study sought to determine how social media affects their identity and their ability to adapt to new environments. Drawing on the communication theory of identity, cross-cultural adaptation and identity management theory, this study sought to advance theory through the application of social media use. Additionally, this study sought to gain knowledge of how social media impacts military spouses to aid with military life satisfaction. Results indicate that social media aids military spouses; however, only in particular circumstances. Implications of these findings and future research of military spouses are discussed. Keywords: Social media, military spouses, identity, acculturation, military life satisfaction
  • 6.  v   Table of Contents Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... iii Abstract................................................................................................................................. iv Tables……………………………………………………………………………………….ix Chapter  1:  Introduction  ..............................................................................................................................  1     Identity,  Acculturalation  and  Social  Media  ..................................................................  2     Military  Spouses  and  Social  Media  ..................................................................................  6   The  Problem  ....................................................................................................................................................  8     Challenges  for  the  Miltiary  Spouse  ..................................................................................  8     Social  Media  and  the  Military  Spouse  .............................................................................  13   Purpose  of  Study  ............................................................................................................................................  17   Significance  of  Study  ....................................................................................................................................  19     Advancing  Communication  Theory  .................................................................................  21     The  Need  to  Aid  Military  Spouses  ....................................................................................  23     The  Need  for  Social  Media  Study  among  Spouses  .....................................................  24   Chapter  2:  Literature  Review  ...................................................................................................................  27     Hurdles,  Hardships  and  Hindrances  ...............................................................................  30     Identity  Issues  ..........................................................................................................................  32     Acculturation  Issues  ...............................................................................................................  40     Well-­‐being  of  Military  Spouses  ..........................................................................................  43  
  • 7.  vi     Military  Retention  ...................................................................................................................  48     Social  Media  Usage  for  Miltary  Spouses  ........................................................................  51   Social Media and the General Population........................................................... 54 Social Capital and Social Media......................................................................... 54 Well-Being & Social Media................................................................................ 55 Identity & Social Media...................................................................................... 59 Social Media & Culture ...................................................................................... 61 Foundational Theories ........................................................................................ 63 Research  Questions  and  Hypotheses  ..............................................................................  71   Chapter  3:  Methodology  .............................................................................................................................  75   Quantitative  Method  ....................................................................................................................................  75   Study  Design  ....................................................................................................................................................  77     Survey  Distribution  ................................................................................................................  77   Data Collection ................................................................................................... 79 Sample Characteristics........................................................................................ 80 Instrumentation ................................................................................................... 82 Statistical Methods.............................................................................................. 85 Chapter  4:  Results  .........................................................................................................................................  86   Quantitative  Method  ....................................................................................................................................  86   Factor Analysis ................................................................................................... 88 Factor 1 ............................................................................................................... 89 Factor 2 ............................................................................................................... 89
  • 8.  vii   Factor 3 ............................................................................................................... 90 Composite variabless .......................................................................................... 90 Resaerch Question 1: .......................................................................................... 92 Resaerch Question 2: .......................................................................................... 93 Resaerch Question 3: .......................................................................................... 94 Hypotheses.......................................................................................................... 95 Hypothesis 1........................................................................................................ 96 Hypothesis 2........................................................................................................ 97 Hypothesis 3........................................................................................................ 98 Hypothesis 4........................................................................................................ 100 Qualitative Research Component ......................................................................................... 100 Theme One: Social Media as a Beneficial Tool ................................................. 101 Theme Two: Social Media as a form of Identity ................................................ 103 Theme Three: Social Media as a Method of learning and aquring Knowledge . 105 Theme Four: Relocating and Frequent Change .................................................. 107 Theme Five: Negativity ...................................................................................... 109 General Theme.................................................................................................... 111 Chapter  5:  Conclusion  .................................................................................................................................  114   Discussion  of  Major  Findings  ...................................................................................................................  114   Theoretical Implications ....................................................................................................... 120 The Communication theory of identity............................................................... 120 Cross-cultural adaptation .................................................................................... 122 Identity management theory ............................................................................... 124
  • 9.  viii   Practical Implications............................................................................................................ 127 Strengths  of  Study  .........................................................................................................................................  129   Limitations  of  Study  .....................................................................................................................................  131   Future Resaerch Opportunties............................................................................................... 134 Concluding Remarks............................................................................................................. 135 References............................................................................................................................. 137 Appendix A........................................................................................................................... 160 Appendix B........................................................................................................................... 166
  • 10.  ix   List  of  Tables     Table 2:1. Research Area Diagram................................................................................... 29 Table 3:1. Likert Scale Questions from Survey................................................................ 84 Table 4:1. Primary Used Social Media Site...................................................................... 87 Table 4:2. Rotated Component Matrix ............................................................................. 91 Table 4:3. Descriptive Statistics ....................................................................................... 92 Table 4:4. Correlations of SMAT, FSMU, and MLS ....................................................... 92 Table 4:5. ANOVA for Demographic Characteristics on FSMU..................................... 93 Table 4:6. ANOVA for Military Life Related Characteristics on FSMU......................... 94 Table 4:7. Regression for FSMU and Rank Related Question Table............................... 95 Table 4:8. Multiple Regression for Adaptation Times and SMAT and FSMU................ 95 Table 4:9. Regression for FSMU and Identity Perceptions .............................................. 97 Table 4:10. Multiple Regression for Identity Related Questions .................................... 98 Table 4:11. Multiple Regression for SMAT and FSMU on MLS.................................... 99 Table 4:12. Multiple Regression for FSMU, SMAT and MLS on Q39 ........................... 99 Table 4:13. Recurring Themes........................................................................................ 101
  • 11.  1   Chapter One: Introduction The growing use of social media continually shapes interpersonal communication. Social media enables users to operate within and outside of physical social networks and offers capabilities that most users “do not possess in traditional social networks” (Kane, Alvari, Labianca, and Borgatti, 2014. p. 54). Social media pierces the permeable walls of interpersonal communication and alters perceptions and attitudes of its users. Military spouses are among the millions of people electing to use social media. The military lifestyle, which typically involves separation from family members and friends, and frequent change due to relocating, may pose detrimental effects on many military spouses (Skomorovsky, 2014; Faulk, Gloria, Cance and Steinhardt, 2012; Burrell, Durand, Fortado, 2003; Faber, Willerton, Clymer, MacDermind, & Weiss, 2008; Jacobson, 1986). This lifestyle presents the perfect situation to stimulate social media use and focus on its valuable qualities. This study seeks to better understand the communicative nature of identity and acculturation through social media use for military spouses. The overall goal is to identify and explore how social media affects military spouses’ perceptions of identity and acculturation (the process of cultural change within a new environment). Drawing on concepts established in the communication theory of identity (Hecht, Warren, Jung, & Krieger, 2005), cross-cultural adaptation (Kim, 2005), and identity management theory (Imahori & Cupach, 2005), this study establishes a foundation for understanding identity and acculturation through the social media lens. Each of these communication theories interrelates identity and culture and consequently is an ideal platforms for understanding the communicative ability of identity and what behavior materializes through this style of communication. Studying these theories within the social media context offers a unique perspective for these theories and advances them into the digital age.
  • 12.  2   Furthermore, studying these theories in the context of a military spouse’s lifestyle offers the opportunity to apply these theories to an understudied subculture – one often left out of mainstream research. One reason that social media remains so attractive to the military subculture is the fact that a normal aspect of their lives requires them to frequently relocate and live at a distance from family members and friends (Masten, 2013; Venkatraman, 2011). The frequent relocations associated with this lifestyle require spouses to continually adjust to new environments, knowing that within a few years they will start the adjusting process over again at a new location (Morris and Age, 2009; Braseby, 2010). Online social networking offers the fluidity of relationship maintenance sans distance. Overall “personal motivation and immediacy may be stronger factors than demographic and structural factors that drive the use of social media for military families” (Matthews Juarez, Juarez, & Falkner, 2013, p. 770). Military spouses, not unlike most social media consumers, rely on this online communication method to connect with others quickly and frequently, despite the lack of the physical presence of their social connections. When relying on social media to connect with others, social media intrinsically affects people’s identities and their ability to acculturate; however, the extent of these effects are unknown. Identity, Acculturation and Social Media Communication articulates one’s identity—one’s sense of self. Hecht, Jung, Warren and Krieger (2005) explained, “A person’s sense of self is part of his or her social behavior, and the sense of self emerges and is defined and redefined in social interaction” (p. 260). Social interaction occurs within the virtual walls of social media where messages are continually exchanged. Social media unquestionably offers excellent communication opportunities; however, a person’s identity remains obscure when filtered through a computer; and therefore changes
  • 13.  3   behavior. Berger (2013) argued that social media creates shifts in communication trends towards (1) written versus oral communication, (2) undirected communication, (3) anonymity, (4) message broadcasting, and (5) reduced social presence, all of which shape the information people share online, and explains why they choose to share it online (p. 295). Behavior both internally and externally becomes altered due to these communication shifts. While people communicate in a natural manner through sharing and/or commenting on messages, photos, or videos, the very nature of these acts remain filtered by the communicator or the messenger who chooses which messages to share on social media. The selected messages that are shared are broadcasted among many messages and therefore, a person’s identity may remain obscure. Poignantly, broadcasting messages to masses via social media “does very little to move people from their natural tendency to self-focus and, as a result, encourages self-presentation” (Berger, 2013, p. 294). The larger audience and reduced physical social presence can deceive individuals who use social media and entice them to share more information about themselves thus leading to identity construction and management. Van Dijck (2013) affirmed that, “social media are not neutral stages of self-performance—they are the very tools for shaping identities” (p. 213). Identity construction is a key factor of social media use; yet, users may not realize this manifestation. Identities are not simple constructions but are complex, layered formations developed over time and social media plays a large role in constructing or maintaining one’s identity. Hecht (1993) described four multi-faceted identity frames for individuals that vary at times, being layered, juxtaposed, interpenetrable and dialectical (p. 79). These four identity frames include, 1) personal, 2) enacted, 3) relational, and 4) communal, which constitutes one’s overall identity (Jung & Hecht, 2004, p. 266). Inevitably, an individual’s identity frames will
  • 14.  4   collide and may be incompatible, obscuring a person’s sense of identity. At a time when social media are standard communication methods, a person’s identity frames may become fragmented as a result of distorted communication among a social media platform. This situation raises question of how social media might be used to express these communicative frames. The blurring effect on identity frames may be exacerbated with the use of social media. Information sent or received through the social media lens affects the authenticity of communication—distorting the true meaning of a message. Self-presentation online can easily be distorted as messages may lose authenticity (Medizahdeh, 2010; Michikyan, Dennis, & Subrahmanyam, 2014). While this may be problematic, it is necessary to not lose sight of the broad reasons that people adopt social media. Many people use it to brand themselves for self- promotion or to advertise services they offer, while others simply use it as a messaging service. Social media users fall within various categories within this spectrum of use. Farnham and Churchill (2011) discovered that the incompatibility among individuals’ multi-faceted identities impacts a person’s use of computer-mediated communication. These scholars indicated that people will turn to it as a viable means of communication based upon particular situations, and at times, only amongst limited scopes of personal networks. Since messages shared within a social media setting are typically brief and isolated, it is difficult to grasp the full scope of any particular message communicated via social media. A person’s multi-faceted identity, altered through use of social media, may also affect their ability to acculturate within new environments. Kim (2001) highlighted that “Closely related to adaptation motivation is flexibility in identity” (p. 111). A person may or may not be able to adapt to new environments, and this depends on the strength and flexible nature of their identities. Furthermore, Kim (2005a) identified that a person’s bandwidth for functioning
  • 15.  5   interculturally is established through a person’s “adaptive capacity to deal with relatively high levels of unfamiliarity, anxiety, and psychological distance” (p. 560). This adaptive capacity is rooted in the fluidity of identity, as individuals may have to shift their thoughts, ideas and opinions of themselves and of others in order to accommodate and function in a new environment. The relationship among identity and acculturation must be studied through the social media lens, as social media use has become common practice. When people use social media, their social standing remains “always at play, always at risk” (Carr, 2010, p. 121). People’s lives are being permanently imprinted on the Internet. Deuze (2012) asserted that social media use uncovers a “life where every past act and occurrence remains permanently in view” (p. 75). These past acts and occurrences are bits and pieces of one’s identity. Regardless of the positive or negative opinions towards social media, it remains a prevalent communication method. Social media are revolutionary much like the printing press was in the 15th century, the telegraph in the 19th century and, more recently, the photograph, motion picture, radio, telephony and television in the 20th century. Social media users have enabled social media to flourish, lavishly offering a connective presence despite distance. In turn, social media alters our thoughts and perceptions by sharing and interpreting bits and pieces of one’s identity. Furthermore, social media may create a fluidity or viscidity to our identities, influencing how we adapt to change. Through careful study of social media from these angles questions arise about how this form of computer-mediated communication impacts 1) a person’s identity; and 2) one’s ability to adapt to new environments. We know from Farnham and Churchill (2011) that identity intrinsically affects types of digital media use, and that identity contributes to acculturation as Kim (2005a) argued. Relations among the three forces of identity, acculturation and social media coalesce,
  • 16.  6   again raising questions about their effects on each other. Military Spouses and Social Media Military spouses are prime sources to study this fusion of identity, acculturation and social media due to their unique lifestyles, forcing them to live a challenging lifestyle that is always changing and encompasses strong cases of uncertainty. Identities may be challenged and changed upon relocation, as every relocation presents a different lifestyle; therefore, military spouses must be able to have pliable identities in order to be more adaptable to a new environment. Clark, Jordan, and Clark (2013) explained that several problems that challenge the lives of military families are “spouse employment, childcare, unique demands on nontraditional families, home ownership and living off post” (p. 112). In addition to many of the traditional stressors average American families encounter, a military family will also face frequent relocations and disrupting stability, forcing them to continually make and remake stressful decisions such as living arrangements, purchasing and selling homes, educational choices for themselves and their families, and employment options or lack of employment options. Upon every relocation, military families must develop new relationships, both personal and business- related, which become normal activities for them; for some, this can be a significant hardship. Dana (2006) observed a great paradox with regard to military spouses. They must operate with the military dictating important aspects of their lives, such as where they will live, how long they will live there, decision windows for promotion and retention, and their linked social status based on their active-duty spouse’s rank. At the same time the military expects military spouses to be highly functioning independent people who are able to handle “highly uncertain and highly unstable circumstances” (p. 107). The military spouse assumes the brunt of the stressors as their tied identity to their spouse poses ambiguity within their lives and thus, identity. Eubanks (2013)
  • 17.  7   emphasized that military spouses assume multiple roles that are ever changing, and that they must learn to be resilient; yet, they may face identity struggles as an unofficial component to the United States military, feeling obliged to live up to expectations of volunteering and event participation while not receiving a paycheck or a title to go along with these duties. Their identities may fluctuate and they must learn to repeatedly acculturate. In the digital age, where social media are nearly replacing all other forms of communication, a military spouse may be able to begin relationship-building prior to moving to any particular location. They may be able to learn of an area and ask questions regarding employment and educational opportunities in advance to better prepare them for their upcoming move (Rea, 2014). Furthermore, social media allows military spouses to continue regular conversations with their distant friends and family and create a virtual environment of being “near” their valued relationships. These benefits do not come without drawbacks. There are some negative effects to social media use (Chou & Edge, 2012; Krasnova, Wenninger, Widjaja, & Buzman, 2013; and Buechel & Berger, 2014). A person’s social media use may pose problems for individuals, depending on how and why they use it and their understanding of the mediated nature of social media messages. Matthews-Juarez, Juarez, and Faulkner (2013) contended that “as life challenges increase for military families, the use of social media may heighten the emotional response or awareness of social or emotional concerns” for service members, their families and friends (p. 770). This situation elevates the need for the immediacy that social media provides. Matthews-Juarez, Juarez and Faulkner additionally point out that for military families “social media have the capacity to change lives and offer satisfaction and a sense of connectedness that other forms of communication such as letter writing cannot” (p. 774). While these opportunities are too
  • 18.  8   worthwhile to be overlooked, this study seeks to uncover specific effects of social media’s use that determine how social media affects a military spouse’s identity and ability to acculturate. The Problem Challenges for the Military Spouse Though deployment significantly affects families, (Faulk, Gloria, & Steinhardt, 2013; Green, Nurius, & Lester, 2013; Skomorovsky, 2014), the military lifestyle alone can pose significant threats to a military spouse’s well-being. The United States Government efforts itself to strongly support military families as Obama (2011) noted; the United States military also efforts itself to understand and aid the well-being of military spouses. Military deployments spurred much academic research in the wake of 9/11, and deployment is a significant concern for the military and the many troops and their families that remain stateside. Often overlooked in academic research is the military lifestyle as a whole. Undeniably deployment poses difficulty upon many military families; however, other factors of the military lifestyle are elements that hinder the successful functioning within this lifestyle. These factors need attention and a perfect place to start is with the military spouse who remains entangled within the military lifestyle by default of his/her marriage. The situations involved with the military lifestyle such as the state of constant change, the lack of control over frequent changes in lifestyle such as choices in relocations, living arrangements, and family career and or educational opportunities, and the lack of permanence in one particular area, all contribute to this challenging lifestyle. With the current state of sequestration that the United States military faces, including a reduction in military personnel (“Defense Budget Priorities”, 2013) and with the United States currently seeking “to refine, and ultimately repeal, the AUMF’s (Authorization to Use Military
  • 19.  9   Force) mandate” (Obama, 2013, para. 65), shifts in military personnel and military duties abound. The political atmosphere remains uncertain around the globe and the United States military remains entrenched in our nation’s defense at all times. The large numbers of military personnel serving the nation face continual challenges of additional duties and relocations. Several years ago an operation emerged from the White House to address the needs of military families as a result of the problematic issues military families encounter. Supported by First Lady Michelle Obama and Dr. Jill Biden, Joining Forces was established to offer “opportunities for all Americans to step up and show their gratitude to our service members and their families” (“About Joining Forces,” 2014, para 2). This organization’s establishment alone raises concern for the state of military families. Military families are finally being more widely recognized on a national scale and awareness of their needs is being addressed. Cozza (2014) contended that due to recent media attention the needs of “military children and families have come to the broader attention of the public and scientists around the country” (p. 1). Evidently, military families lacked support and attention in the past and with efforts to change, much study is emerging on the military family. Military families face the residual impacts of the continual changes that the military implements. Though not evidently problematic to the goals of military leaders, the residual impacts can significantly affect the military as a whole. The military will adjust its needs accordingly for national defense purposes based upon political world affairs. These adjustments create concern for the morale and stability of military personnel and their families because they inherently assume the consequences of the changes. In particular, military spouses, the tied-migrants who trails their spouses’ military careers, are foundational to the military family (Hisnanick, 2014). Eubanks (2013) asserted, “Military
  • 20.  10   spouses are as much a part of the military as the service member who serves his or her country; the spouse can be considered the rock that holds a military family together” (p. 98). Arguably, military spouses play significant roles in the military; however, since their roles are “behind the scenes,” ambiguous, and less significant to the direct defense of national defense, this topic is less discussed. A military lifestyle may provide much satisfaction and comfort for some military spouses, and this ultimately depends on their adaptability levels, strength of identity, their personal backgrounds, and previous exposure to the military lifestyle. It is essential to point out that much good and positivity evolve from this lifestyle and not all military spouses will encounter these problems. Although some scholars note the ambiguity in identity for military spouses (Eubanks, 2011), and evidence suggests that this can be a potential problem for some military spouses, it is necessary to not overlook the situation. This research is geared towards the military spouse who uses some type of social media to any extent. One of the goals of this study is to determine personal identity levels for military spouses and unveil how social media impede or facilitate their identity. Additionally, a spouse’s ability to adapt to typical situations that coincide with this lifestyle may be aided or damaged due to the pervasiveness of social media in his/her life. Among the multitude of factors that hinder coping with the stressful military lifestyle is the issue of identity management, a hidden problem for the military spouse. Since the military lifestyle keeps trailing military spouses in a state of constant fluctuation, they experience change upon every move, which can shape their identity. Much of their identity is attached to their spouses’ military rank and career as they receive allocations and expectations based on their spouses’ military rank, such as housing allowance, admission to exclusive clubs and
  • 21.  11   organizations, admission to special facilities, and volunteering and participation expectations. Eubanks (2013) explained that military spouses assume the role of ensuring psychological and emotional satisfaction of their active-duty counterpart at the expense of their own personal identities (p. 99). Depending on their active duty spouses’ career field, this continual change may continue for a large portion of their lives and blurred lines of personal and relational identities may persist. Due to this problem, it is no surprise that military spouses may turn to social media, as it may become the only static environment, albeit a virtual environment one, with which they interact over long periods of time. Undoubtedly, military spouses have unique circumstances, much like the circumstances of others who frequently relocate for employment purposes, such as business executives, researchers, international aid workers and missionaries. The act of living a migratory lifestyle in support of their spouses’ active-duty military career may lead to some obscurity in identity while assuming obligatory burdens with no financial compensation. Knowing that their spouses’ military career is paramount to our nation’s defense system may offer satisfaction; nonetheless, it does not alleviate their problems. With much fluctuation in their lives, they encounter problematic situations that result in sacrificing some components of their own personal self because they remain in a constant state of change. Simple availability of resources, such as education, employment, residence, relationship intimacy levels within their communities, and acquisition of social capital may become ambiguous to military spouses and thus affect their personal identity. These resources, which help form a person’s identity, are not always accessible for military spouses. Military spouses may need to search elsewhere to help dictate their identity or may not care to do so if content with their role as a military spouse. Frequent relocations associated with this lifestyle require spouses to adapt and adjust to
  • 22.  12   new environments frequently, knowing that within a few months to a few years they will start the process adapting process all over again (Morris & Age, 2009; Braseby, 2010). Cozza (2014) explained, “The culture of the modern military gives families the capacity to help children [and civilian military spouses] see their experiences as a badge of honor rather than a burden” (p. 2). Though this idea of pride is strongly promoted today, though historically it has always existed. Baker (2005) noted that civilian military spouses in the 19th century “ascribed their loyalty to the army as an element to their past, they described it as an overwhelmingly important element to their present (p. 25). Military culture is rooted within many military spouses from the beginning of their assumed role; however, this rooting does not necessarily help with the challenges they encounter. Over time, as women’s roles have changed in their homes and workforce, the roles of military spouses have also needed to change. However, this change has been less progressive within military culture than it has been in the civilian sector, which is why this sub-group needs attention. The demand to study military families coupled with the increasing use of social media among the general public, which includes military spouses, may unveil dilemmas, despite the worthwhile benefits. Military spouses may face difficulties with their fluctuating identities as they grow, change, and adapt to new environments on a regular basis. This dilemma can easily go unnoticed due to the rapid diffusion of social media and its ubiquity within society. As military spouses encounter frequent relocations and must adapt to new surroundings on a regular basis, social media are serving a function regardless if is acknowledged or not. It is necessary to determine exactly what this function of social media is in their lives.
  • 23.  13   Social Media and the Military Spouse Negroponte (1995) described digital media as “a force of nature” and because it continues to grow and its growth cannot be stopped, “it is almost generic in nature” (p. 229 – 230). Social media has taken on this “generic in nature” form but before researchers have a chance to study one aspect of it, a newer more popular form of social media has already erupted. Approximately 73 percent of online adults use some type of social media and nearly 45 percent use multiple types of social media (Duggan & Smith, 2013). There is no doubt that social media are ubiquitous within American society. Among social media’s millions of users, military spouses, in particular, remain an overlooked group. Military spouses must rely on social media statistics based on populations at large, since much social media research has targeted either populations at large or other social groups, which may or may not include military spouses. As social media usage remains prevalent, its outcomes may lead towards a better understanding of its presence within the lives of military spouses. Its ubiquity, coupled with the current state of the United States military, opens an area for study as this intersection raises inquiry. How does the use of social media affect military spouses? It is imperative that continual study of military spouses remain substantial to the social and military sciences because “a healthy family unit remains integral to service members readiness, retention and performance” (Green, Nurius & Lester, p. 766, 2013). With social media’s pervasiveness, it is necessary to understand its effects on military families, and especially the military spouses who indirectly affect their active duty spouses’ career decisions, ability to perform job duties, and overall well- being (Kohen, 1984; Segel, 1986; Gill & Haurin, 1998; Burrell, 2003 & 2006). In a digital age, the challenges military personnel and their families face may be aided through the use of social media, eliminating informational barriers and the difficulty of
  • 24.  14   communicating from a distance. However, social media’s widespread and relatively convenient use may be hindering military spouses’ ability to successfully live this challenging lifestyle. Schoenebeck (2014) reported of Twitter users choosing to take social media breaks due to “concerns about spending too much time online, tradeoffs of not spending time elsewhere, and concerns about the disconnect between time online and ‘real life’” (p.7). These concerns erupt from subjective feelings towards social media use; nonetheless, they indicate some sort of apprehensiveness towards social media. Kross, Verduyn, Demiralp, Park, Lee and Lin (2013) confirmed that the continued use of Facebook predicted “declines in affective well-being and cognitive well-being” and suggest that the use of Facebook “may constitute a unique form of social network interaction that predicts impoverished well-being” (p. 4). If well-being is altered due to social media use, it is imperative that its effect be studied on military spouses since this group of individuals already possesses distinct lifestyle challenges that may affect well-being. As dependents of the military members, the problems that affect them respectively fall back on the United States Government, through health care costs and, more importantly, on their active duty military spouse whose well-being may be indirectly affected. On a microscopic level, social media have managed to not only alter communication styles but also alter feelings, perceptions, identities, and ability to function within physical communities. Social media cannot be avoided in communication studies as it is integrated into our daily lives. Social media are ubiquitous and are not restricted to mainstream platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, Instagram, etc. Nearly all internet-based websites for large organizations have some form of social media component, whether it be an area to post
  • 25.  15   comments on a news story on Cable News Network (CNN), or a place to reply to a personal blog. Military organizations are becoming more social-mediated and organizations from top levels down to basic organizations use social media to unite members and disseminate information. Public Affairs departments for military organizations now have social media divisions. Due to the proliferation of the military’s embrace and regular use of social media, along with the understanding that most of the members in the Air Force are actively using social media for personal reasons, the Air Force has an established a Social Media handbook, which is now in its fourth edition, to offer tips and practices of acceptable social media use for its members (Scully 2014). Military leaders use social media to disseminate information and connect with their members. Fajardo (2014) asserted, “Social media can improve and enhance a [military] leader’s influence and provide additional tools to leverage in a geographically dispersed, rapidly changing, and resource-constrained environment” (p. 13). Therefore, social media are not just for younger generations or simply used as an outlet for enjoyment. Social media are useful as the military is using it to their advantage and has even established guidelines for its use; however, the effects on hundreds of military spouses that are using it remains unknown. With the proliferation of social media in this digital age, military spouses have adjusted well to using new media to their advantage. Of the multitude of new media technologies, such as electronic mail, text-messaging services, Voice over Internet Protocol (platforms such as Skype, and face time), and online social networking, social media have received much attention academically over the past years due to its growth. Perhaps social media are adapting to human communication concurrently with human adaptation to social media use. In the social media
  • 26.  16   environment, communication can be both synchronous and asynchronous; however, it is increasingly becoming more synchronous as humans rely on it to communicate freely, openly, and sometimes instantaneously. Military spouses enjoy this form of communication due to its convenient features, making social media difficult to undermine, especially if it can serve as a tool to improve a tumultuous lifestyle. Since social media qualities remain participatory in nature, typically carry low or no financial obligations, and is ubiquitous in society, it needs consistent study to determine how and why it is being used, as well as what effects it causes. While it may be free of financial obligations, its effects may be viewed as a cost to users. This study seeks to understand the costs of social media to military spouses’ sense of identity and ability to acculturate upon relocation. Various studies have addressed the motives for using social media. Stutzman, Gross, and Acquisti (2012) indicated that people use Facebook “as a vehicle for identity formation and expression” and therefore this was a primary reason people sought out social networking. A different perspective comes Zhao and Lindley’s (2014) claim that people use social networking sites as a form of digital archive for their personal lives. Since social media allow one to present information of choice, Sleeper, Balebako, Das, McConahay, Wiese & Cranor (2013) claimed that users adhere to a selective sharing principal, which limits full disclosure of personal identity. Many people still flock to social networking sites for the simple “fear of missing out” as Przybylski, Murayama, De Haan, & Gladwell (2013) noted, despite the common concern of social networking sites tracking human behavior (Zhang, De Chourdhry & Grudin, 2014). Military spouses’ motives for social media use may operate under these various intentions, but the most important reason military families use social media is to feel connected to other military families and family members. especially during deployment (Greentree, Johnson, & Lore, 2012,
  • 27.  17   p. 36). Military spouses may seek out social media for connectivity from a distance. While not salient, repercussions may erupt when using social networking sites. With every intention of using social media as a tool to connect with others, which indeed is a positive aspect of social media, unexpected consequences may arise. Furthermore, using social media may affect and influence this sub-culture differently from the average social media consumer, as military spouses function differently than most of mainstream American society and these differences set this sub-group apart from the general population of social media users. Purpose of Study The overall purpose of this research is to identify and explore the communicative nature of identity and acculturation through the use of social media for military spouses. Rooting this study in communication theory, there are three communication theories which aid the understanding of identity and acculturation: the communication theory of identity (CTI), cross- cultural adaptation (CCA), and identity management theory (IMT). These three communication theories have lacked applicability in the social media arena with the exception of CCA, which has had little application to social media. This empirical research should contribute to these communication theories, serving as a collision among of concepts of acculturation, identity and social media. This study serves two aims to aid the purpose. First this study seeks to understand social media’s influence on military spouses’ perceived layers of identity as developed in CTI and further explained later in this chapter (Hecht Warren, Jung, and Krieger, 2005). Secondly, this study seeks to understand social media’s influences on military spouses’ perceived level of acculturation (i.e. their ability to adapt to new environments). Through the outcomes of this
  • 28.  18   study and given the specific sample of military spouses, this study will gather enough data to understand how social media’s effects on this often overlooked population may also be applied to other groups, further aiding to theory advancement. Since social media act as a “force of nature” (Negroponte, 1995), the general public should have clear evidence about social media’s effects on various groups. Military spouses are an overlooked population among study in the social media arena albeit their unique circumstances. They often forced to rely on information about social media’s effects from studies conducted on the general public, specific age groups, and even college students. Due to the rapid growth of the social media phenomena, this study seeks to investigate social media from a distinct angle—one that has yet to be fully addressed. This study targets a less examined sample of the United States population: the military spouse. The majority of social media research targets either the general public (Ellison, Vitak, Gray, & Lampe, 2014; Krasnova, Wenninger, Widjaja, & Buxmann, 2013), college students (Buechel & Berger, 2011; Chou and Edge, 2012; Davenport, Bergman, Bergman & Ferrington, 2014), young adults (Davis, 2013; Kross, Verduyn, Demiralp, Park, Lee, & Lin, 2013; Michikyan, Subrahmanyam & Dennis, 2014) adolescents (Moreno, Jelinchick, Egan, Cox, Young, Gannon, et al, 2011), gender bases (Gonzales & Hancock, 2011; Rose, Mackey-Kallis, Shyles, Barry, Biangini, Hart, et al, 2012), or specifically intercultural (Rui & Stefanone, 2012; Sandel, 2014; Sawyer & Chen, 2012) . There is significantly less research about social media specifically pertaining to military spouses (Jennings-Kelsall, Aloia, Solomon, Marshall & Leifker, 2012; Venkatraman, 2013), therefore, military spouses often must obtain information about the effects of social networking that may not be pertinent to their circumstances. With the use of this specific sample, this study should uncover details about this particular sub-culture’s
  • 29.  19   use of social media and how it impacts their lives specifically. In turn, this research will aid the United States military in finding ways to better serve the family members of active-duty members. Furthermore, this study is foundationally based on three communication theories: Hecht Jung, Warren and Krieger’s Communication theory of identity (CTI), Cupach and Imahori’s identity management theory (IMT), and Kim’s theory of cross-cultural adaptation (CCA); therefore, a final and subset goal for this study is to solidify the interconnectedness among communication principles, identity, and acculturation to determine how computer mediate- communication relates to concepts of identity and adaptation. Using these theories as foundational aspects for the literature review and research development, this study should provide contributions to communication theory. Significance of Study Stressful circumstances of military life may affect a military spouses’ identity and therefore affect their ability to acculturate. Acculturation, regardless to what extent, is a necessary ability for most military spouses, who will likely relocate every several years. With the shift in the military’s attitude of banning social media to embracing it, the ubiquity of social media among the military and their families is pervasive (Matthews-Juarez, Juarez and Faulkner, 2013, p. 770). Though military members are required to uphold the Uniform Military Code of Justice (UMCJ) when using social media, dependent spouses of military personnel do not fall under this code, and have free reign to broadcast concerns about their military lives via social media problematic issues that may arise (p. 770). Additionally, social media provide a communication outlet unlike any other and may aid the military spouses’ well-being, possibly helping shape and solidify their identities and helping
  • 30.  20   them cope with acculturation—which will affect military retention. Furthermore, social media may hinder identity formation and dislodge people from reality as Wohn and Bowe (2014) asserted, “The individual’s sense of reality will thus depend on the information that he or she is exposed to, and his or her attitude towards that information” (p. 262). Since this study seeks to better understand how social media are impacting the lives of military spouses, the findings should suggest educational directions for social media’s use among this subculture. This research should engage the United States military to develop targeted programs, services, informational sessions, and instruction for military spouses to effectively use social media to benefit their well-being and protect the uniformed services, while lessening the burdens and ramifications of its use. In addition, this study seeks to aid the United States military through studying the military spouse. Using a sample of military spouses, this research will identify the social media needs of this population and should aid in determining how social media may influence their layered identities (Jung and Hecht, 2004, p. 266) and how it may influence their ability to cope with their nomadic lifestyle. Since military spouses are subject to frequent relocations and remote living from family members, social media can be a positive influence in their lives. With the continued and growing use of social media, I want to determine how it can help or hinder a military spouse’s ability to adapt to new environments. Despite the many challenges this sub-group encounters, they are among the millions of social media consumers who use it for various reasons and to varying degrees. Because their lifestyle remains unique, it is necessary to conduct research solely on this sub-group so that the outcomes will yield results that are specific to the needs of this group. Informative research findings about social media are often presented to military spouses based on sample populations unlike their own. In order to provide quality information to aid in adaptability to the military
  • 31.  21   lifestyle, military spouses should be studied in a sample of their own. This study hones in on social media, identity, and adaptation, specifically of American military spouses; hence, several research questions and hypotheses are to be addressed. Advancing Communication Theory The field of communication lends itself well to this area of research due to the behavioral and psychological outcomes that arise from the sharing and interpreting of messages of this unique population entrenched with social media use. Hall (2012) contended that though military culture faces obvious challenges, it is necessary to look beyond those apparent challenges and “be aware of what is not being said” about military culture to get a more comprehensive understanding of “the restricted nature of the military with its many boundaries, rules, regulations and habits” (p. 5). As layers beneath the obvious characteristics of the military lifestyle are uncovered, other problematic issues may emerge. Social media’s ubiquity cannot be ignored among the study of military spouses, as it serves as a method of communication and therefore articulates and shapes their identities and abilities. What is sometimes not being said in public might be voiced through social media. Through the lens of military spouses’ perceptions of their social media use, we may be able to uncover what is not being discussed about the military lifestyle and find ways to target these issues. Social media indeed affects its users in different ways and with the help of established communication theories, we may be able to better understand how much of an impact social media have on military spouses and therefore how it indirectly affects the military. This study further seeks to contribute three communication theories. The first communication theory this study seeks to advance is Hecht, Warren, Jung and Krieger’s Communication theory of identity (CTI) as this study is original in applying the use of social
  • 32.  22   media to CTI. CTI has yet to be applied among social media contexts; yet, it has a seemingly distinct connection since CTI discusses individuals’ layered identities and social media offers the ability to manifest multi-faceted identities (Farnham & Churchill, 2011). Additionally, this study seeks to advance Imahori and Cupach’s (2005) Identity management theory (IMT), which like CTI, explains an individual’s multi-tonal identities; however, it also explains methods of competence in which people of two different cultures can interact acceptably. IMT claims that a person’s identity actually consists of multiple “overlapping aspects or sub-identities” that is managed through personal relationships (p. 197). These personal relationships and cultural identifications affect how humans manage their personal identities, and they also influence our communication competence. IMT helps “our understanding of identity management in intercultural interactions” (p. 207). Since military spouses operate in a diverse network of the military culture, they are always interacting with people from various cultures and American sub-cultures. They may also have to interact with the various subcultures around them that are not military related, which can be challenging since the military relation, the common link connecting them to a culture, is missing. Lastly, this study adds to Kim’s cross-cultural adaptation (CCA), observing cultural adaptation at a microscopic level in the form of American sub-cultures and sub-groups adapting to other American sub-cultures and sub groups. Since CCA is typically studied among broad intercultural or interethnic groups such as non-native Americans integrating with native Americans (Kim, McKay & Semmler, 2013), this study aims to apply this theory to sub-cultures using the United States military as a sub-culture within America. Social media allow us to manage our identities through online interaction with others. Through various online encounters people choose with whom to communicate and when to
  • 33.  23   communicate. People also choose what to post, when to post and how to post particular messages via social media. Through this process we can better understand how individuals perceive themselves, and are better able to learn about their competence in dealing with different cultures, which affects their adaptation abilities. The Need to Aid Military Spouses Americans, regardless of their attitudes toward the United States military, undergo daily protection for continual freedom as the United States military defends our nation. This daily defense relies on the fact that our nation has a volunteer-based military personnel. The United States military is traced back to our nation’s independence and over the years has grown stronger with the aid of the servicemen and their contributions. Paramount to our nation’s defense, the United States military operates under strict rules and regulations based on a rank-structured system that has effectively operated over hundreds of years. This successful system by which it has functionally operated for years may lead to ambiguity for active-duty member’s spouses as they remain in states of static uncertainty. Though their active-duty spouse will have degrees of stability with job security, the very nature of that job security includes being at the will of the military to place them into necessary jobs to meet the mission of the military. These jobs may be located anywhere in the world and military members are informed and aware of this situation prior to volunteering for service. Spouses of the active duty members are encumbered to life at the will of the mission of the military. The lines of personal identity and relational identity are undoubtedly blurred as they are not receiving a pay check, do not fulfill a necessary military job, and are not factored into the mission of the military. Many studies have been conducted on military personnel of this large operation, and the
  • 34.  24   research has extended into studying military families as well. Much of the research on military families deals with marital relations and how the stress of military lifestyle affects a married dyad (Call & Teachman, 1996; Gimbel & Booth, 1994; Hogan & Seifert, 2010; Allen, Rhoades, Stanley, and Markman, 2010 & 2011). Inquiry regarding married couples face additional challenges when the variables of the military lifestyle is involved remain in question. Military spouses have been studied intermittently through the past several decades; however, has been significantly less studies on military families as a whole or the lives of military children. Facing added challenges of their spouses’ drive to fulfill military duties, promote and improve the quality of work within the military, compete for selective programs to secure promotions and maintain the ability to remain in the military, along with lower pay scales than their civilian counterparts with equal education and experience levels, the military officers’ spouse may carry the burden of this lifestyle. McGowan (2008) noted, “Senior Officer’s wives shoulder added specific expectations and responsibilities associated with the rank of their military spouses” (p. 3). The military is rank-driven and expectations result from the rank system. These expectations can cause a strain on the military spouse who did not volunteer for military service. The Need for Social Media Study among Military Spouses Though times have changed, military spouses still undergo the additional duties that not too long ago were required in order to aid their spouses’ promotion abilities, such as volunteering. The military spouse has been neglected in academic study as more emphasis is placed on the family as a whole or among children of military families. Due to this paucity of research, military spouses tend to be grouped in with the general public, with a lack of concern for their specific needs.
  • 35.  25   This particularly occurs with social media research. Social media research findings are presented to the military spouse as generalizations. Few studies focus on the use of social media among military spouses. With social media on the rise, and quickly evolving, much study arises from its use. Many social media studies are conducted among population samples of young adults and teenagers; however, there is not enough study on the use of social media and adults, so this study will help to increase our knowledge in that area. The United States military greatly needs this research to better serve their members and their families. Social media penetrate the lives of military members and their families so rapidly that its effects go almost unnoticed. In order to continuously acquire a solid volunteer force of people willing to serve in the military, to keep attrition rates low, and aid retention in the military, the military must address the needs of the trailing military spouse and by learning how social media affect their identities and their ability to acculturate, the military can acquire the knowledge they need to better serve their members. In an age where digital media is prevalent and where safety concerns overwhelm the concerns of social media use, this study will help the military develop targeted programs and workshops to provide information on constructive use of social media while exposing the unrequited feelings of military spouses. This study is needed so that military support services, health care, professionals, and non- military communities can better understand what the spouses of service members experience. With a thorough understanding of this lifestyle, they can better address the needs of the military spouse, which will in turn address the needs of military personnel. The military would be wise to address their needs so that the military will have a more cohesive force in which families support their active duty spouse. Coupled with this support includes lower attrition rates and higher
  • 36.  26   recruiting rates, ensuring a stronger military. Through communication processes, military spouses can attempt to ease this burden of identity which will in turn help remove the stress involved with the lifestyle challenges that inundate the lives of so many. Additionally, this study is needed so that the military can realize this issue and address it as they address other areas of family readiness. The goal of this research is to help find methods by which military spouses can express their personal identities and share their methods with others, helping them cope with the military lifestyle. In order to implement programs at family support centers within the military, facilitators can engage military wives in developing personal identities early in their husbands’ careers to better prepare them for their future. Family support facilitators can also help increase communication among military spouses to ensure that the social outlets offered improve and help their lifestyle and do not become counter-productive. This research will also be helpful for health care professionals to better understand this particular issue that military spouses face and in being more aware and sensitive to their needs.
  • 37.  27   Chapter Two: Literature Review New marriages may pose hardships and trials for couples, which is an area of relationships that is continually studied. Due to growing divorce rates and military-related separation among military marriages, much attention has been given to the study of military marriages (Hogan & Seifert, 2010; Karney & Crown, 2011; Kotrla & Dyer, 2008; Maguire, Heinemann-LaFave, & Sahlstein, 2013) . Additionally, the well-being of military families in general has steered academic research to study the military family as a whole with much emphasis on children (Aronson & Perkins, 2012; Aronson, Caldwell, Perkins, & Pasch, 2011; Clark, Jordan, & Clark, 2013; Clever & Segal, 2013; Cozza, 2014; Crum‐Cianflone, Fairbank, Marmar, & Schlenger, 2014). Recent research has focused on the military spouse as a unit of the military family (Blakely, 2013; Blakely, Hennessy, Chung, & Skirton, 2014; Green, Nurius and Lester 2013; Hisnanick, 2014; Padden, Connors, Posey, Ricciardi, & Agazio, 2013; Skomorovsky, 2014; Trewick & Muller, 2014) . This is a worthwhile area of study considering a military spouse’s well-being will influence the well-being of the entire family including the active-duty military member, which could be detrimental to the military. The fact that there is more research is erupting on the military spouse suggests the importance to further study this group; however, research among this subculture includes a number of issues that challenge the lifestyle for a military spouse, such as cross-cultural adaptation, employment concerns, identity issues, the use of social media, deployment, and overall well-being. There remains a paucity of research on the intersection of these areas of study. Research in these areas should be pieced together to obtain a better understanding of what occurs within the lives of military spouses; otherwise the research will remain fragmented.
  • 38.  28   Furthermore, within the last half-decade social media research has exploded with continual research being done regarding its effects, uses, and gratifications. More specifically, Zhang and Leung (2014) discuss four general themes of social media research that has erupted since 2006: (1) impression management and friendship performance, (2) network and networking structure, (3) bridging online and offline networks, and (4) privacy; however these general themes are not exhaustive (p. 6-8). The difficulty with social media research is that it evolves and changes so rapidly that the current research cannot keep pace with its actively progressing nature. Despite this concern, continual research is needed so that we can understand how this type of media affects people. In just the last several years an abundance of social media research has been published, but little focuses specifically on identity and acculturation. Research regarding specifically a military spouse’s sense of identity and ability to acculturate due to his or her use of social media is even more scarce. Figure 2:1 demonstrates intersecting research areas of social media, identity and acculturation and military spouses. As shown, current research regarding social media use and military spouses exists; there is also additional research about social media use and identity and acculturation. Furthermore, research exits on military spouses and identity issues or acculturation issues. However, research integrating these three realms of inquiry has yet to be conducted. Just recently scholars have begun to research social media within the military as the military has redirected their perspectives of social media use and now embrace its use (Matthews-Juarez, Juarez, & Faulkner, 2013). Research on military spouses’ use of social media is scarce, albeit a recent dissertation has placed a focus of study on the roles of social media for
  • 39.  29   military spouses (Rea, 2014). Despite the overabundance of research on social media use, very little has applied Figure 2:1 specifically to the military spouse. This research is particularly needed with military spouses who partake in “the toughest job in the military” as the adage describes. Applying social media use to their lives in regards to identity and acculturation remains indispensable because these are two necessary characteristics that must remain flexible for military spouses’ ability to function within this lifestyle. To the best of my knowledge, and after a careful review of all related literature, a study in this specific area has yet to be accomplished. This literature review will cover multiple research areas encompassing the military spouse as the focal point. The first section will cover the challenges for military spouses, including identity concerns, acculturative issues, and spousal well-being. The second section will cover areas of social media use that include identity formation and maintenance, acculturation and social media use. Lastly, well-being and social media use will encompass the final portion of this literature review, and will cover foundational communication theories as a basis for this study. Social  Media  Use   Identity  &   Acculturation   Military   Spouses  
  • 40.  30   Hurdles, Hardships and Hindrances Approximately 93% of all United States military spouses are women (“2012 Demographics,” p. 123), which is why this research will focus on female military spouses, or what this study will refer to as military spouses as a general term, with the understanding that a military spouse very possibly could be male. Upon marriage, the military wife assumes multiple roles, either welcomed or unwelcomed, not unlike any marriage in the United States. Marriage within the military occurs at younger ages than those of the general United States population, which leads to relationship problems and even high divorce rates (Hogan & Siefert, 2009). Although it is not the case for all military families, the military lifestyle poses gratifying career options and job security early within military careers, which may encourage people to make quicker relationship choices than others without such job security. Clever and Segal (2013) pointed out that military relocations impose military members and their significant others “with an immediate context for making relationship decisions” such as marriage in order to remain together and receive financial and healthcare related benefits (p. 20). As the military executes necessary missions involving relocation of soldiers, an underlying outcome is marriage at younger ages, and with this outcome the military needs to address the needs of soldiers with families. Families of soldiers are given significant attention in the military, although the family programs currently established may need evaluating (Weber, 2012). Clever and Segal (2013) reported, “The geographic mobility that the military expects of active-duty families can be a source of both stress and excitement” -- while facing multiple moves, some long-distance moves such as across country, out of state moves and even moves to foreign countries. On the average, most military families encounter a military-related move “once every two to three years” (p. 26). As in all families, either one parent or both becomes the
  • 41.  31   foundation for helping to keep the family secure and healthy while ensuring proper care. Military spouses become vital to the military family’s cohesion, assuming the traditional parent and spouse duty of ensuring their family’s well-being. They typically assume the role as the primary caregiver in a family due to the constant uncertainty of their active-duty spouse’s career, including possible separation that may occur at any time, as well as unpredictable work hours. Military spouses assume the additional challenge of relocating frequently in addition to normal caregiver responsibilities. A wealth of research has been conducted over the years regarding military families in both the deployment and non-deployment arenas. Segal’s (1986) seminal research described that the United States military and military families are in a state of conflict, as both make demands from the military service member. Segal called for more support services from the military to improve the quality of life for military families. While these programs must be evaluated from time to time to determine their level of impact, we also need continuous data from trailing military spouses to determine their individual needs, which in turn will benefit their military counterpart. As such, the military will experience lower attrition rates of active-duty members, fewer personal and mental health care problems, and a stronger personal well-being of their active duty members. Many studies have covered the grounds of military youth and adolescents and their psychological adjustments (Ashby, 2003; Drummet, Coleman & Cable, 2003; Weber & Weber, 2005; Morris & Age, 2009; Chandra, Lara-Cinisomo, Jaycox, Tanielian, Burns, Ruder et. al, 2010). Military youth is an area of obvious concern, since stress can affect them negatively as they age. When military children undergo stress, their parents or guardians are also affected. This is an area of concern since the military spouse is typically the primary caregiver for these
  • 42.  32   children while the active-duty member is fulfilling military obligations. Several scholars focus on military youth and their school transitions (Aronson, Caldwell & Perkins 2011; Aronson & Perkins 2012). This specific research is important because as children adapt to educational changes, their level of learning is also affected. While these children are affected by military transitions, their parents, who are military spouses, also absorb the stress. Though the military has made strides to strengthen military families and aid military spouses in adapting to their environment, finding work, continuing their education, and offering leisure options for them to cope with their lifestyle, there remains the questions of what is happening psychologically, socially, and emotionally to these spouses as they undergo these difficulties. Everson and Payne (2012) pointed out that that there are various ways that a military spouse copes with this type of stress; however, if they seek therapy, a professional should be fully aware of their “cultural uniqueness” (p. 212), which has not always been addressed in the past. One aspect of their lives that needs attention is that as they feel more comfortable upon relocating with the number of relocations they experience, their identities change as they acclimate to their surroundings and accept what activities, jobs, living conditions, etc. are available to them. Identity Issues Cooney, De Angelis and Segal (2011) applied the concepts of both a “tied migrant” and a “tied-stayer” to military spouses in that the family as a unit makes the decision to move in order to keep the family together and in turn they become tied-stayers, obliged to the military assignment location. Military spouses markedly hold the four frames of identity that Jung and Hecht (Jung & Hecht, 2004) describe (personal, enacted, relational and communal); however, due to the lack of permanence, they encounter multi-faceted identities as they assume multiple
  • 43.  33   roles and encounter frequent change, creating a sense of ambiguity in their lives. Their multi- faceted identities may be rigid or flexible which may hinder or help their ability to adapt to new environments. Baker (2005) observed through historical memoirs of Army wives that although many women wrote of hardship, they also identified themselves “at the center of the values and traditions of the army” (p. 22). Evidently, these women assumed a persona that welcomed and supported military life and “forcefully identified with army culture” (p. 25). Yet, as unpaid “members” of the military, their status remained ambiguous. Memoirs aid with the understanding of what military wives’ perceptions may have been like in the past; yet, these memoirs may be tainted with nostalgia and glory while reminiscing. Baker’s research, however, does set a baseline for understanding that throughout history, military wives may have faced both adversity and harmony, and despite troubles, much positivity resulted from their roles as a military spouse. It is helpful to understand while a number of military spouses are content with their role of military spouse as an important aspect of their identity, not all military spouses will initially or ever want to identify with the military lifestyle. Although these opinions can be respected, the military should find ways to help military wives find a satisfactory level of both personal identity and their tied relational identity. Jans (1989) indicated that ultimately it is up to the wife (as this study only researched female military spouses) to either accept or reject “the idiosyncrasies of military life” (p. 347). In some cases, prior to marriage, a future wife may decide to not “tolerate these anticipated conditions” of the military lifestyle and may choose to not marry and become a “military wife.” As such, the population of military spouses, are, to a certain extent a self- selective group of individuals who knowingly chose to enter this lifestyle and accept the challenges that accompany the lifestyle. With this in mind, we may accept the idea that many
  • 44.  34   military spouses are satisfied with their lives and this lifestyle. Jans’ research notes that the strongest psychological factor that influences a military wife’s identification with her husband’s career is her quality of life. The more she perceives her quality of life to be good, the stronger she will identity with the role of military wife (p. 347). This research suggests that there are distinctions with satisfaction of the lifestyle based on quality of life. While different people may be more or less willing to tolerate particular situations, living arrangements, frequent moves, lack of job opportunities, etc., they may be more or less likely to be overall satisfied with their lifestyle and ambiguous role as a military spouse. Although military spouses may find accord with this lifestyle and enjoy the role of military spouse, problematic issues may arise when personal identity is substantially attached to their serving military spouse. Eubanks (2013) described military spouses as living capricious lives making personal sacrifices to support their service member (p. 98). This indeed occurs for some military spouses, and though some are comfortable, proud, and content with this identity, many military spouses may desire to develop a personal identity, isolated or partially isolated from their military counterpart’s duty and rank. This can be extremely challenging as the military lifestyle is prone to stressful demands, such as “prolonged separation and frequent moves,” very common in military culture, “living in foreign countries, long and unpredictable duty hours, pressure to conform to high standards of behavior” and living within a male-dominated culture (Clever & Segal, 2013, p. 27). Similar demands, such as these, are relevant in various civilian career fields as well; however, Clever and Segal point out that the military lifestyle presents all of these issues as fundamentally common, generally understood and occurring all at once. (p. 27). Undoubtedly, these issues occur simultaneously in this lifestyle and this is precisely why stress is typically understood to be an issue for military spouses. As military spouses deal with
  • 45.  35   multiple stressors, a less obvious one is the concern of personal identity loss. The United States has progressed since the inception of the military in regards to opportunities for women. As the military has experienced an influx of females into the armed forces, the military has also experienced more male trailing military spouses. Additionally, the military is dealing with more military spouses choosing to work. Military spouses have found that next to frequent relocation, their status as a military spouse offers a negative stigma and hinders their ability to find work (Castaneda & Harrell, 2008). Family support centers on military bases have instituted programs to help military spouses locate employment opportunities in the local area. The military has even instituted a spousal preference program within the government’s civilian sector for military wives who want to secure employment despite their forced relocation (“Military One Source,” 2013). Organizations supporting military families have been created to help military wives find flexible “work from home” options that may better fit with their military lifestyle. Though well-being may not be directly correlated, this research questions what types of changes that a military spouses undergoes, allowing for there to be no direct connection to underemployment and well-being when there are connections to this with civilian workers. In a 2005 Rand Corporation study, Harrell, Lim, Castaneda, & Golinelli, found that “military spouses out of the labor force are not all women who lack a “taste” for working” (p. 112). It is a combination of their unique situation in a regular relocation rotation and “level of involvement that the military requires from its personnel” which warrants significant obstacles to their ability to work and hinders some in the desire to seek employment (p. 112). Trailing military spouses juggle multiple roles. If they choose or desire to work outside the home, their careers are faced with additional challenges. Dana (2006) illustrates that military
  • 46.  36   spouses must “act to verify valued identities not only through behavioral adjustments but through cognitive adjustments, or definitional renegotiation, as well” (p. 269). While military spouses weigh employment options, they also are negotiating other roles and must come to a consensus based on their personal and family needs. Sometimes the desire to work and have a personal career changes based on the negotiation and management of these multiple roles. Mehta (2012) asserted, “A lifestyle of frequent relocation and constant accommodation requires a military wife to become a reflexive self or [she may] risk losing a significant part of herself completely” (p. 148). The case in point is not necessarily the challenges that military spouses encounter with employment options, it is more the case of the required sense of flexibility for the military spouse—especially flexibility of identity. Military spouses’ identity have traditionally been tied to their active-duty military spouses. McInnis (2014) reported that middle 19th century military officer’s wives “mirrored their husband’s social disposition” (p. 380). These women came from upper middle class families and were most likely formally educated (p. 381). Although they never “signed a diplomatic treaty or ordered a regiment into battle,” they did however, assume military-style roles and “generated an elite female identity” (p. 408). Through their roles as women, and through their empowered roles of elite military status, which in turn was due to their husband’s military rank, these military wives “generated spaces of empowerment” and “wielded very real power” (p. 408). Our social milieu has changed significantly from the mid-19th century, and along with those changes women’s roles have progressed. In a society where we see not only women, but also mothers, holding high levels of military positions, it may seem that society has placed this tied identity of a military spouse to her active duty husband aside. Women have been able to attain a significant level of independence untied to their spouse in our current society and
  • 47.  37   the military has had to adjust to these changes. Conversely, Harrell (2001) argued that while traditional military wives’ roles of the past may seem to be diminishing, they are still very much alive in today’s Army. Harrell insisted that “formal expectations for many officers’ wives have increased, and that wives’ performance and adherence to expected role behavior is again a feature of the officer evaluation process for many officers in command assignments” (p. 56). Though it may seem that a military spouse is simply handling family duties at home, the military spouse is actually impacting his or her spouses’ military career from a separate vantage point. This may not occur in every branch and at every rank in the military; however, Harrell’s research showed that it did occur in some instances. Harrell’s research compliments Segal’s (1989) study of the military and the military family as both greedy institutions conflicting with each other. As women’s roles have progressed throughout history and as the military has changed in regards to recruiting more female members, the military spouse’s role remains even more ambiguous. Though the military is making adjustments to meet the needs of military families and much academic study arises from this issue, problematic issues persist in this area and need much more attention (Clark, Jordan & Clark, 2013; Crum‐Cianflone, Fairbank, Marmar, & Schlenger, 2014; Segal, 1986; Weber, 2012). Additionally, Harrell (2001) has pointed out that a dilemma remains in regard to the attached identity a military spouse has with his or her active-duty spouse, in which a civilian spouse of an active-duty service member can actually affect his or her spouse’s career with regard to performance ratings, promotions, job assignments, etc. Evidently, a military spouse has a tied-identity to his or her active-duty military member. As mentioned earlier, frequent relocations are typical of the military lifestyle. Due to this issue, employment is a concern for military spouses. Maury and Stone (2014) reported that
  • 48.  38   approximately 90 percent of military officer spouses are underemployed. Cooney, De Angelis and Segal (2001) confirmed that upon each military move, a military spouse is subject to a two percent decrease in salary (p. 376). These employment concerns pose problems, especially when viewed in light of identity, since a person’s work is often tied to his or her identity. Cooney, De Angelis, and Segal (2011) found that minority spouses of military personnel were less likely to find work upon relocation of a spouse’s duty station. Also, spouses of enlisted personnel were more likely to find work upon relocation than officers’ spouses. With this in mind, the question redirects to find reasons for this disparity. Financial situations and child- rearing possibly could factors in this finding as the need to work due to financial constraints may add to the urgency and dedication to find work. Also, the costs of child-care versus employment earnings affect the lucrative benefits of employment. Cooke and Speirs (2005) found that frequent relocating due to military changes of duty station did affect the labor market status for military spouses regardless of gender. Military spouses either chose not to work upon relocation or settled for employment that constituted less pay and/or less working hours. These studies are helpful in realizing the magnitude of the problem; however they do not take into account the fact that some military spouses choose to not work for personal reasons, or choose to take jobs in which they are underemployed due to flexibility with the job which they value more intensely than job earnings or status. Most importantly, these studies explain a problem that occurs for military spouses, regardless of a spouse’s decision to work or not, or to accept a position that is equal to or below their appropriate level of employment or not. Underemployment, previously noted as being relatively high for military spouses, is an issue that can lead to social and psychological problems as McKee-Ryan and Harvey (2011) noted. Their study was conducted with a sample of civilian
  • 49.  39   personnel not related to the military, so it is difficult to translate the findings specifically to military spouses. Lim and Schulker (2010) claimed that unlike the research findings for civilian populations, which had direct links to an individual’s well-being, underemployed military spouses did not show a strong connection between these two variables. Though a clear connection was undetermined, the sample was only of female spouses among various ranks within the four major branches of the military-- Army, Military, Navy and Marines. Despite having a large sample of over 35,000 respondents, this sample remains too broad to gain specific data, as the range of military spouses is diverse. On another note, well-being could be interpreted differently among the participants within this sample, so although there was no direct connection found in this study, other factors that constitute overall well-being should be sought to determine a clear understanding of how underemployment affects a military spouse. Weber (2012) used recollections of different military wives’ memoir books and in-depth interviews of military wives to determine what the conditions are in which this group of women live. The author claimed that military wives are subjected to a patriarchal society and are grouped into a set of structured gendered identities. She determined that the military instigates this structure and that femininity is emphasized through memoir books. Though Weber made excellent claims, this research is widespread and does not take into account how the wives felt prior to marrying into the military. It is far too easy to generalize military spouses as feeling forced into this lifestyle. There are many military wives who were raised in a military family, otherwise known as “military brats,” and to them, this lifestyle is normal and comforting. Weber does not take into account the overall goal of the military, which is the defense of our nation. While femininity may be emphasized, it is not on the military’s agenda. The National Guard’s programs were developed to support military families. This article leads to the fact that
  • 50.  40   more research should be conducted to determine where the military wives identity lies. Much of it, as Weber noted, is through support to their active duty husband to which they feel their identity is attached, or tied to their active duty spouse. The question remains if military spouses actually feel that this is part of their identity or if it is simply as a subset of their identity. With consistent employment problems, tied-identity to their active-duty spouse, and ambiguity of role maintenance, military wives encounter hurdles where they must constantly decide if they will proceed, or remain in their current state. These cases all pose hindrances to their marriage and personal well-being as well the hardships they encumber. Any ambiguity in identity, stemming from ambiguous roles, employment, and frequent change create the possible chance for identity gaps to erupt. Jung and Hecht (2004) defined identity gaps “as and discrepancies between or among the four frames of identity” which are personal, relational, enacted and communal layers of identity (p. 268). These scholars indicate that “larger identity gaps lead to more negative outcomes [and] . . . Reduced identity gaps in communication may result in better outcomes” (p. 280). With identity as a component of stress, the other factor of frequent relocations is a constant battle. Although some literature concerning frequent relocations has been discussed in light of employment challenges, it will be further developed to examine the magnitude of acculturation as a problem for military spouses. Acculturation Issues An important factor to keep at the center of study is the frequent relocating of military personnel and their families. When military personnel are relocated, there is clear definition as to their purposes for relocation when they receive a job description for their new position. This is not the case for trailing military spouses who must assume the responsibility of adapting to the new environment, situating their family into a new community and finding employment if they
  • 51.  41   choose to do so. Correlations have been made between a person’s psychological state and having to relocate (van Aswegden, 2009). During relocation, individuals are forced to adapt and may face problematic issues, as when a person’s identity may suffer when adapting to their new surroundings. When identities are tampered with they become ambiguous and can in turn create additional problems. In many instances identity can be affected, such as during a time of job loss (Schöb, 2013) transition to motherhood (Heisler & Ellis, 2008), during divorce (DeGarmo & Kitson, 1996), and during acculturation when someone is forced to live in an environment that he or she is not used to (Oommen, 2012). Though these factors are applicable to the lives of many Americans from time to time, trailing military spouses encounter these situations not as an unexpected occurrence but as a way of life, with major life changes recurring every several years on average, with the understanding that a sudden life change can occur at a moment’s notice. Nonetheless many American’s experience frequent lifestyle change in jobs throughout the duration of the military career, trailing spouses encounter this regularly with the added stressor of knowing that at any given moment a major life change could occur with little time for physical or mental preparation. Weber and Weber (2005) found in a sample of military families that “relocation stress is not necessarily detrimental to child behavior or to parents' perceptions of the effects of relocations” on their children” (p. 641). Though this finding is helpful to know, it does not reveal the stress associated with the relocation in the first place. The study contends that the more moves a family experiences, the more capable they are of handling the effects of the move. Coincidentally, with more military-related moves, the family gains greater control of their position, and can more quickly adapt to the situation. This does not alleviate the stress that is associated with the relocation and the acculturation process that nonetheless take place.