Animal function slides

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A i l F tiAnimal Function
AP Biology Rapid Learning Series
www.RapidLearningCenter.com/
© Rapid Learning Inc. All rights reserved.
AP Biology Rapid Learning Series
Wayne Huang, PhD
Andrew Graham, PhD
Elizabeth James, PhD
Casandra Rauser, PhD
Jessica Habashi, PhD
Sara Olson, PhD
Jessica Barnes, PhD

Learning Objectives
Energy Source: Nutrition,
Digestion and Respiration
By completing this tutorial, you will learn about:
Circulation and Defense
Reproduction and
Development
Sensor and Movement
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Animal Function Concept Map
DevelopmentAnimal
Digestion
Nervous
System
ReproductionReproduction
Immune
Response
Immune
Response
Defense
Sensory
InflammatoryInflammatory
Response
Ingest
Food
Respiration
Oxygen
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Nutrients
Circulation
Response

Energy Source
Nutrition
Di ti
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Digestion
Respiration
Animal Nutrients
Major nutrients include
carbohydrates and
proteins.
Other essential nutrients
include nonessential
amino acids: tryptophan,
Vitamins are required in
smaller amounts than
amino acids: tryptophan,
methionine, valine,
histidine, theronine,
phenylalanine, leucine,
isoleucine and lysine.
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smaller amounts than
amino acids but are
essential. Minerals are
chemical elements other
than C, H, O and N. Ca and
P are the two types required
in large amounts.

Animal Nutrition Uptake
■ Macromolecules need to be broken down
to small nutrition molecules for body to
uptake.
■ Feeding Types:■ Feeding Types:
■ Omnivores: Animals feeding on multiple
types of food, e.g. human
■ Herbivores: Animals only eat plants
■ Carnivores: Animals only eat other animals
Omnivores
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Herbivores Carnivores
Food Processing Stages
Food processing stages:
• Ingestion: taking the food in.
• Digestion: breaking the food down into small
units.
• Absorption: nutrient molecules are absorbed
Ingestion
• Absorption: nutrient molecules are absorbed.
• Elimination: undigested waste is passed out.
8/46 Elimination
Digestions &
Absorption

Digestion in Stomach
Food enters the stomach and is broken apart by a
process called heuristic churning and mixed with
digestive fluid (having HCl and digestive enzymes).
Small molecules like glucose or alcohol pass
through the stomach directly into the blood streamthrough the stomach directly into the blood stream.
Gastric Glands:
• Mucous Cells: secret mucous for
lubrication
• Chief Cells: secrets pepsinogen
(inactive)
• Parietal Cells: secrets HCl which
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HCl + Pepsinogen (inactive) Pepsin (active)
Parietal Cells: secrets HCl which
breaks down food
• Pepsin: digest proteins into
smaller peptides.
Digestion in Small Intestine
Liver
Small Intestine: the major organ
for chemical digestion and
nutrient absorption
Pancreas
p
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Small intestine
Liver: Makes bile which makes fat more susceptible to
enzyme attack.
Pancreas: Produces digestive enzymes and alkaline
solutions which neutralize food mixtures from stomach.

Small Intestine in Detail
The intestine goes from
the stomach to the anus.
The small intestine is
divided into the
Nutrients are absorbed in the lumen. In the
glandular epithelium are goblet cells that
secrete mucus which lubricates food passage.
Villi increase the surface area of the intestines.
divided into the
duodenum, jejunum and
ileum.
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Large surface area - facilitate absorption:
• Plicae Circulares: Folds of submucosa which
serve to increase surface area.
• Villus (Villi): Finger-like projections on the
small intestine wall.
• Microvilli: Many tiny projections on epithelial
cells which form villi.
Small Intestine Breakdown Products
The small intestine is responsible for
carbohydrate breakdown to maltose and
monosaccharide. Proteins are broken
down into amino acids.
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Nucleic acids are broken down into
nucleotides, nitrogen bases, sugars and
phosphates. Fats are broken down to
fat droplets and fatty acids and
glycerols.
Only small molecules can be absorbed
in the small intestine.

Nutrition Question
Nutrients are
needed for body
function what else
d d?
Oxygen
do we need?
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Gas exchange
happens in the
lung. When rib
cage enlarges, air
Respiration: Inhale O2, Exhale CO2
Trachea
Left Lung
comes in and
shrinks air out. Bronchus
Right Lung
Bronchiole
Alveoli
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Breathing is
automatically
controlled by
centers in the brain.
Right Lung
The lung structure
includes: trachea,
bronchus, bronchiole
and alveoli. Most gas
exchange occurs at the
alveoli.

Oxygen and CO2 Transport
• Hemoglobin is a iron containing
oxygen transport metalloprotein.
• It is found in the red blood cell.
• Hemoglobin transports oxygen
• Hemoglobin is a tetramer, made
up of four protein subunits. Each
heme group binds one oxygen
molecule.
• Gas exchange happens at the
alveoli which is permeable to gas
• Hemoglobin transports oxygen
from the lungs or gills to the rest
of the body.
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alveoli which is permeable to gas.
• Oxygenated blood is bright red.
Deoxygenated blood is a darker
shade of red.
Circulation and
Defense
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Cardiovascular System
Heart Structure
■ Left Ventricle
■ Right Ventricle Pulmonary artery
Superior
Vena Cava
Aorta
■ Left Atrium
■ Right Atrium
■ Pulmonary artery
■ Pulmonary Veins
■ Superior Vena
Cava
■ Inferior Vena Cava
■ Atrioventricular
Valve
Left Atrium
Right
Atrium
y y
Semilunar Valve
Pulmonary Veins
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Valve
■ Semilunar Valve
■ Aorta
Right Ventricle
Left ventricle
Inferior Vena Cava
Atrioventricular Valve
Blood Circulation
Blood circulation can
be divided into two
circuits, the
pulmonary circuit and
th t i i it
Pulmonary Circuit
A circuit of blood circulation
between lung and heart
Function:
1) S d CO t l
Pulmonary Circuit
Lung
CO2
O2
O2
CO2
the systemic circuit. 1) Send CO2 to lung
2) Get O2 from lung
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Systemic Circuit
Tissue
O2
O2CO2
CO2
Systemic Circuit
A circuit of blood
circulation between heart
and other part of body
Function:
1) Bring CO2 to heart
2) Send O2 to tissues

Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle consists of three
stages of alternating relaxation and
contraction of the heart.
Atria systole: contraction
of the atria and blood
DiastoleDiastole: heart is relaxed
and blood flows in.
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of the atria and blood
moves into the ventricles.
Systole
Ventricular systole: ventricles
contract and O2 rich blood
moves into the aorta artery. CO2
rich blood moves into the
pulmonary artery.
Body Defense: Nonspecific
Nonspecific defense proteins and
cells
Categorized into nonspecific defense and immune response.
Neutrophil
■ White Blood Cells: engulf bacteria
and virus and infected tissues
Neutrophils
Monocytes Macrophages
Lymphocyte
Eosinophil
Basophil
Monocyte
Lymphocyte
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■ Proteins:
Interferons: produced by infected
tissues for fighting the virus.
Complement: Circulate in blood
for making microbes more
susceptible to macrophage. Basophil
Eosinophil

Inflammatory Response
Inflammatory response
is a major component of
nonspecific immune
response.
Tissue injury results in the release of
chemical signals like histamine. This causes
blood vessel dilation and an increase of local
blood vessels, migration of phagocytes in the
areas (s elling redness)response. areas (swelling, redness).
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Phagocytes consume
bacteria and cell debris
resulting in wound repair.
Immune Response
Resistance to specific invaders
contains two interactive immune
response: B cell
Humoral
T cell
Cellular
response:
■ The humoral immune
response:
-- Detects antigens in blood
stream
-- Involves antibodies generated
by B cells
Plasma
Cell
Antibodies
T cell
T cell attacks
infected cell
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■ The cellular immune
response:
-- Detect antigens that reside
within or on cells.
-- Involves T cells.
Binding to
Antigen
Antigen
Destroyed
x
Infected cell lysis

Antibody and B Cells
AntigenThere is an enormous
amount of binding antigen
diversity in antibodies.
This is due to the process
Antibody reservoir
Antigen binding stimulates cell division
One dominant cell type
of clonal selection.
•There is a variety of B cells
in low numbers.
• Antigens binding the B cell
stimulates one type of B cell
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Plasma cell
to divide and differentiate into
plasma cells.
• Because of clonal selection
these antigen specific cells
will dominate.
Primary and Secondary Response
Antibody reservoir
Antigen
Mitosis
Primary response:
Lymphocytes are first
exposed to the antigen and
form a clone of plasma cells
which produce antibodies
Memory B cell
Plasma cell
which produce antibodies.
Secondary response
involves a subsequent
exposure to the same
antigen. This will
trigger a stronger
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Memory B cell
Large clone of cells
trigger a stronger
immune response.

Cell Mediated Response
There are three types of T cells:
• Cytotoxic T cells - attack body cells that are
infected with virus.
• Suppressor T cell - inhibit other T and B cell• Suppressor T cell - inhibit other T and B cell
activity. It is responsible for terminating immune
activity after the infection is eliminated.
• Helper T cells - activates other T and B cells for
antibody production.
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Killer T cells directly attack other cells having
foreign or abnormal antigens on their surfaces.
Immune System Summary
MonocytesMonocytes
AntibodiesMacrophages
B cells
Secondary
NeutrophilsNeutrophils
Interferon
Inflammatory
Eosinophil
CytotoxicCytotoxic
T cell
Complement
Humoral Response
Primary responsePrimary response
Secondary
Response
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Inflammatory
response
Helper T cell
Suppressor
T cell
Nonspecific Response Specific Immune Response
Cell-mediated Response
Basophil

What is Clonal Selection?
What is clonal
selection? Clonal selection is a
process for antigen to
stimulate cell divisionstimulate cell division
of a corresponding B
cell, therefore this
specific B cell number
increase significantly
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Development and
Reproduction
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Reproductive - Development
Sperm and Ova Formation: Meiosis
Mating to Form ZygotesMating to Form Zygotes
Embryo Development
Child Born Process
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Growth Stages
Adults
Sperm and Ova Formation
Sperm is developed in coiled
tubes called seminiferous
tubules in the testes.
Ova are formed in the ovary.
Both sperms and ova are
produced during meiosis.
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Embryo Development
Zygote Three layeredThree-layered
embryo
Cleavage
Blastula
SpermsSperms
Ovum
Fertilization Gastrulation
Cleavage: Blastula
Mature embryo
Organ formation
Cleavage: Blastula
is formed,
gastrulation cells
divide into three
layers: ectoderm,
endoderm and
mesoderm.
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Organ Formation: Endoderm leads to
digestive tract, liver, pancreas, thyroid,
parathyroids thymus, lining of bladder.
Ectoderm: skin and central nervous
system, Mesoderm: internal organs,
skeletal/muscular system.
Blastulation
Morula Blastula
The blastula is an early stage of embryonic
development in animals. It is formed by
cleavage of a fertilized ovum. It is made up of a
spherical layer of cells surrounding a fluid filled
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spherical layer of cells surrounding a fluid filled
cavity called the blastocoel.
The blastula follows the morula and is before gastrula.

Gastrulation is an invagination of cells during the blastula
phase of development to form a digestive cavity – called
archenteron and two separate germ layers called an ectoderm
and (internal endoderm) often a mesoderm develops between
them
Gastrulation
them.
There is only one opening to
the digestive cavity which is
known as the blastopore.
The germ layers differentiate to
form tissues and organs.
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What is Gastrulation?
What is
gastrulation
?
Gastrulation is a developmental stage
for embryos, it generates three layers
of cells which can further differentiate
into organs.
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Sense andSense and
Nervous
System
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Sensory Process
SoundSound
ElectricalElectrical
Signal
Sensory
Receptor
Sensory
Receptor
Light
Food
SensorySmell
Sensory
Neuron
y
Transduction
Smell
Nerve System
Central
Nerve System
Motor Neuron
3 Types of Neurons
1. Sensory neurons send
impulses toward the
CNS away from the
peripheral system.
2. Interneurons are the
neurons lie entirely
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Effector
(Action)to
the
y
within the CNS.
3. Motor neurons: these
nerve cells carry
signals from the CNS
to the effector cells in
the peripheral system.

Sensory Receptors
Mechanical and chemical receptors
detect temperature and pressure.
They also detect muscle contraction
and blood pressure. They are
Auditory receptors are
responsible for detecting
pressure waves in the air.
p y
responsible for sensing taste, smell
and body position.
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Optic receptors detect light
over a broad range of
wavelengths.
Potential on Sensory Neuron
A nerve signal originates as a change in the resting potential.
Resting Potential
■ The voltage across the
plasma membrane of a restingplasma membrane of a resting
neuron
■ Inside of cell is negative and
outside is positive
■ The resting potential is
maintained by ions
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Inside of cell
outside
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Action Potential
■ A nerve signal
Threshold Potential
■ A change in the potential
that is big enough to initiate a
nerve signal

Synapse and Neuron Communication
Action potentialAction potential
Synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter
binds to receptors on
the receiving neuron.
The binding opens
ion channels in the
receiving neuron
and generates a new
action potential
y py p
Neurotransmitter
Releasing
Neurotransmitter
Accepting and binding ofAccepting and binding of
the neurotransmitter
Transmitting
Neuron
The potential
arrives at the
synaptic cleft
and releases
neuro-
transmitters.
N
action potential.
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the neurotransmitter
New Action
Potential
Receiving neuron
Neurons
communicate at the
synapse. An action
potential can
regenerate itself
along the neuron.
Spinal Cord
Spinal cord connects the central nerve
system and peripheral nerve system.
Sensory Cell Body
Dorsal Root
Ganglion
y y
White Matter
Gray Matter
Central Canal
Sensory axon
Receptor
Effector Spinal
N
40/46
Motor Cell Body
Interneuron
Motor axon
Nerve

Central Nervous System
C b ll
Forebrain
Brain and Spinal Cord
The brain is made
up of three parts.
Th b i t i
Brainstem
CerebellumThe brainstem is
the most primitive
in the evolutionary
chain. Important in
life support and
basic functions
such as movement.
The cerebellum
consists of two
hemispheres and
integrates the
sensory perception
and motor output
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and motor output.
Forebrain the
most advanced
in evolutionary
terms. Important
for learning
ability and
creativity.
What is the Signal in a Neuron?
What form does a
stimulus signal take
in a neuron?
A stimulus signal exists
as a potential charge
across the plasma
membranemembrane.
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Animal
Nutrients
Animal
Nutrients
Learning Summary
Animal Sensory
System and
Signal
Animal Sensory
System and
Signal
Digestion and
Respiration
Digestion and
Respiration
AnimalAnimal
Signal
Transmission in
Nerve System
Signal
Transmission in
Nerve System
AnimalAnimal
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Reproduction
and
Development
Reproduction
and
Development
Animal
Circulation and
Defense
System
Animal
Circulation and
Defense
System
Question: Review
_____ are animals that feed on
multiple types of food. ___________Omnivores
The major organ for chemical
___________
___________
Small intestine
Pulmonary and
systemic circuit
The major organ for chemical
digestion and nutrient
absorption.
Spinal cord connects the
The two circulation
divisions of blood.
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___________Central, peripheral
p
____ and _____ nerve
systems.
The blastula is formed by
_____ of a fertilized ovum. ___________Cleavage

Congratulations
You have successfully completed the
core tutorial
Animal Function
45/46
Wh t’ N t
Chemistry :: Biology :: Physics :: Math
What’s Next …
Step 1: Concepts – Core Tutorial (Just Completed)
Step 2: Practice – Interactive Problem Drill
Step 3: Recap – Super Review Cheat Sheet
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Animal function slides

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