1.
Shri Isari Velan Mission hospital
A comfort care center
Provide comprehensive care to serious illness
To live with comfort and dignity to life’s fullest
extent
A charitable Trust that provides patients the
greatest comfort and peace of mind
2.
“Palliative care is both a philosophy of care and an
organized, highly structured system for delivering
care. Palliative care expands traditional diseasemodel medical treatments to include the goals of
enhancing quality of life for patients and family,
optimizing function, helping with decision-making
and providing opportunities for personal growth.
As such, it can be delivered with life-prolonging
care or as the main focus of care”
~ National Consensus Project for Quality Palliative Care, 2004
3. Life-prolonging and
restorative treatments
Hospice
Palliative Care
Disease Progression
Diagnosis
Bereavement
Death
Ferris F, Balfour H, Bowen K, Farley J, Hardwick M, Lamontagne C, Lundy M, Syme A, West P. A model to guide
patient and family care. Based on nationally accepted principles and norms of practice. J Pain Symptom Manage.
2002;24(2):106-23.
4.
“There is nothing more that I can do.”
“I don’t want to be the one to tell him.”
“I can’t stop this treatment now, that would kill her.
I wish we hadn’t started this.”
“Continuing treatment in this case seems futile.”
8.
Palliative care is appropriate for all patients with
serious illness
The goal of palliative care is to enhance quality of
life through assiduous symptom management and
attention to psychological, social and spiritual
needs of the patient and family
Palliative care is patient and family centered care
Hospice is both a philosophy of care and a
Medicare benefit available to patients who are
nearing the end of life
11. The Vedic chant "Sarve Santu Niramaya" meaning
"may all be disease-free" has been the part of Hindu
prayers for ages. Apart from Hinduism, every major
religion has focussed on freedom from disease and
PAIN.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Define Pain
Review Pain Physiology
Review Evaluation of Pain and its effects
Review Classes of Pain medications
General Approach to Pain Management
Prescriptions
16. Definition
pain is an, unpleasant sensory and emotional
experience associated with actual or potential tissue
damage (IASP)
Pain is a personal and subjective experience that can
only be felt by the sufferer.
Pain is whatever the experiencing person says it is
and exists whenever they say it does.
17.
18.
19.
20. Process of pain physiology
nociceptor
TRANSDUCTION
TRANSMISSION
PERCEPTION
MODULATION
21.
Pain stimuli is converted to
electrical energy known as
Transduction. This stimulus
sends an impulse across a
peripheral nerve fiber
(nociceptor).
25.
A synapse contains three
elements:
the presynaptic terminal
the synaptic cleft
the receptive membrane
26. The
presynaptic terminal is the
axon terminal of the presynaptic
neuron
Here that the presynaptic neuron
releases neurotransmitters which
are found in vesicles
33. Perception:
Person is aware of pain –somatosensory
cortex identifies the location and
intensity of pain
Person unfolds a complex reactionphysiological and behavioral responses is
perceived.
36. Pain pathway and modulation
Ascending nociceptive pathways
Interpretation in
cerebral cortex:
pain
Stimulation of nociceptors
(Aδ and C fibers) /
Release of
neurotransmitters and
neuromodulators (i.e. PG)
1
Descending inhibitory controls /
Diffuse noxious inhibitory controls
Activation of serotoninergic
and noradrenergic pathways
Release of serotonin,
noradrenalin and enkephalins
at spinal level
Injury
1. Adapted from: Bonica JJ. Postoperative pain. In Bonica JJ, ed. The management of pain. Philadelphia: Lea
and Febiger;1990:461-80.
37. Do you think that how we conceptualize pain
--PATHWAY vs DYNAMIC DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS-- influences how we
treat pain and the success of those treatments?
PAIN PATHWAY
Pain Seminar, Lecture #5, PAIN TREATMENTS, p.2
s
ter
n
n e e…
Pai er
h
40.
The substances released from the traumatized
tissue are:
prostaglandins
bradykinin
serotonin
substance P
histamine
41.
Bradykinin- most potent pain producing
chemical
Prostaglandins- increase sensitivity to
pain experience . Is a potent vasodilator
and increase the production of
bradykinin resulting edema
42.
Substance P- transmits pain
impulses to brain centers and causes
vasodilatation and edema
Serotonin- causes pain by altering
sodium flow—neuron to fire
Histamine,Leukotrienes and nerve
growth factor are released
43. Endorphins& Dynorphins- morphine
like substances.
Located in the brain, spinal cord &
GIT
Produce analgesia when attached
with opiate receptors in the brain
44.
Gate control theory of pain is the
idea that physical pain is not a
direct result of activation of pain
receptor neurons, but rather, its
perception is modulated by
interaction between different
neurons
45.
Nerve fibers (A delta (fast channels)) and C
fibers (slow channels) transmit pain impulses
from the periphery
Impulses are intercepted in the dorsal horns of
the spinal cord, the substantia gelatinosa
In this region, cells can be inhibited or
facilitated to the T-cells (trigger cells)
46.
When cells in the substantia
gelatinosa are inhibited, the
‘gate’ to the brain is closed
When facilitated, the ‘gate’ to
the brain is open
47.
Similar gating mechanisms exist in
the nerve fibers descending from the
thalamus and the cortex. These areas
of the brain regulate thoughts and
emotions. Thus, with a pain
stimulus, one’s thoughts and
emotions can actually modify the
pain experience.
48.
Tissue damage activates free nerve
endings (nociceptors) of peripheral
nerves
Pain signal is transmitted to the spinal
cord, hypothalamus, and cerebral
cortex
Pain is transmitted to spinal cord by
A-delta fibers and C fibers
49.
A-delta fibers transmit fast, sharp,
well-localized pain signals
C fibers conduct the pain signal
slowly and produce poorly localized,
dull, or burning type of pain
Thalamus is the relay station for
incoming stimuli, incl. pain
50.
A delta fibers found in the skin and
muscle, myelinated, respond to
mechanical stimuli. Produce intermittent
pain.
C fibers distributed in the muscle as well
as the periosteum and the viscera. These
fibers are unmyelinated, conduct thermal,
chemical and strong mechanical stimuli.
Produce persistent pain.
53. Characteristic
Acute Pain
Chronic Pain
Cause
Generally known
Often unknown
Duration of pain
Short,
well-characterized
Persists after
healing, ≥3 mo
Treatment
approach
Underlying disease
Underlying disease
and pain disorder
56.
Nociceptive pain
Transient pain in response to noxious stimuli
Inflammatory pain
Spontaneous pain and hypersensitivity to pain in
response to tissue damage and inflammation
Neuropathic pain
Spontaneous pain and hypersensitivity to pain in
association with damage to or a lesion of the
nervous system
Functional
Woolf. Ann Intern Med. 2004;140:441-451.
57. Nociceptive
Pain
Mixed Type
Caused by a
combination of both
primary injury or
secondary effects
Caused by activity in
neural pathways in
response to potentially
tissue-damaging stimuli
Neuropathic
Pain
Initiated or caused by
primary lesion or
dysfunction in the
nervous system
CRPS*
Postoperative
pain
Arthritis
Mechanical
low back pain
Sickle cell
crisis
Sports/exercise
injuries
*Complex regional pain syndrome
Postherpetic
neuralgia
Neuropathic
low back pain
Trigeminal
neuralgia
Central poststroke pain
Distal
polyneuropathy
(eg, diabetic, HIV)
58. Is responsive to NSAID’s, coxibs,
paracetamol and opiates
Noxious Peripheral Stimuli
Pain-Autonomic Response
Heat
- Withdrawal Reflex
Cold
Intense
Mechanical
Force
Nociceptor Sensory
Neuron
Brain
Chemical
Irritants
Spinal Cord
Woolf. Ann Intern Med. 2004;140:441-451.
59. Somatic Pain
•
•
•
•
Aching, often constant
May be dull or sharp
Often worse with movement
Well localized
Eg/
– Bone & soft tissue
– chest wall
60. Visceral Pain
•
•
•
•
Constant or crampy
Aching
Poorly localized
Referred
Eg/
– CA pancreas
– Liver capsule distension
– Bowel obstruction
61. Is responsive to NSAID’s,coxibs,
paracetamol, and opiates Pain
Inflammation
Spontaneous
Macrophage
Mast Cell
Neutrophil
Granulocyte
Pain Hypersensitivity
-Allodynia
-Hyperalgesia
Nociceptor Sensory
Neuron
Brain
Tissue
Damage
Spinal Cord
Woolf. Ann Intern Med. 2004;140:441-451.
62. FEATURES OF NEUROPATHIC PAIN
COMPONENT
Steady,
Dysesthetic
Paroxysmal,
Neuralgic
DESCRIPTORS
•
•
•
•
•
Burning, Tingling
Constant, Aching
Squeezing, Itching
Allodynia
Hypersthesia
EXAMPLES
• Diabetic neuropathy
• Post-herpetic
neuropathy
• Stabbing
• trigeminal neuralgia
• Shock-like, electric
• may be a component
of any neuropathic
pain
• Shooting
• Lancinating
63. Spontaneous Pain
Pain Hypersensitivity
•May respond to
• local anaesthetic
• anticonvulsants
• antidepressants
Peripheral Nerve
Damage
•Less responsive to opioids Injury
Spinal Cord
Brain
Stroke
•No response to NSAID’s, coxibs, or
.
paracetamol
Woolf. Ann Intern Med. 2004;140:441-451
64.
Functional pain
Fibromyalgia, IBS etc.
Central neuropathic pain
Poststroke ,
Spinal cord injury ,
Trigeminal neuralgia, and
Multiple sclerosis .
70.
Chemical excitation of non nociceptors
Recruitment of nerves outside of site of injury
Excitotoxicity- Dis inhibition of pain
Sodium channels - abnormal
Ectopic discharge
Deafferentation – phantom pain
Central sensitization
maintained by peripheral input
Sympathetic involvement
Antidromic neurogenic inflammation
72. Normal sensory
function
Aβ fiber
mechanoreceptor
Innocuous
Na+
stimulus channel
Na+
channel
Weak
synapse
Nonpainful
sensation
Increased nociceptor drive leads to central sensitization of dorsal horn
neurons
Innocuous
Na+
stimulus channel
Na+
channel
Increased
synapsis
strength
Painful
sensation
Adapted from Woolf CJ et al. Lancet. 1999;353:1959-1964.
73.
74.
75.
76. Visual Analog Scale
Verbal Pain Intensity Scale
No
pain
Mild Moderate Severe Very
Worst
pain
pain
pain severe possible
pain
pain
Worst
possible
pain
No
pain
0–10 Numeric Pain Intensity Scale
0 1
No
pain
2
3
4 5 6
Moderate
pain
7
8
10
Worst
possible pain
Faces Scale
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
Portenoy RK, Kanner RM, eds. Pain Management: Theory and Practice. FA Davis; 1996:8-10.
Wong DL. Waley and Wong’s Essentials of Pediatric Nursing.
5th ed. Mosby, Inc.; 1997:1215-1216.
21
McCaffery M, Pasero C. Pain: Clinical Manual. Mosby, Inc. 1999:16.
77.
78.
79. The “Four A’s of Pain”
Activities of daily living
Adverse effects
20
Analgesia
Aberrant drug-taking behaviors
80.
Pharmacotherapy and other
medical/surgical care with
appropriate medicine reorganization
Restorative care including active
physical and occupational therapy
Psychological counseling utilizing
cognitive-behavioral pain
management strategies
81. Continual follow-up and monitoring are
essential to good opioid analgesic therapy.
Reassess the “Four A’s of Pain”
analgesia
activities of daily living
adverse effects
aberrant drug-taking behaviors
Review treatment options
33
83. Modes of action of analgesics
1,2,3,4
Paracetamol
↓
Inhibition of central Cox-3 (?)
(Inhibition of PG synthesis)
Opioids
↓
Activation of
opioid receptors
Paracetamol
↓
Interaction with
serotoninergic descending
inhibitory pathway
NSAIDs / Coxibs
1. D’Amours RH et al. JOSPT 1996;24(4):227-36.
2. Piguet V et al. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1998;53:321-4.
3. Pini LA et al. JPET 1997;280(2):934-40.
4. Chandrasekharan NV et al. PNAS 2002;99(21):13926-31.
↓
Inhibition of peripheral and
central Cox-1 / Cox-2
(Inhibition of PG synthesis)
95.
Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory
Drugs (NSAIDs)
Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs
Miscellaneous Drugs
Pharmacological control of inflammation:
Preventing the release of inflammatory
mediators
Inhibiting their actions
Treating pathophysiologic responses to them
96. General characteristics
Drugs that inhibit one or more
steps in the metabolism of
arachidonic acid (AA)
Aspirin-like
drugs or COX inhibitors
Major action:
inhibit Cyclooxygenase (COX)
Pharmacological effects
Suppress inflammation
Relieve pain
Reduce fever
97. Tissue Trauma
Cell Membrane Phospholipids
Phospholipase
Arachidonic Acid
C
O
X
Cyclo-oxygenase
Endoperoxides
Toxic Oxygen Radicals
Thromboxane
Prostaglandins
Prostacyclin
100.
Cyclooxygenase has 2 forms:
COX-1
(good COX) : found in all
tissues
Mediates “housekeeping chores”
Protect gastric mucosa
Support renal function
Promote platelet aggregation
COX-2
(bad COX) : found at sites of
tissue injury
Mediates inflammation and sensitize
receptors to painful stimuli
Also present in brain- mediates fever and
101. COX-1
inhibition
Results largely in harmful effects
Gastric erosion and ulceration
Bleeding tendencies
Acute renal failure
Results in some beneficial effects
Protection against myocardial
infarction
COX-2
inhibition
Results in beneficial effects
Suppression of inflammation
Alleviation of pain
102.
Drugs with anti-inflammatory
properties
NSAIDs—Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs: 2 types
First generation (inhibit both COX1 and
COX2)
Non-selective COX inhibitors
- aspirin
Second generation (inhibit COX2 only)
Preferential COX2 inhibitors (partial specificity
for COX2)
- celecoxib (human drug)
Selective COX2 inhibitors (full specificity for
COX2)
- rofecoxib (human drug)
103.
NSAIDs
act
to block the first step of
prostaglandin synthesis
by binding to and inhibiting
cyclooxygenase
Dose and drug dependent
The major therapeutic, toxic,
and potency of NSAIDs
104.
Ratio of COX1 to COX2 (COX1:COX2
ratio)
describes the amount of drug necessary
to inhibit the respective isoform of the
cyclooxygenase enzyme (IC50)
Calculation: COX1:COX2 ratio = IC50COX1 /
IC50COX2
COX1 to COX2 ratio > 1 is desirable,
or
COX2 to COX1 ratio < 1
107.
As weak acids, well absorbed after PO
Small volume of distribution (10%)
Highly protein binding (90%)
Clearance:
hepatic metabolism both phase I and
II
Conjugated metabolites -> urine
108.
Analgesia, antipyresis, and
control of inflammation
Relative potency in lab animals
and human
Meclofenamic
acid >
indomethacin > naproxen >
aspirin
Relative potency in horses
Flunixin
meglumine >
109.
Gastrointestinal system
GI ulceration
Hematopoietic system
Bleeding dyscrasias
All NSAIDs are able to impair platelet
activity
Platelet aggregation defects caused by
aspirin can last up to 1 week
Renal system
Analgesic nephropathy
In kidney, vasodilatory and tubuloactive
prostaglandins are protective
110.
GI damage is the most common
and serious side effect of NSAIDs
Dogs – very sensitive
Inhibition of COX1-stimulated
PGE2-mediated bicarbonate and
mucous secretion,
epithelialization, and increased
blood flow
Direct irritation of acidic drugs
Salicylates cause backdiffusion of
115.
Glucocorticoid receptors
Intracellular,
3 subtypes at least
activated receptor-glucocorticoid
complex
->
binds to glucocorticoid responsive
element
-> modulate gene transcription
Target proteins could be induced or
inhibited
result
in pharmacologic effects of
glucocorticoids
Differential gene regulation by
117.
Protect glucose-dependent tissues
(brain, heart)
Hyperglycemic effect
Increase
gluconeogenesis, insulin
antagonism
Increased breakdown of proteins
Skeletal
muscles and collagen
Provides gluconeogenic precursors
Result in muscle wasting, delayed wound
healing, and thinning of the skin
Promote lipolysis
118.
Increase the RBC content of the
blood
Retarding
Lymphopenia
Eosinopenia
Monocytopenia
Neutrophilia
Increased
marrow
erythrophagocytosis
release from bone
This blood cell profile: Stress
119.
Inhibit early and late phases of the
inflammation
Inhibit edema formation, fibrin
deposition, leukocyte migration,
phagocytic activity, collagen
deposition, and capillary and
fibroblast proliferation
Inhibit enzyme phospholipase A2 and
COX-2
Inhibit release of TNF-α, IL-2, and
platelet activating factor
Inhibit inducible nitric oxide synthase
120.
Absorption
Several
products are well absorbed
orally
Topical use -> well absorbed
Long-term use - > systemic effect
Metabolism
Eliminated
by oxidation or
reduction, and followed by
conjugation
121.
Duration of action
AntiInflam potency
Short acting
(< 12 hr)
Hydrocortisone
1
Topical use
(identical to cortisol)
Intermediate acting
Prednisolone
(12 – 36 hr)
and Prednisone
4
Methylprednisolone (has lipid
antioxidant activity)
5
Triamcinolone
5
Alternate day administration
124.
Effective in treating a variety of pain states
Block the reuptake of norepinephrine (and
5HT), which modulates pain
Analgesia at lower doses than antidepressant effect
Use limited by side effects (anti-cholinergic)
Amitriptyline vs desipramine
Caution: coronary disease
129.
Demonstrated effectiveness in variety of
neuropathic pain states
Reduce firing of sensory neurons
Agents: Carbamazepine, phenytoin,
gabapentin, lamotrigine
No ceiling dose: Start low and titrate
upward until adverse effects appear
Adverse effects vary
Most
common are sedation, mental clouding,
dizziness, nausea, unsteadiness
131.
Chemically related to gabapentin
used for treating pain caused by neurologic
diseases such as postherpetic neuralgiaas well as
seizures and treating fibromyalgia.
The mechanism of action of pregabalin is
unknown.
Pregabalin binds to calcium channels on nerves
and may modify the release of
neurotransmitters.
Reducing communication between nerves may
contribute to pregabalin's effect on pain and
seizures.
134. Oral or transdermal Clonidine:
Enhance the effect of narcotics
Decreases the daily narcotic
requirement
Excellent Adjuvant therapy for
narcotic dependent patients
Effective for neuropathic pain
142.
Precursor of meprobamate
Centrally active
Reduction of muscle spasm
Side effects:
Sedation, drowsiness, dependence
Withdrawal symptoms
Agitation
Anorexia
N/V
Hallucination
Seizures
143.
Investigative usage: MS
Daily dosage: 1000 mg qid
Side effect: drowsiness
Mechanism of action:
Centrally active
Inhibits polysynaptic reflexes
Clinical effects:
Reduction of muscle spasms
144.
Daily dosage: 400-800 mg tid
Clinical effects:
Reduction in muscle spasm
Side effects:
Nausea
Drowsiness
Dizziness
145.
Investigative usage: SCI
Daily dosage: 100 mg bid
Analog of diphenhydramine
Given IV for antispasticity trials
Side effects:
Anticholinergic
Rare aplastic anemia
147.
Topical agents are active within the skin, soft
tissues and peripheral nerves.
In contrast to transdermal, oral or parenteral
medications, use of a topical agent does not
result in clinically significant serum drug levels.
Other benefits include lack of systemic side
effects and drug-drug interactions.
The mechanism of action of a topical analgesic is
unique to the specific agent considered.
148.
Aspirin preparations
eg, aspirin in chloroform or ethyl ether
Capsaicin
Local anesthetics
- lidocaine patch 5%/eutectic mixture of
local anesthetics
Tricyclic antidepressants
Opiates ( Buvalor, Fentenyl )
Investigational agents
149.
Salicylic acid derivative (a.k.a. wintergreen oil,
sweet birch oil)
Lipid solubility increases toxicity
More toxic than aspirin
1 teaspoon (5ml) wintergreen oil contains 4,000 mg
salicylate
30ml wintergreen oil is a fatal dose in adults
Risk of toxicity reduced with use for acute pain,
limited to a small area of dermal application
Chyka, P.A., et al., 2007
150.
Neuropathic pain states
studied include:
diabetic neuropathy,
PHN, post-mastectomy pain,
HIV neuropathy.
Non-neuropathic pain states such as
osteoarthritis have been studied as well.
Efficacy demonstrated in some of these
studies but limited by adverse effects and
compliance issues..
152.
1. Galeotti N, DeCesare Mannelli L,
Mazzanti G, et al. Menthol: a natural
analgesic compound. Neurosci Lett
2002 Apr 12;322(3):145-148. This article
is particularly interesting as the authors
review evidence which suggests that
one of the mechanisms of analgesia for
menthol, a common ingredient in over
the counter preparations may actually
be the activation of kappa opiate
receptors.
154.
Effect of topical morphine for mucositisassociated pain following concomitant
chemoradiotherapy for head and neck
carcinoma. (Cerchietti LC, Navigante AH,
Bonomi MR, et al., Cancer 2002 Nov
15;95(10): 2230-6.)
Patients (n=26) with cancer-related mucositis
treated with topical morphine or topical
lidocaine/ diphenhydramine/ magnesium
topical solution.
159. Altered behavioral response to pain and
diminished ability to perceive pain impulses without
loss of consciousness.
Opioid Analgesic Actions:
Analgesia
Decreased G.I. Motility
Respiratory Depression
Euphoria
Classes of Analgesics:
NCH 3
H
OH
O
OH
Morpheus - son of Hypnos
Non-narcotic – e.g. aspirin, ibuprophen, etc. Act mainly in the
periphery as anti-inflammatories with some CNS activity as well.
Narcotic/Opioids – Analgesic action is in the CNS. Morphine is the
prototype (From “Morpheus” Greek god of dreams).
Opium is the juice from the poppy and has been used for thousands of
years to relieve pain.
160. "Among
the remedies which it has
pleased Almighty Godto give to
man to relieve his sufferings, none
isso universal and so efficacious as
opium."Thomas Sydenham(1624 1689)
17th century engraving
of man in Eastern dress
collecting juice from the
buds of poppy plants
He was among the first to describe scarlet
fever, differentiating it from measles and
naming it, and to explain the nature of hysteria
and St. Vitus' dance (Sydenham's chorea).
Sydenham introduced laudanum (alcohol
tincture of opium) into medical practice, was
one of the first to use iron in treating irondeficiency anemia, and helped popularize
quinine in treating malaria.
Derided by his colleagues, Sydenham
benefited immensely from a consequent
161. Early victims of the War On Drugs. A battle-scene
from the First Chinese Opium War (1839-42)
163. Small peptides. β-endorphin is a 31 amino acid peptide.
Examples:
Tyr – Gly –Gly – Phe – Met
( Met Enkephalin)
Tyr – Gly –Gly – Phe – Leu
( Leu Enkephalin)
164. •Similar activity to the opioids (analgesia)
•Similar addiction and withdrawal effects
•Enkephalins are antagonized by opioid antagonists (same receptor)
•Enkephalins are rapidly inactivated by specific peptidases in the brain.
Details of Enkephalin Mechanism
•Enkephalinergic system exists to modulate pain.
•Enkephalin release inhibits adenylate cyclase, decreasing cAMP levels and
causing a K+ efflux that hyperpolarizes the “pain neuron”, which inhibits
nerve cell activity. Opioids also bind the enkephalin post-synaptic receptors.
•Enkephalinergic neurons have an “auto-receptor” that can bind enkephalin
or exogenous opioids.
•Opioid binding to the “auto-receptor decreases enkephalin release, this
results in tolerance,
165.
166. Second Messenger Effects
Opioids and Enkephalins inhibit cAMP synthesis by inhibiting adenylate cyclase. The
physiological response is to make more enzyme to compensate.
Tolerance develops. When opioids are removed, an excess of AC is available and
now active, overstimulation produces withdrawal.
Opioid antagonists don’t cause withdrawal symptoms in naive subjects.
Enkephalin SAR
L-tyrosine is required along with a terminal NH2.
D-tyrosine is inactive
Phe is very important, partial or full loss of activity occurs upon substitution
D-amino acids at other positions, particularly the Gly’s decrease hydrolysis and
therefore increase potency.
D-amino acids and bulky amino acids affect activity and may increase receptor
selectivity
Rigid analogs are useful for assessing preferred conformations and may be more
selective for different receptors.
167. All bind morphine and endogenous enkephalins, all are antagonized by
naloxone
µ is the analgesic receptor. µ2 subtype is associated with respiratory
depression and with GI receptors.
δ may be the antitussive receptor for codeine and related compounds.
The antitussive actions of µ and δ specific agonists are antagonized by
naloxone. However dextromethorphan sites don’t bind codeine, and
binding at these sites (likely σ sites) are not antagonized by naloxone.
Therefore, there are at least two antitussive receptors.
J. Pharm. And Exp. Therapeutics (2000) 292, 803-809
κ is also analgesic. Binding site of several mixed agonist/antagonist
compounds.
Pentazocine – agonist at κ, antagonist at µ
Buprenorphine – partial agonist at µ (slowly dissociates), antagonist
at κ
Butorphanol – agonist at κ, antagonist at µ
168. κ agonists produce psychotomimetic/dysphoric side effects
similar to those seen with the σ receptor agonist PCP. High
doses of pentazocine have this effect.
σ and κ receptors are not analgesic on their own, but specific
κ agonists do cause analgesia.
Nature (1996) 383, p.759; pp.819-823.
µ knockout does not produce analgesia with morphine,
Perhaps µ/δ, µ/κ receptors interact. κ binding could induce
activity in µ receptors.
Other points:
µ (MOR) knockouts are fully functional, no adverse side
effects.
Conclusion: opioid system is not active under normal resting
conditions. That’s why you don’t get addicted to your own
enkephalins.
169.
170. Opioids have excitatory effects in multiple regions of the nervous
system. Excitation by opioids is generally attributed to inhibition of
inhibitory pathways (disinhibition). However, recent studies indicate
that opioids can directly excite individual cells. These effects may
occur when opioid receptors interact with other G protein coupled
receptors, when different subtypes of opioid receptors interact, or
when opioids transactivate other receptors such as receptor tyrosine
kinases. Changes in the relative level of expression of different
receptors in an individual cell may therefore determine its functional
response to a given ligand. This phenomenon could represent an
adaptive mechanism involved in tolerance, dependence and
subsequent withdrawal.
From inhibition to excitation: Functional effects of interaction between opioid receptors
Life Sciences Volume 76,, (2004), Pages 479-485
174.
6
Era of “Balance”
Growing recognition that opioids are
essential for chronic pain
Potential risks are serious but can be
managed
The goal: maximize symptom relief and
functional improvement while minimizing
addiction, diversion, and side effects
175.
Titrate gradually
Determine cause of symptoms
Change dosing route or regimen
Switch to another opioid
Add an adjuvant and reduce dosage
Eliminate other nonessential agents
Assume that constipation will occur and provide
preemptive treatment
178.
Gold Standard
Used for severe pain
Hepatic metabolism
45% to 55% to morphine-3-glucuronide, which
produces hyperalgesia, allodynia, hyperactivity
10% to 15% to morphine-6-glucuronide, which has
greater analgesic properties, fewer adverse effects
179. (NR) H3CN
14
Modifications of both 3 and 6 positions (hydroxyls).
R=
O
O CCH 3
R=
6
3,6-O-diacetylmorphine, 2 x
morphine. (Heroin)
OH (R1)
O
2
O CCH 3
7
H
1
O
8
3
OH (R)
Greater euphoria, higher addiction liability. Probably metabolized to 6-Oacetate then morphine in CNS.
HEROIN
A powerful remedy for coughs
NCH 3
NCH 3
H
H
O
O
CH3
O
O
O
OH
O
CH3
O
180. We need analgesics with less respiratory depression that are also less addictive.
Morphinans.
NCH 3
NCH 3
H
H
OH
OH
H
OH
H
OCH 3
levorphanol (Levo-Dromoran)
(-) isomer is an active analgesic,
5 x morphine
(+) isomer is an active
antitussive (dextrorphanol) and
a poor analgesic
N
H
(+) or (d) dextromethorphan
Antitussive activity similar to
codeine, no analgesic activity, no
addiction liability.
butorphanol (Stadol)
4 x morphine as agonist
1 x morphine as antagonist
-low(er) addiction liability
“better for acute pain”
181. Benzomorphans.
Pentazocine (Talwin)
N
Mixed agonist/antagonist. Used as
an agonist for pain. 1/3 x morphine.
Low addiction.
H3C
CH 3
OH
4-phenyl piperidines. Completely synthetic
CH3
O
OCH 2 CH3
NCH 3
N
H
NCH 3
OH
OCH2 CH 3
O
O
OH
Meperidine
Meperidine
Morphine
182. 4-phenyl piperidine SAR.
•Phenyl and piperidine rings are required.
•3° Nitrogen is optimal. Nitrogen substituent containing a phenyl group increases
potency (fentanyl).
•You can’t make an antagonist by substituting the nitrogen.
•Addition of a meta hydroxyl to the aromatic ring increases potency and addiction
(analogous to morphine)
•C-4 is usually quaternary. Alkyl esters are common for this class. Placing a
nitrogen between the rings increases potency (fentanyl again)
Properties of Phenylpiperidines.
Bemidone – 3 x Meperidine
α-Prodine (Nisentil) – 2 x Meperidine. Not used anymore
Fentanyl (Sublimaze) – ~50-100 x Morphine. Fast onset, short duration.
Used as an analgesic and also as an anesthetic either with or without
droperidol. (About 500 x Meperidine analgesic potency).
Diphenoxylate – Antidiarrheal – Not analgesic at therapeutic doses and can
be dispensed with Atropine
Loperamide (Imodium) – Polar groups decrease intestinal absorption and
eliminate CNS activity. Inhibits GI muscle contraction by interaction with
opioid receptor.
183. OCH2 CH3
O
NCH3
O
OCH2 CH3
HO
N
Bemidone
CN
OCH 2 CH 3
O
Diphenoxylate
NCH 3
H3 C
α-prodine
O
HO
O
Cl
N
CH 2 CH 3
N
N
Loperamide
Fentanyl
F
N
O
N
O
N
Droperiodol (a butyrophenone, not a phenylpiperidine)
N(CH3 )2
184. 3,3- Diphenylpropyl amines.
Methadone
1x morphine
less sedative
longer acting. 1, 1.5 day half-life. 1 dose every 72 hours will prevent
heroin withdrawal
Propoxyphene
d isomer (Darvon) – analgesic with 1/2 the potency of codeine
l isomer (Novrad) – antitussive action only.
CH 3
C
CH 3
CH 3
CH 2 CH N
CH 2
CH 2 CH 3
Methadone
CH
CH 2
N
O
CH 3
O
C
CH 3
O
CH 2 CH 3
Propoxyphene (d or l isomer)
CH 3
185. O
O
O
N
O
O
O
N
N
N
O
N
N
N N
N N
O
O
O
O
Remifentanil
Alfentanil
Fentanyl
O
N
O
O
N
N
N
S
Sufentanil
Carfentanil
Fentanyl - Actiq (fentanyl on a stick), Duragesic transdermal patches (12, 25, 50, 100 µg/h) Therapeutic
index=400, morphine = 70
Alfentanil - Ultra-short acting, 5-10 minutes analgesic duration
Remifentanil - Shortest acting opioid - 1/2 time is 4-6 minutes. Used in MAC anesthesia. TI=30,000
Sufentanil - 5-10x Fentanyl, used for heart surgery.
Carfentanil - (100x Fentanyl) Thought that it was used in the 2002 Moscow theater crisis to subdue Chechen
hostage takers. Didn’t turn out so well. 42 terrorists and 130 hostages died. Works well on bears.
186.
Greater risk of inducing seizures than other
opioids
No proof of greater effectiveness
May be associated with cardiac conduction
abnormalities (not reversible by naloxone)
Should not be used in the elderly
No longer used in United Kingdom
1/30/09: FDA Advisors voted to recommend
banning propoxyphene.
187.
MOA: exerts its analgesic effect via high
affinity binding to μ opiate receptors in the
CNS; displays both agonist and antagonist
activity
Possible advantages:
It has a lower abuse potential
is less dangerous in an overdose
causes fewer withdrawal symptoms when it's
stopped.
188.
Analgesic activity
0.3 mg of parenteral buprenorphine =10 mg of
parenteral morphine
Prescribing restrictions
MDs with special training to use for opioid addiction
outside of a clinic: DEA # starts with “X”.
MDs using for pain do not need “X” in DEA.
Encourage them to write “for pain” on rx.
189.
A weak opioid agonist effective in moderate to
moderately severe pain
Also inhibits reuptake of 5HT and NE
Reduced risk of respiratory depression,
physical dependence, and abuse
Most common adverse events are dizziness,
nausea, constipation, somnolence
192.
18
Efficacy of opioids in chronic noncancer pain
established in a number of randomized,
controlled trials, including placebo-controlled
trials of:
codeine
tramadol
morphine
fentanyl
Buprinorphone
193.
How does tramadol work?
Which patients might it benefit?
Is it better tolerated than other analgesics?
Does it have abuse potential?
Where does it fit in the analgesic continuum?
194.
Weak µ-opioid receptor effects
Structurally related to morphine and codeine
~10-fold less affinity for µ receptor than codeine and
up to 6000-fold less than morphine
Metabolized to highly active M1→ 300-fold greater affinity
than parent compound
Analgesia only partially blocked by naloxone (~33%)
Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibition
Effect reduced by > ½ by adrenergic receptor antagonist
Less than that with imipramine
Grond S, et al. Clin Pharmacokin 2004;43:879-923.
Raffa RB. J Clin Pharm Therap 2008;33:101-8.
199.
Physical dependence: a withdrawal
syndrome would arise if a drug is
discontinued, dose is substantially reduced,
or antagonist is administered
Tolerance: a greater amount of drug is
needed to maintain therapeutic effect, or
loss of effect over time
200.
Pseudoaddiction: behavior suggestive of
addiction caused by undertreatment of
pain
Addiction (psychological dependence):
a psychiatric disorder characterized by
continued compulsive use of a substance
despite harm
201. What is the difference
between physical
dependence,
tolerance, and
addiction?
202.
Tolerance
No “high” (opioids are metabolized differently as they
address the pain)
Usually some physical tolerance and dependency to
pain medications develop
Addiction
Psychological
“high”
Intention to harm the body
Negative personal, legal or medical
consequences
203.
Addiction:
Usage is out of control
Obsession with obtaining a supply
Quality of life does not improve
Pseudo-Addiction
From under-treatment of pain
Drug-seeking/Crisis of mistrust
Behavior and function improve when
pain is relieved
204.
Numerous pharmacotherapeutic options
are available for the management of
chronic pain.
Proper evaluation including pain
assessment is key to providing the best
analgesic approach.
Optimizing analgesia in the long term
requires achieving a proper balance among
efficacy, adverse effects, cost and other
factors.
205. 1)
2)
3)
Inhibit sustained high-frequency neuronal firing
by blocking Na+ channels after an action potential,
reducing excitability in sensitized C-nociceptors.
Blockade of Na+ channels and increase in
synthesis and activity of GABA, in inhibitory
neurotransmitter, in the brain.
Modulates Ca+ channel current and increases
synthesis of GABA.
Deglin, J.H. & Vallerand, A.H., 2001
206.
Effective in treating a variety of pain states
Block the reuptake of norepinephrine (and
5HT), which modulates pain
Analgesia at lower doses than anti-depressant
effect
Use limited by side effects (anti-cholinergic)
Amitriptyline vs desipramine
Caution: coronary disease
210. Injury
Acute Pain
Normal Healing
Pain Relief
Healing With Plasticity
Allodynia
Hyperalgesia
Chronic
Pain
Adapted from Marcus DM. Am Fam Physician. 2000;61:1331-1338.
Hinweis der Redaktion
Ref from Julie:
Ferris F, Balfour H, Bowen K, Farley J, Hardwick M, Lamontagne C, Lundy M, Syme A, West P. A model to guide patient and family care. Based on nationally accepted principles and norms of practice. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2002;24(2):106-23. PMID: 12231127 and Ferris FD, Balfour HM, Bowen K, Farley J, Hardwick M, Lamontagne C, Lundy M, Syme A, West P. A model to guide hospice palliative care. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Hospice Palliative Care Association, March 2002. Available at http://www.chpca.net/norms-standards/model_to_guide_hpc.html.
Answer: 4
Showing pain sensors in the skin
Otherwise called NOCICEPTOR
Reference: Polomano, R.C. (2010). Neurophysiology of Pain. In B. St. Marie (Ed.) Core Curriculum for Pain Management Nursing. Lenexa, KA: American Society for Pain Management Nursing, p. 68.
Surgical operations produce local tissue damage with consequent release of algogenic substances and of a barrage of noxious stimuli, which are transduced by nociceptors into impulses that are transmitted to the neuraxis by A-delta and C fibers.
Cortical responses occur in the awake patient. They are provoked by nociceptive impulses that reach the highest parts of the brain, in which they activate complex systems concerned with recognition of the sensation of pain.
When the effects of surgical anaesthesia disappear, the patient’s injury persists and algogenic substances continue to be liberated and sensitise nociceptors.
Such pathophysiologic changes are greatly enhanced by sympathetic hyperactivity and by the consequent liberation of noradrenalin, which sensitises nociceptors and damaged nerve membrane.1
These processes are partially balanced by the descending control system, which inhibits the recapture of serotonin and noradrenalin at spinal level and generates endorphins that block the opioid receptors.
The causes of acute pain are often known, but the causes of chronic pain and its associated symptoms are not well understood.1
The pain experienced by patients with acute pain often can be alleviated. In general, the duration of acute pain is brief and has been well characterized.1 The time course of chronic pain, however, is usually indeterminate, and patients with chronic pain are often refractory to treatment.2
One definition of chronic pain is pain that has persisted beyond the time of normal healing; for research purposes, however, chronic pain is often defined as pain that has persisted at least 3 (sometimes 6) months.3
Because chronic pain can almost never be cured,4 optimal treatment usually involves helping the patient restore function and supporting a patient’s coping by utilizing approaches that minimize pain, maximize QOL, improve sleep, and enable patients to return to work and perform their regular activities.3,4
1.Galer BS, Dworkin RH. A Clinical Guide to Neuropathic Pain. Minneapolis, Minn: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc; 2000:7-8.
2.Rowbotham MC. Chronic pain: from theory to practical management. Neurology. 1995;45(suppl 9):S5-S10.
3.Portenoy RK, Kanner RM. Definition and assessment of pain. In: Portenoy RK, Kanner RM, eds. Pain Management: Theory and Practice. Philadelphia, Pa: FA Davis Company. 1996:6.
4.Woolf CJ, Mannion RJ. Neuropathic pain: aetiology, symptoms, mechanisms, and management. Lancet. 1999;353:1959-1964.
At least 4 distinct types of pain exist: nociceptive, inflammatory, neuropathic, and functional. Nociceptive pain is a response to noxious peripheral stimuli, such as burning or a surgical incision. The nociceptive pain system serves as a warning system for the body to avoid potentially dangerous stimuli. It should not be “turned off” except in rare circumstances, such as surgery or dental work. Without nociceptive pain, the body is constantly at risk for injury.
Inflammatory pain is a response to tissue damage and inflammation, such as occurs in arthritis or near an infection. It also has a protective function, in that it surrounds and protects injured tissue and helps the healing process by preventing overuse of the injured part. As anyone who has banged a toe can testify, inflammatory pain decreases as the damage resolves. However, we also have degenerative diseases, such as osteoarthritis, that continue to create inflammatory pain because the tissue damage is ongoing.
Neuropathic pain results from damage or lesions to the nervous system - such as occur in diabetic peripheral neuropathy or postherpetic neuralgia. It tends to be burning or stabbing in nature and is not responsive to traditional pain agents such as NSAIDs or aspirin. Neuropathic pain can also result from damage to the CNS, such as in patients with MS or spinal cord injury.
Functional pain results from a dysfunction in the central processing of pain in the dorsal horn or other regions of the spinal cord. With functional pain, no neurologic deficits or peripheral abnormalities can be detected. Examples of functional pain include fibromyalgia, irritable bowel syndrome, and some forms of noncardiac chest pain.
Woolf CJ. Pain: moving from symptom control toward mechanism-specific pharmacologic management. Ann Intern Med. 2004;140:441-451.
Nociceptive, or inflammatory, pain is pain resulting from activity in neural pathways caused by potentially tissue-damaging stimuli.1 Examples include postoperative pain, arthritis, mechanical low back pain, sickle cell crisis, and sports or exercise injuries.
Neuropathic pain is pain caused by a primary lesion or dysfunction in the peripheral and/or central nervous systems.2 Examples of peripheral neuropathic pain syndromes include HIV sensory neuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia (PHN), and diabetic neuropathy. Examples of central neuropathic pain include central poststroke pain, spinal cord injury pain, trigeminal neuralgia, and multiple sclerosis pain.
As indicated by the “mixed type” area on the slide, chronic pain can be of mixed etiology with both nociceptive and neuropathic characteristics.
Two types of neuropathic pain—PHN and diabetic neuropathy—will be emphasized within this module. These types of pain are being stressed because the great majority of randomized controlled trials of treatments for neuropathic pain have examined these two disorders, and because our understanding of the mechanisms of neuropathic pain is largely derived from those studies.
1.Portenoy RK, Kanner RM. Definition and Assessment of Pain. In: Portenoy RK, Kanner RM, eds. Pain Management: Theory and Practice. Philadelphia, Pa: FA Davis Company; 1996:4.
2.Galer BS, Dworkin RH. A Clinical Guide to Neuropathic Pain. Minneapolis, Minn: The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc; 2000:8-9.
A variety of terms are used to describe neuropathic pain, including those listed on the slide: burning, paroxysmal, paresthetic, lancinating, raw skin, shooting, electriclike, deep, dull, and bonelike aching pain.
Additional terms that are often used to describe neuropathic pain include squeezing, jabbing, broken-glass, cramping, spasms, icy cold, and frostbite.
These terms are not perfectly sensitive or specific and are to be used only as a guide: some patients with neuropathic pain will not use these terms to describe their pain experience, and some patients who use these terms have nonneuropathic pain.
Terms used to describe pain are usually not helpful in differentiating among neuropathic conditions.1
The cardinal signs and symptoms of neuropathic pain are allodynia and hyperalgesia, both of which are defined on the slide.2
1.Galer BS. Neuropathic pain of peripheral origin: advances in pharmacologic treatment. Neurology. 1995;45(suppl 9):S17-S25.
2.Backonja M-M, Galer BS. Pain assessment and evaluation of patients who have neuropathic pain. Neurol Clin. 1998;16:775-789.
Many mechanisms have been proposed for neuropathic pain, but it is unknown which mechanisms are most relevant in humans. This slide lists the more widely accepted proposed mechanisms. In an individual patient, more than one mechanism is probably relevant. The ability to classify patients based on predominant pathophysiology may, hopefully, help target therapy.1
Excitotoxicity: nerve damage results in a barrage of nociceptive input released into the spinal cord that can damage inhibitory cells and result in a disinhibited pain system.2
Sodium channels: in damaged nerves, abnormal sodium channels may be produced that result in a hyperexcitable nerve.3
Ectopic discharge: damaged nerves produce ectopic, or abnormal, nerve impulses that may promote pain perceptions.3
Deafferentation: if the central nervous system (CNS) is deprived of normal nerve input, as in the case of amputation or plexus avulsion, pain may result. The classic picture is severe pain in an insensate (or absent) limb.4
Central sensitization: with repeated sensory input, the CNS may become hyperresponsive (sensitized) to peripheral input, a so-called facilitated state. This state is caused by long-term or permanent changes in the anatomy or physiology of the CNS produced by pain.1-3
1.Galer BS. Neuropathic pain of peripheral origin: advances in pharmacologic treatment. Neurology. 1995;45(suppl 9):S17-S25.
2. Brookoff D. Chronic pain: 1. A new disease? Hosp Pract. July, 2000:45-59.
3. Baron R. Peripheral neuropathic pain: from mechanisms to symptoms. Clin J Pain. 2000;16:S12-S20.
4. Portenoy RK. Neuropathic pain. In: Portenoy RK, Kanner RM, eds: Pain Management: Theory and Practice. Philadelphia, Pa: FA Davis Company; 1996:94,97.
The upper figure illustrates how damage to a peripheral nerve (the starburst) causes “algesic substances” to be released from the peripheral nerve terminal. The algesic substances may induce action potentials in the surrounding, intact neurons.
Nerve injury may mediate dedifferentation of Schwann cells, causing the loss of the axon-insulation and myelin-production capabilities of these cells.
The lower figure shows how, after this damage, the nerve may become hyperresponsive to noxious or nonnoxious stimulation, facilitating pain.
Woolf CJ, Mannion RJ. Neuropathic pain: aetiology, symptoms, mechanisms, and
management. Lancet. 1999;353:1959-1964.
The upper portion of the slide illustrates normal function of an A nerve fiber and its dorsal horn connection. An innocuous brush-evoked stimulus activates the fiber’s mechanoreceptor, but the stimulus is not adequate to activate the dorsal horn pain pathway across a weak synapse.
The lower portion of the slide illustrates central sensitization, by increased nociceptor drive, of the dorsal horn neuron (represented by the starburst). The A fiber input is now sufficient to activate spinal cord pain pathways.
Central sensitization may result from:
an effective increase in the area of the periphery eligible to activate neurons.
an exaggerated response to a stimulus that meets the activation threshold.
a stimulus that had been too weak to satisfy the activation threshold becomes an irritating stimulus.
Woolf CJ, Mannion RJ. Neuropathic pain: aetiology, symptoms, mechanisms, and
management. Lancet. 1999;353:1959-1964.
Instructions to presenter: The first thing to understand about this animation is that all roads lead back to the initial screen. It can be used to point out that all of these processes have a common pathway through the NMDA receptor and go no further. All animations have stop action and further buttons that lead to next steps. To make the animation live, click anywhere on the screen. Move the cursor over a button and a pointing finger will appear and the button will change color. Lecture notes for the following buttons do not appear since they are not pertinent to this presentation: Affective Disorder, Sympathetic, Opioid Tolerance.
NMDA RECEPTOR BUTTON: This (click) leads to the balance between glutamate and GABA in the CNS, with GABA being synthesized from glutamate via GAD. (click) Glutamate goes out of balance with GABA due to excitation in chronic pain states or chronic affective disorder. (click) The presynaptic primary afferent terminal synapses with a second order dorsal horn neuron. The red dots in the synapse are glutamate; the “P” is Substance-P. (click) Nonpain transmitting AMPA receptors receive glutamate and pass a nonpain-producing stimulus. (click) Next substance P attaches to NK-1 receptors. The postsynaptic cell transmits a signal interpreted by the brain as pain. (click) Shown here is release of Mg from the NMDA receptor and attachment of glutamate to internal sites on the receptor. (click) Ca comes in through the depolarized NMDA receptors. (click) And this shows what the process causes.
Neuropathic Button: First we see the C and A-Beta fibers in the dorsal horn. (click) Next, damage to the nerve before the DRG. (click) Here we see the ingrowth of A-Beta fibers following nerve injury to pain signal transmitting superficial lamina of the dorsal horn, resulting in the clinical manifestation of allodynia. (click) Here is a similar molecular view as the previous slide, resulting in wind-up.
Nociceptive Button: Here we see a process of inflammation changing from acute to chronic and then focusing down to the microscopic and molecular level of wind-up. (click) Next, a posterior view of a lumbar motion segment with Z-joints (facet joints). (click) The joint becomes inflamed. (click) Here is a microscopic look into the zone of inflammation and the release of inflammatory chemicals activating the nociceptors. (click) The nociceptors release Substance-P, ATP and calcitonin gene related peptide activating nonnociceptors to result in the transmission of signals that produce a perception of pain. (click) This all connects to the CNS and produces wind-up. (click) This shows the molecular view of wind-up pain. Initially a nonpain-producing signal causes the release of glutamate to non-NMDA receptors and no pain. (click) Pushing the button causes the release of substance-P and the amplification of the depolarization resulting in a signal interpreted as pain. (click) Here, NMDA receptors blocked by magnesium and with the pairing of Substance-P and glutamate over time, and the release of the block (click) . (click) Glutamate attaches and shows wind-up on the postsynaptic action potential.
Addressing analgesia, the first of the “Four A’s of Pain,” requires an assessment of pain intensity to determine whether existing treatment is providing adequate relief. This slide depicts four of the pain scales that are used to assess a patient’s pain. The scales are considered simple for patients to use as well as being validated methods for measuring the severity of pain.1-3 These scales can be used at the patient’s bedside, and patients can be asked to respond to either a spoken or written a question. The 0-10 numeric scale can be administered over the phone.
With some scales, especially the visual analog scale, the patient marks the line at the point that best indicates the pain’s intensity. Older patients may have difficulty using visual analog scales and it might be more appropriate to use a 0-10 numeric pain intensity scale.4
The Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale is validated and recommended for patients aged 3 years or older. On this scale, Face 0 indicates no pain at all, Face 1 feels mild pain, Face 2 feels moderate pain, Face 3 feels severe pain, Face 4 feels very severe pain, and Face 5 feels the worst possible pain. The original appears above, and can be used as is or with the brief word descriptions under each number. In a study of 148 children aged 4 to 5 years, there were no differences in pain scores when children used the original or brief word instructions.2
People with cognitive impairments and limited ability to communicate (eg, stroke patients) may have difficulty with the use of any self-report pain assessment scales. For these patients it will be necessary for the physician to rely on behavioral observation of patients' facial expressions, movement patterns (eg, bracing, guarding, distorted postures, avoidance of activity), and nonverbal sounds (eg, moans, winces) and reports of significant others (eg, partner, spouse, child) to make judgment of pain intensity.5
However, remember that patient pain is multidimensional and involves more than just assessment of pain intensity.
1.Portenoy RK, Kanner RM. Definition and Assessment of Pain. In: Portenoy RK, Kanner RM, eds. Pain Management: Theory and Practice. Philadelphia, Pa: FA Davis Company; 1996:8-10.
2. Wong DL. Waley and Wong’s Essentials of Pediatric Nursing. 5th ed. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby, Inc.; 1997:1215-1216.
3. McCaffery M, Pasero C. Pain: Clinical Manual. St. Louis, Missouri: Mosby, Inc.;1999:16.
4. Jensen MP, Karoly P, Braver S. The measurement of Clinical pain intensity: a comparison of six methods. Pain. 1986;27:117-126.
5. Hadjistavropoulos T, von Baeyer C, Craig KD. Pain assessment in persons with limited ability to communicate. In: Turk DC, Melzack R, eds. Handbook of Pain Assessment. 2nd ed. New York, New York: Guilford; 2001:134-152.
The “Four A’s” of outcome assessment provide a useful approach for the physician to think about appropriate follow-up for guiding optimal pain management.
Although each of these four aspects will be discussed in detail in the following section, the key points include the importance of monitoring patients’ pain intensity to ensure that they are receiving effective analgesia (pain relief), measuring effects on activities of daily living to document improvements in patient functioning (physical, psychosocial functioning), closely monitoring for adverse effects (side effects) in order to minimize or counter these effects, and being vigilant for any signs of aberrant drug taking that may precede addiction or addiction-related behaviors.
Most aberrant behaviors are not caused by addiction; clinical judgment is needed to differentiate these behaviors.
Because pure mu-opioids do not possess a ceiling effect, the dose should be titrated until the patient experiences adequate pain relief or intolerable side effects. It is important to be aware that as the dose is escalated, the potential for side effects increases correspondingly. Therefore, the goal should be to optimize the therapeutic ratio.
Passik SD, Weinreb HJ. Managing chronic nonmalignant pain: overcoming obstacles to the use of opioids. Adv Ther. 2000;17:70-83.
Successful opioid therapy requires periodic review of patient status and achievement of therapeutic goals. While frequency of such assessments may vary from patient to patient based on case-specific characteristics (eg, severity of pain, difficulty of titration), it is important to keep track of how the patient is faring. Measuring the success of a pain management program should parallel the ways outcomes are measured in other chronic disease states (eg, diabetes). Although a reduction in pain scale numbers is important, it should also trigger critical thinking about impact of therapy on important functional outcomes.
If during follow-up assessment it becomes clear that a particular opioid is not providing appropriate pain relief, a different opioid should be tried, keeping in mind that dosage conversion tables found in treatment guidelines should be used with care (they provide a guide, not an absolute). If this strategy is unsuccessful, the physician may need to determine if the patient needs to be referred to a pain specialist.
Opioid rotation may be helpful in reducing side effects that may have developed with use of the opioid a patient is currently taking.
It is important to assess the impact of opioid therapy on activities of daily living. Has the patient been able to return to work; is the patient comfortable at work? Is the therapy controlling pain, but making it more difficult to concentrate? Has the patient’s socialization improved? If not, why not?
Aberrant drug-taking behavior, if any, needs to be discussed and investigated. Is it a sign of addiction, or of inadequate pain management?
A review of treatment options should periodically be undertaken. Well-controlled pain may provide an opportunity to titrate downward. Inadequate pain control may suggest the need for a polypharmaceutical approach, especially if the pain is complex, with multiple underlying mechanisms.
Opioids provide analgesia by mimicking the effect of endogenous opioids at specific receptors in the central nervous system.1
NSAIDs block production of prostaglandins that sensitise peripheral nociceptors after tissue injury.1
Paracetamol is a centrally-acting drug that selectively inhibits nervous system cyclo-oxygenase, thus inhibiting prostaglandin synthesis.2 Other central mechanisms dependent on the spinal serotoninergic pathway could also be involved.2,3
Moreover, a recent study demonstrated that paracetamol was a potent inhibitor of a NSAID-induced cyclo-oxygenase which could be a third COX (COX-3).4
How do the COX-Inhibitors work? Impairs the arachidonic acid cascade.
Tissue trauma sets off a cascade leading to the development of algesic substances that activate and sensitive peripheral nociceptors leading to the influx of acute pain signals to the CNS.
Fortunately, the cyclooxygenase pathways involved with pain both peripherally and centrally are the COX-2 and COX-3(acetaminophen). The peripheral inflammatory COX pathways are chiefly COX-2.
The tricyclic antidepressants have been found to be effective for treating a variety of pain states. These agents block the reuptake of both norepinephrine and serotonin and appear to have a variety of analgesic properties that extend beyond their modulation of serotonin and norepinephrine. Newer antidepressants—the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors—do not have analgesic properties.
They are used to treat headaches (including migraines), low back pain, fibromyalgia, painful diabetic neuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia, central pain, and cancer pain. These antidepressants appear to be most effective for treating burning pain or hypersensitivity, but also may be beneficial for lancinating neuropathic pain.
Their use is limited by a greater incidence of adverse events. Class effects include sedation, orthostatic hypotension, and anticholinergic effects.
Cohen SP, Mullings R, Abdi S, Warltier DC. The pharmacologic treatment of muscle pain. Anesthesiology. 2004;101:495–526.
Macres S, Richeimer S, Duran P. Adjuvant analgesics. In: Warfield CA, Bajwa ZH, eds. Principles & Practice of Pain Medicine. 2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2004:627–38.
National Pharmaceutical Council, Inc. Pain: Current Understanding of Assessment, Management, and Treatments. Reston, VA: National Pharmaceutical Council, Inc; 2001. Available at: http://www.jcaho.com/news+room/health+care+issues/pain+mono_npc.pdf. Accessed September 8, 2004.
Antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) have been found effective for treating a variety of neuropathic pain states. They are often recommended for treating lancinating pain—pain characterized by the patient as “shooting” or “stabbing.”
Carbamazepine, phenytoin, gabapentin, and lamotrigine have been evaluated for their effects on neuropathic pain in randomized, controlled clinical trials.
The AEDs have somewhat different mechanisms of action; therefore, failure to respond to one agent does not necessarily predict a poor response to other AEDs. These medications do not have a ceiling dose; rather, dosages are limited by the incidence of adverse events. Dosages should be titrated upward until adverse events appear, and then reduced to the dosage at which adverse events did not occur.
Adverse events vary among the agents.
National Pharmaceutical Council, Inc. Pain: Current Understanding of Assessment, Management, and Treatments. Reston, VA: National Pharmaceutical Council, Inc; 2001. Available at: http://www.jcaho.com/news+room/health+care+issues/pain+mono_npc.pdf. Accessed September 8, 2004.
Strasser F, Driver LC, Burton AW. Update on adjuvant medications for chronic nonmalignant pain. Pain Practice. 2003;3:282–97.
Anticonvulsant medications have been used in the treatment of neuropathic pain for many years without FDA approval (except for carbamazepine’s indication for trigeminal neuralgia). The slide provides a summary of many of the controlled trials that have been conducted examining the efficacy of anticonvulsant drugs in the treatment of various neuropathic pain syndromes.1,2-7
The studies of carbamazepine and phenytoin conducted in the 1960s and 1970s do not meet today’s standards of methodological rigor.8 The phenytoin studies have produced both successful and unsuccessful results.9
The two studies of gabapentin are among the largest clinical trials of the treatment of neuropathic pain ever conducted.8,10 These studies have stimulated a great deal of clinical and research interest in the efficacy and mechanisms of action of anticonvulsant drugs in treating patients with neuropathic pain.
First-generation anticonvulsant drugs, which include carbamazepine and phenytoin, sometimes provoke serious side effects and drug-drug interactions that do not occur with second-generation anticonvulsants.11 We will be focusing on gabapentin because it is the anticonvulsive most commonly used for neuropathic pain and for which there is the most clinical data.
1. Rowbotham M et al. JAMA. 1998;280:1837-1842; 2. Eisenberg E et al. Neurology. 2001;57:505-509; 3. Simpson DM et al. Neurology. 2000;54:2115-2119; 4.Campbell FG et al. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1966;29: 265-267; 5. Zakrzewska JM et al. Pain. 1997;73:223-230;6. Zakrzewska JM et al. J Neurol, Neurosurg, Psychiatry. 1989;52:472-476; 7. Vestergaard K et al. Neurology. 2001;56:184-190; 8. Rull J et al. Diabetologia. 1969;5:215-218; 9. Chadda VS et al.J Assoc Physicians India. 1978;26:403-406; 10. Backonja M et al. JAMA. 1998;280:1831-1836;11. Ross EL. Neurology. 2000;55:S41-S46.
[discuss advances in our understanding of the mu, delta and kappa opioid receptor mechanisms]
[introduce interest over the last decade in the role of NMDA receptor in neural mechanisms of persistent pain
NMDA-R Antagonists: Issues
Extensive preclinical research documents involvement of the NMDA-R in:
Central sensitization
Neuropathic pain
Development of analgesic tolerance
Clinical study results of singe entity NMDA-R antagonists:
NMDA-R antagonists alone are unlikely to act as analgesics
Potential side effects limit clinical utility
Rational for NMDA-R/opioid combinations]
[but highlight challenges in translating basic research on pain to application in clinical pain management]
[introduce idea of interactions between NMDA and opioid systems]
Mao J. Translational pain research: Bridging the gap between basic and clinical research. Pain 2002;97:183-187.
Oral dextromethorphan (DM),an antitussive, is a noncompetitive antagonist of the NMDA receptor. In RCTs, dextromethorphan was superior to memantine and lorazepam at reducing pain intensity in patients with diabetic neuropathy or postherpetic neuralgia.1 Combinations of morphine and dextromethorphan have been studied for the treatment of moderate-to-severe chronic pain.1
Ketamine belongs to dissociative anaesthetics class of drugs. A recent RCT in which ketamine efficacy was measured in patients with neuropathic pain found that ain reduction was significantly correlated with ketamine-induced changes in hallucinatory behavior and excitement.2
Methadone is a synthetic opioid analgesic with a long duration of action, used primarily to treat pain and to detoxify or maintain patients who are addicted to narcotic pain relievers. The d-enantiomer (but not the l-)of the opioid methadone has a low micromolar affinity to the NMDA receptor. Previous in vitro and in vivo studies have determined that the d-enantiomer has NMDA receptor antagonist activity.3
Memantine (Amantadine), an Alzheimer’s and vascular dementia therapy currently in Pharse III trials, is an uncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist. A regulatory filing for neuropathic pain was expected in 2003.4
Amitriptyline and other tricyclic antidepressants exhibit high affinity binding to NMDA receptors in vitro.5
Thiopental, an ultra–short-acting barbiturate, has been shown to reduce significantly NMDA-mediated increases in intracellular calcium in vitro.6
Meperidine hydrochloride/ Pethidine hydrochloride (Demerol) is a narcotic analgesic. Large concentrations of meperidine have been shown to inhibit NMDA receptor channels by channel block mechanisms.7
1.Sang CN, Booher S, Gilron I, et al. Dextromethorphan and memantine in painful diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia: efficacy and dose-response trials. Anesthesiology 2002;96:1053-1061.
2. Oga K, Kojima T, Matsuura M, et al. Effects of low-dose ketamine on neuropathic pain: An electroencephalogram-electrooculogram/behavioral study.Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2002;56:355-363.
3. Davis AM, Inturrisi CE. d-Methadone blocks morphine tolerance and N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced hyperalgesia. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999;289:1048-1053.
4. Kilpatrick GJ, Tilbrook GS. Memantine. Merz. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2002;3:798-806.
5. Eisenach JC, Gebhart GF. Intrathecal amitriptyline acts as an N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist in the presence of inflammatory hyperalgesia in rats. Anesthesiology 1995;83:1046-1054.
6. Zhan RZ, Qi S, Wu C, et al. Intravenous anesthetics differentially reduce neurotransmission damage caused by oxygen-glucose deprivation in rat hippocampal slices in correlation with N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor inhibition. Crit Care Med 2001;29:808-813.
7. Yamakura T, Sakimura K, Shimoji K. N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor channel block by meperidine is dependent on extracellular pH. Anesth Analg 2000;90:928-932
For many years, anecdotal reports and small, uncontrolled studies have suggested that topical preparations with aspirin may have an analgesic effect in some patients with neuropathic pain.1 In one study, aspirin dissolved in chloroform reduced pain in 42 patients with PHN and herpes zoster.2
The results of controlled trials of topical capsaicin in the treatment of neuropathic pain, including PHN and painful diabetic neuropathy, have been equivocal.3-5 These results are partially caused by the difficulty of conducting a double-blind trial of capsaicin because of the associated burning it causes. This problem also limited the value of capsaicin in the clinic, because few patients can tolerate repeated applications.3 Capsaicin is available in a number of over-the-counter formulations, including Zostrix, Capsin, Capzasin-P, Dolorac, R Gel, Pain-X, No Pain-HP.
EMLA is a eutectic mixture of the local anesthetics lidocaine and prilocaine. Clinical trial results have been mixed. In one study, repeated applications of EMLA had a variable effect on pain.6 EMLA Anesthetic Disc® and EMLA Cream® are available but have not been approved by the FDA for treating neuropathic pain disorders.
The topical lidocaine patch 5% (Lidoderm®) has been approved by the FDA for treating postherpetic neuralgia on the basis of three well-controlled trials.7-10 The effectiveness of this treatment in patients with other neuropathic pain syndromes is currently being studied; one published, open-label trial of 16 patients with refractory neuropathic pain demonstrated clinically meaningful pain relief.11
1. Kost RG et al. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:32-42; 2. King RB. Arch Neurol. 1993;50:1046-1053; 3. Robbins W. Clin J Pain. 2000;16:S86-S89; 4. Low PA et al. Pain. 1995;62:163-168; 5. Scheffler NM et al. J Am Podiatr Med Assoc. 1991;81:288-293; 6. Attal N et al. Pain. 1999;81:203-209; 7. Lidoderm Patch (Endo Labs). Physicians Desk Reference on the internet; 8. Rowbotham MC et al. Ann Neurol. 1995;37: 246-253; 9. Rowbotham MC et al. Pain. 1996;65:39-44; 10. Galer BS et al. Pain. 1999;80:533-538; 11. Devers AD et al. Clin J Pain. 2000;16:205-208.
Medicine has now entered the new millennium, an era of “balance,” in which numerous government and healthcare organizations have issued guidelines supporting the appropriate use of opioids for chronic pain.
There is a growing recognition that opioid analgesics are essential treatment options for chronic pain, yet they do have serious risk potential, and these risks can be managed.
The goal of physicians, then, is to maximize symptom relief and functional improvement while minimizing the risks and occurrence of addiction, diversion, and other complications.
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA): www.usdoj.gov/dea/
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA): www.fda.gov/
Federation of State Medical Boards (FSMB): www.fsmb.org/
American Pain Society (APS): www.ampainsoc.org/
American Association of Pain Medicine (AAPM): www.painmed.org/
American Society of Pain Management (AAPM): www.aapainmanage.org/
American Society of Addiction Medicine (ASAM): www.asam.org/
American College of Radiology (ACR): www.acr.org
American Geriatrics Society (AGS): www.americangeriatrics.org/
These strategies have been suggested by the National Pharmaceutical Council as ways to help minimize adverse effects.
National Pharmaceutical Council, Inc. Pain: Current Understanding of Assessment, Management, and Treatments. Reston, VA: National Pharmaceutical Council, Inc; 2001. Available at: http://www.jcaho.com/news+room/health+care+issues/pain+mono_npc.pdf. Accessed September 8, 2004.
Although there are common misperceptions that opioids are effective only for certain types of pain, or should be used only in the short term (for acute pain) or for cancer pain, the reality is that in the absence of effective alternatives, opioids are an indispensable tool for treating a wide range of pain types.1-4
In addition to short-term use, opioids can be safely used long term (for cancer or chronic, persistent noncancer pain) either as needed for episodic pain or regularly for continuous pain, with appropriate monitoring, attention to management of side effects, and careful selection of agent and dosing schedule.
Opioid analgesics may be used to treat both nociceptive pain as well as pain of neuropathic origin.5
Dellemijn PL. Opioids in non-cancer pain: a life-time sentence? Eur J Pain. 2001;5:333-339.
Schofferman J. Long-term opioid analgesic therapy for severe refractory lumbar spine pain. Clin J Pain. 1999;15:136-140.
Rowbotham MC, Reisner-Keller LA, Fields HL. Both intravenous lidocaine and morphine reduce the pain of postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology. 1991;41:1024-1028.
Lipman AG. Treatment of chronic pain in osteoarthritis: do opioids have a clinical role? Curr Rheumatol Rep. 2001;3:513-519.
Portenoy RK. Opioid analgesics. In: Portenoy RK, Kanner RM, eds. Pain Management: Theory and Practice. Philadelphia, Pa: FA Davis Company; 1996:248-276.
Short-acting opioids are appropriate for treatment of acute pain or breakthrough/incident pain, whereas long-acting formulations are used for patients with continuous chronic pain. Short-acting agents provide effective analgesia for acute pain but should be avoided as primary analgesics for chronic pain management. Short-acting opioids may be used during the initial dose titration period of long-acting formulations and as rescue medication for episodes of breakthrough/incidence pain.1,2
Some short- and long-acting opioids may also contain other analgesics (eg, oxycodone/acetaminophen, hydrocodone/ibuprofen).
1. American Geriatric Society. Clinical Practice Guidelines. The Management of Chronic Pain in Older Persons. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1998;46:635-651.
2. McCarberg BH, Barkin RL. Long-acting opioids for chronic pain: pharmacotherapeutic opportunities to enhance compliance, quality of life, and analgesia. Am J Ther. 2001;8:181-186.
Morphine is primarily metabolized to morphine-3-glucuronide (M3G) and morphine-6-glucuronide (M6G). M3G can produce hyperalgesia, allodynia, and hyperactivity and appears to antagonize the analgesia provided by morphine. On the other hand, M6G has greater analgesic potency than morphine and produces fewer adverse events. Elevated concentrations of M3G, or an increased ratio of M3G to M6G, can produce allodynia, hyperalgesia, and myoclonus (sudden, involuntary jerking of a muscle or group of muscles) in a dose-related manner. If these effects occur, switching to another opioid may be warranted.
Jackson KC, Lipman AG. Opioid analgesics. In: Lipman AG, ed. Pain Management for Primary Care Clinicians. Bethesda, MD: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc; 2004:59–70.
Lugo RA, Kern SE. Pharmacokinetics of opioids in the management of pain. In: Lipman AG, ed. Pain Management for Primary Care Clinicians. Bethesda, MD: American Society of Health-System Pharmacists, Inc; 2004:71–90.
Propoxyphene also has an increased risk for inducing seizures compared with other opioids. This drawback, combined with the fact that it has not been proven to be more effective than acetaminophen, aspirin, or codeine, limits its use. In addition, propoxyphene can cause cardiac conduction abnormalities. Both propoxyphene and its metabolite norpropoxyphene contribute to the cardiotoxicity, whereas the neurotoxicity results solely from the propoxyphene. Naloxone does not reverse the cardiotoxicity associated with propoxyphene. Propoxyphene should be avoided in elderly patients.
It has recently been withdrawn from the national formulary in the United Kingdom.
FDA says it will take several weeks to decide how to proceed
Kleinschmidt KC, Wainscott M, Ford MD. Opioids. In: Ford MD, Delaney KA, Ling LJ, Erickson T, eds. Clinical Toxicology. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 2001:627–40.
Subutex is just buprenorphine. Suboxone also contains naloxone to block the opioid effects if patients try to inject it.
Tramadol is a weak opioid agonist that is effective for treating moderate to moderately severe pain. It also inhibits reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine.
The most common adverse events associated with tramadol are dizziness, nausea, constipation, and somnolence, and these events are not fully reversible with naloxone. Compared with other opioids, tramadol carries a reduced risk of respiratory depression with overdosage and a low risk of physical dependence and abuse, and it is a federally nonscheduled opioid analgesic.
American Pain Society. Principles of Analgesic Use in the Treatment of Acute Pain and Cancer Pain. 5th ed. Glenview, IL: American Pain Society; 2003.
Cicero TJ, Adams EH, Geller A, et al. A postmarketing surveillance program to monitor Ultram® (tramadol hydrochloride) abuse in the United States. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1999;57:7–22.
Moreland LW, St. Clair EW. The use of analgesics in the management of pain in rheumatic diseases. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 1999;25:153–9.
Ultram® (tramadol hydrochloride) [package insert]. Raritan, NJ: Ortho-McNeil Pharmaceutical, Inc; 1998 November.
Long-acting opioids have greater utility than short-acting opioids in treating chronic pain in patients with consistent pain levels. Long-acting, controlled-release, oral formulations of opioids (eg, morphine, oxycodone), which have a predictable duration of action lasting from 8 to 12 hours, make around-the-clock therapy possible, offering dosing convenience, flexibility, and relative steadiness of the opioid concentrations in the blood.1,2
1. American Geriatric Society. Clinical Practice Guidelines. The Management of Chronic Pain in Older Persons. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1998;46:635-651.
2. McCarberg BH, Barkin RL. Long-acting opioids for chronic pain: pharmacotherapeutic opportunities to enhance compliance, quality of life, and analgesia. Am J Ther. 2001;8:181-186.
The efficacy of opioids in chronic pain has been established in a number of randomized, controlled trials, including placebo-controlled trials of controlled-release oral codeine1,2 and tramadol,3 immediate- and sustained-release oxycodone,4-6 intravenous and sustained-release oral morphine,7-11 and fentanyl.12
In a comparison of transdermal vs oral delivery, transdermal fentanyl and sustained-release oral morphine were compared in a crossover trial. In this study, a significantly greater number of patients (35% vs 23%; P=0.002) considered pain control better with transdermal fentanyl than with morphine.8
Peloso PM et al. J Rheumatol. 2000. 27:764-771.
Arkinstall W, et al. Pain. 1995;62:169-178.
Harati Y et al. J Diabetes Complications. 2000;14:65-70.
Roth SH et al. Arch Intern Med. 2000;160:853-860.
Caldwell JR et al. J Rheumatol. 1999;26:862-869.
Watson CPN, Babul N. Neurology. 1998;50:1837-1841.
Caldwell JR et al. J Pain Symptom Manage. 2002;23:278-291.
Allen L et al. BMJ. 2001;322:1-7.
Jamison RN et al. Spine. 1998;23:2591-2600.
Moulin DE et al. Lancet. 1996;347:143-147.
Rowbotham MC et al. Neurology. 1991;41:1024-1028.
Dellemijn PL, Vanneste JA. Lancet. 1997;349:753-758.
In addition to “how does it work”, is it an opioid, is it not an opioid?
Depending where you look, affinity of M1 is ~1/10 of morphine
5HT and NE involved in anitnociceptive effects of descending inhibitory pathways in CNS
This slide addressed the management of adverse events associated with therapy.1
Side effects, shown above in random order, may include nausea, vomiting, itching, sedation, balance/ataxia (especially in older patients) and pruritus. Cognitive impairments/mental “clouding” may also occur. However, tolerance to these side effects typically occurs within a few days to weeks of therapy initiation. The most common side effect of chronic opioid therapy is constipation, which may persist, particularly if there are other predisposing causes.
Once ruling out other causes, opioid side effects may be ameliorated by a number of approaches. For nausea, first try switching opioids and then try anti-emetics. For nausea associated with vertigo or movement, try antivertiginous agents (eg, scopolamine); for nausea associated with satiety, try metoclopramide.
For sedation/somnolence, lower dose if possible; or add co-analgesics or psychostimulant agents. Modifications in the patient’s diet and activity levels may also be beneficial.
For constipation, treat prophylactically with stool softeners, bowel stimulants, and nonpharmacologic measures or try switching opioids.
Portenoy RK. Opioid analgesics. In: Portenoy RK and Kanner RM, eds. Pain Management: Theory and Practice. Philadelphia, PA: F.A. Davis Company;1996:248-253.
It is critical to once again address the importance of titration.Titration of dose is key to achieving optimal balance between therapeutic analgesics and side effects.
Long-term administration of intrathecal opioids may also be associated with decreased libido, as a result of opioid effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (leading to hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism). Thus, such patients may need endocrine monitoring, consider testosterone replacement, or switching opioids; consider endocrine consultation.1-3
Opioid therapy may be especially problematical in certain categories of patients—those engaged in high-risk activities or occupations and those with histories of substance abuse. Use caution and clinical judgment in these patients. Consultation with a pain specialist is recommended. It is useful to develop a relationship with a pain specialist—even prior to the occurrence of a need to refer.
Abs R, Verhelst J, Maeyaert J, van Buyten J-P, Opsomer F, Adriaensen H, Verlooy J, et al. Endocrine consequences of long-term intrathecal administration of opioids. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:2215-2222.
Finch PM, Roberts LJ, Price L, Hadlow NC, Pullan PT. Hypogonadism in patients treated with intrathecal morphine. Clin J Pain. 2000;16:251-254.
Roberts LJ, Finch PM, Pullan PT, Bhagat CI, Price LM. Sex hormone suppression by intrathecal opioids: a prospective study. Clin J Pain. 2002;18:144-148.
This slide addresses the issue aberrant drug-taking behaviors.
Before considering initiation of opioid treatment, it is important for the physician, patient, and family to understand the distinction between physical dependence, tolerance, and addiction.
Physical dependence is a pharmacologic effect characterized by the development of a withdrawal syndrome when an opioid drug is discontinued, when the dose is substantially reduced, or if an antogonist is administered. Dependence occurs in almost all patients on opioids and does not connote addiction.1
Tolerance means that a greater amount of drug is needed over time to maintain a therapeutic effect. The number of patients who develop clinically relevant tolerance is unknown. Tolerance may also occur to side effects, and thus may be beneficial. Some patients who develop tolerance may be managed by judicious dose increases2; others who develop inexorable tolerance cannot be managed on opioids. There is no evidence to support a role for analgesic tolerance in the development of drug addiction. Addiction is, however, often though not always associated with tolerance.
Pseudoaddiction refers to behaviors suggestive of addiction (eg, multiple prescribers, hoarding) when patients are undertreated for pain.1
Addiction is a psychiatric disorder consisting of continued, compulsive use of the substance despite harm.1 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders provides nine categories of opioid use or opioid-induced disorders, including diagnostic criteria for opioid dependence or opioid abuse.3
True addiction (patient loss of control) may become obvious only when the physician stops prescribing the medicine. There is, however, little evidence that addiction is common within the chronic pain population. In a study reviewing the available data, it was found that prevalence estimates for addiction in patients with chronic pain ranged from 3% to 19%.4
American Academy of Pain Medicine, American Pain Society, American Society of Addiction Medicine. Definitions Related to the Use of Opioids for the Treatment of Pain. 2001. Available at: http://www.ampainsoc.org/advocacy/opioids2.htm. Accessed October 2, 2002.
Zenz M. Morphine myths: sedation, tolerance, addiction. Postgrad Med J. 1991;67:S100-S102.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th Ed. Rev Ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc.; 2000:269-277.
Fishbain DA, Rosomoff HL, Rosomoff RS. Drug abuse, dependence, and addiction in chronic pain patients. Clin J Pain. 1992;8:77-85.
The tricyclic antidepressants have been found to be effective for treating a variety of pain states. These agents block the reuptake of both norepinephrine and serotonin and appear to have a variety of analgesic properties that extend beyond their modulation of serotonin and norepinephrine. Newer antidepressants—the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors—do not have analgesic properties.
They are used to treat headaches (including migraines), low back pain, fibromyalgia, painful diabetic neuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia, central pain, and cancer pain. These antidepressants appear to be most effective for treating burning pain or hypersensitivity, but also may be beneficial for lancinating neuropathic pain.
Their use is limited by a greater incidence of adverse events. Class effects include sedation, orthostatic hypotension, and anticholinergic effects.
Cohen SP, Mullings R, Abdi S, Warltier DC. The pharmacologic treatment of muscle pain. Anesthesiology. 2004;101:495–526.
Macres S, Richeimer S, Duran P. Adjuvant analgesics. In: Warfield CA, Bajwa ZH, eds. Principles & Practice of Pain Medicine. 2nd ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2004:627–38.
National Pharmaceutical Council, Inc. Pain: Current Understanding of Assessment, Management, and Treatments. Reston, VA: National Pharmaceutical Council, Inc; 2001. Available at: http://www.jcaho.com/news+room/health+care+issues/pain+mono_npc.pdf. Accessed September 8, 2004.
Brain:Cortex
music, distraction
placebo, opioids
hypnosis
BS; endog opioids
tonically active opioid sys med by 5hT and NE (monoamines)
Evolutionary standpoint: adapting a nervous system that could detect and remember danger
In normal healing, as tissues heal, inflammation resolves and fewer signals are transmitted from the central nervous system (CNS), resulting in decreased pain and decreased muscle spasm.
If normal healing does not occur, chronic pain may result, even in the absence of ongoing illness or after healing is complete. Plastic changes in the CNS following an acute injury may result in chronic, persistent pathologic pain.1