Tourism & Sustainable Development Goals. Steve Noakes March 2015.

Steve Noakes:
steve@pacificasiatourism.org
Adjunct Professor
Tourism & Sustainable Development Goals
Steve Noakes, Visiting Lecturer, University of Queensland, March 2015
Cambodia: Street side market

Learning objectives
 Improve student knowledge on the concepts of:
 sustainable development, including the implications of global population growth & wealth
distribution
 poverty & the poverty trap, Human Development, Millennium Development Goals and
Sustainable Development Goals.
 Increase understanding of the role & practices of tourism as an international
development tool.
 Identify & describe key issues relating to the use of tourism in emerging
economies.
 Critically analyse & evaluate costs & benefits associated with developing tourism.
 Reflect on approaches aimed to improve the management of sustainable tourism
– with a focus on emerging economies.

Lecture content.
• Brief introduction to self.
Setting the context:
• Our world: Population growth + Poor & Rich.
• Concepts of poverty & the poverty trap.
• Concepts of Human Development.
• MDGs and SDGs.
Tourism & international development.
• Tourism & the MDGs/SDGs.
• Pro-poor tourism - project examples.

Principal author: John Downes,
consultant for SNV Asia
Pro-Poor Sustainable Tourism Network.
Lead Editor: Steve Noakes
Tourism Legislation & MDGs (2006)
SNV - Netherlands Development Organization
Originated from a regional workshop
organised by SNV’s Asia Tourism Network
in Lao PDR, June 2003.
Provides analytical framework methodology
to assess existing tourism legislation &
policies in the context of the MDGs.
Assist developing countries to
develop a legal & policy framework for
tourism so that it accords with
& promotes the MDG targets.
Free online download http://goo.gl/uAgsyA

UNWTO Code of Ethics.
Linked to the MDGs
1: Tourism's contribution to mutual understanding &
respect between peoples and societies
2: Tourism as a vehicle for individual and collective fulfilment
3: Tourism, a factor of sustainable development
4: Tourism, a user of the cultural heritage of mankind and contributor
to its enhancement
5: Tourism, a beneficial activity for host countries and communities
6: Obligations of stakeholders in tourism development
7: Right to tourism
8: Liberty of tourist movements
9: Rights of the workers and entrepreneurs in the tourism industry
10: Implementation of the principles of the Global Code of Ethics for
Tourism
Steve Noakes: Member (2007 – 2011) World Committee on Tourism Ethics

www.susps.org/overview/numbers.html
www.idrc.ca
It is estimated that
the first members of
the human family
(hominins) lived in
Africa about 6 or 7
million years ago
Earliest fossil
evidence of genus
Homo between 1.9
and 2.4 million
years ago
Modern humans
evolved in East
Africa around
200,000 years ago
http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/life/human-origins/modern-human-evolution/when/index.html
Our world:
Global population - past, present & future

Our world:
‘Modern-era’ population growth
United Nations Population Information Network
A guide to population information on UN system web sites
www.un.org/popin/functional/population.html
treehugger.com

Our world:
World population according to five projection scenarios, 1950-2150
http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/longrange/longrangeExecSum.pdf
‘If the fertility of
major areas is
kept constant
at 1995 levels, the
world population
soars to 256
billion by 2150,
169 billion of
whom live in
Africa’
United Nations: Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Population Division

World Bank Group. 2015. Global Monitoring Report 2014/2015: Ending Poverty and Sharing Prosperity.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
doi:10.1596/978-1-4648-0336-9. License: Creative Commons Attribution CC BY 3.0 IGO
http://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/global-monitoring-report
Global assessment of
progress to date + data
on:
 the MDGs at the
global, regional, and
country levels
 the World Bank
Group’s twin goals of
ending extreme
poverty & promoting
shared prosperity

Top 10
countries with
largest share of
the global
extreme poor,
2011
Percentage of
people living
on less than
$1.25 a day

Global and regional poverty rate estimates for 1990, 2011, and 2030

Our world:
Poor & Rich perspectives.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QpdyCJi3Ib4 3 minutes, 34 secs.
Hans Rosling:
Professor of International Health at Karolinska Institute, Sweden.
Co-founder / Chairman of the Gapminder Foundation www.gapminder.org

http://www.flickr.com/photos/worldbank/2244550362/in/set-72157630502568422/
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PGLP/Resources/povertymanual_ch4.pdf
Concept of Poverty

Defining & measuring poverty
Extreme poverty line: Income of US $1.25 or less a day
Deep deprivation: Income less than US $2 a day
http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview
Different definitions and concepts of well-being.
World Bank focuses on three aspects of well-being:
(i) Poverty - whether households or individuals have enough
resources or abilities today to meet their needs
(ii) Inequality in the distribution of income, consumption or other
attributes across the population
(iii) Vulnerability - the probability or risk today of being in poverty –
or falling deeper into poverty - in the future.

Deep deprivation: Income less than US $2 a day
In all, 2.4 billion people lived on less than US $2 a day in 2010, the
average poverty line in developing countries and another common
measurement of deep deprivation.
Represents a modest decline from 2.59 billion in 1981.
Children collecting recyclable trash
from a garbage dump.
Several hundred children work in this
garbage dump Cambodia.
Photo: © Masaru Goto / World Bank
http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/poverty/overview

Concept of ‘relative deprevation’
Source: Verme (2012) Happiness, Deprivation and the Alter Ego, in The
Measurement of Individual Well-being and Group Inequalities: Essays in Memory of
Z. M. Berrebi, Deutsch, J. and Silber, J. (Eds.), Routledge, November 2010.
Read more at: http://blogs.worldbank.org/developmenttalk/relative-deprivation-discontent-and-revolutions
Refers to the
comparisons across
people & comparisons
across time.
People compare
themselves with others
in society but also with
their own past status
and their own future
expectations.

The ‘poverty trap’
 An economy, region or household can be in a “poverty trap”
 Low level of wealth & output
 Can’t get out of this low-level equilibrium (sometimes called a
“low-level attractor”) without a potentially large injection of
external assistance
 With a sufficiently large negative shock, the economy or individual
might fall into this low-level equilibrium
 For an individual this may mean destitution
If such poverty traps exist … then, implications for development
policy
Extra reading: The World Bank – Poverty Trap. http://goo.gl/sOvIRP

The ‘southern sugar sage’
What can cause a country to be stuck in under-development?
• Poverty trap
• Economic policy framework
• Fiscal Framework & fiscal trap
• Governance patterns & failures
• Physical geography
• Cultural barriers
• Geo-politics
http://sugarchangedtheworld.c
om/

Common characteristics of high sustained growth
World Bank Group. 2015.
Global Monitoring Report
2014/2015:
Ending Poverty and Sharing
Prosperity.
Washington, DC: World Bank.
Breaking out of
‘under-development’
Basics needed to
improve livelihoods
 Roads
 Ports
 Safe
water/sanitation
 Basic health care
 Education for kids
 Security
 Shelter/Housing

What is Human Development?
Source: http://hdr.undp.org/en/file/what-human-development
 2015: 25 years since the first Human Development Report (HDR)
 Introduced a new approach for advancing human wellbeing.
 The human development approach - expanding the richness of
human life, rather than simply the richness of the economy in which
human beings live.
 An approach focused on people & their opportunities & choices.
See Technical note 1 at http://hdr.undp.org for details
on how the HDI is calculated.

Measuring the state of human development
 1934: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as the key tool for measuring
economic growth and a rising GDP - became a dominant mantra of
policy making.
 Developed by Simon Kuznets, a Russian-American
economist & statistician - way to better understand
the American economy during the great depression.
 Idea is to capture all economic production by individuals,
companies & the government in a single measure - should rise in
good times and fall in bad.
• 1944: Following the Bretton Woods conference that established
international financial institutions such as the World Bank & the
International Monetary Fund, GDP becomes the standard tool for
sizing up a country's economy.
Reference: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/01/02/gdp_a_brief_history

Measuring the state of human development
 1962 Kuznets warns: “the welfare of a nation can scarcely
be inferred from a measurement of national income”.
 In more recent times: Metrics that focus on people’s lives -
recognize that economic growth is a means to an end, not an end in
itself.
Reference: http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/01/02/gdp_a_brief_history
 1959: Economist Moses Abramovitz - one of the first to
question whether GDP accurately measures a society's
overall well-being - "we must be highly skeptical of the
view that long-term changes in the rate of growth of
welfare can be gauged even roughly from changes in the rate of
growth of output."

Human Development Index (HDI)
Mahbub ul Haq
Evolution:
1960s: Calls to “dethrone” GDP - the leading
measure of national progress - never intended to be
used as a measure of wellbeing
1970s and 80s - go beyond GDP - emphasis on
employment, redistribution, meeting basic needs
1990s: Human development - approach &
measurement
HDI ranks countries:
1. Very high human development
2. High human development
3. Medium human development
4. Low human development

GDP vs HDI
rankings
http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=aCcM_7rg22Bw

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
1. Developed and applied by the Oxford Poverty and
Human Development Initiative (OPHI) with UNDP.
2. Published for the first time in the 2010 Human Development
Report.
3. Complements money-based measures by considering multiple
deprivations and their overlap.
4. Identifies deprivations across the same three dimensions as the
HDI and shows the number of people who are multidimensionally
poor (suffering deprivations in 33% of weighted indicators) and
the number of deprivations with which poor households typically
contend.
5. Can be deconstructed by region, ethnicity and other groupings as
well as by dimension, making it an apt tool for policymakers.

Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
 About 1.7 billion people in the 109 countries covered by the MPI—
a third of their population — live in multidimensional poverty —
that is, with at least 33% of the indicators reflecting acute
deprivation in health, education and standard of living
 This exceeds the estimated 1.3 billion people in those countries
who live on $1.25 a day or less (though it is below the share who
live on $2 or less).
Multidimensional poverty measurement literature:
Bourguignon and Chakravarty (2003)
Tsui (2002)
Alkire and Foster (2011)
Chakravarty, Deutsch and Silber (2008)
Deutsch and Silber (2005),
Duclos, Sahn and Younger (2006)
Maasoumi and Lugo (2008)
2009: Mexico’s National Council for
the Evaluation of Social Policy
adopted a multidimensional
index as the country’s official
poverty measure.
2011: Colombia adopted a poverty
reduction strategy focused on five
separate dimension.

2014: HDI
The ‘advanced’ or ‘ industrialised’ economies – the ‘north’.
The ‘less developed counties’ (LDCs) ‘ the ‘south’

Human Development Report 2014:
“Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building
Resilience”
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mj0eCPmnlr4 (4+ minutes)

Policies for reducing vulnerability & building resilience.
‘When we talk about policies for reducing vulnerability and building resilience,
culturally appropriate, environmentally responsible and economically viable tourism
can contribute to preventing shocks, promoting capabilities and protecting choices’
(Noakes, 2015).

Human Development Report 2013 - Rise of the South
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UnlR-JkbeFs approx 4 minutes

Millennium Development Goals
The UN Millennium Declaration
3 min 14 secs
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nuvl9vOZedE

MDGs = a set of eight goals
18 numerical targets have been set with 44 quantifiable indicators
1. Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. Achieve universal primary education
3. Promote gender equality and empower women
4. Reduce child mortality
5. Improve maternal health
6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. Ensure environmental sustainability
8. Develop a global partnership for development.
Mutually reinforcing.
Achieving them requires building capacity for effective,
democratic, and accountable governance, protection of
human rights, and respect for the rule of law. (The World Bank)

Tourism & the MDGs
Image source: http://icr.unwto.org/content/tourism-millennium-development-goals-mdgs

UNWTO, Tourism & the MDGs
http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/icrmdgleafleteng12042012.pdf

United Nations—September 13, 2007

2010: UNWTO launched initiative for a more cohesive approach to tourism
development at the international level.
Since then, nine key international organizations have joined forces and formed the
United Nations Steering Committee on Tourism for Development
Objective to strengthen the developmental impact of international tourism.
International Labor Organization (ILO)
International Trade Center (ITC)
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
United Nations Industrial Organization (UNIDO)
United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
World Trade Organization (WTO)
Not just UNWTO engaged in tourism within the UN system
UN Steering Committee on Tourism for Development (SCTD)
http://icr.unwto.org/en/content/un-steering-committee-tourism-development-sctd

Tourism: benefits & costs.
 Peace & prosperity
Vital to generating foreign exchange to LDCs
The only service sector with a positive balance of trade towards the developing world
 Offers special opportunities in regional, rural & remote areas
 Develops economic diversity & builds local markets
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
‘Tourism enables communities that are poor in material wealth
but rich in culture, history, and heritage to use their unique
characteristics as an income-generating comparative advantage.’
Honey & Gilpin 2009, US Institute of Peace
http://www.responsibletravel.org/resources/documents/reports/USIP%20Tourism%20in%20the%20Developing%20World.pdf
evaluate costs & benefits associated

• ¾ of international tourist departures start in high or upper-middle
income countries.
• 40% of those journeys end up in developing country destinations.
• International tourists are significantly better than development
agencies at spending money in poor countries.
• 2007: International tourists spent
US$295 billion in developing countries
- almost 3 times level of ODA
Mitchell & Ashley, Tourism & Poverty Reduction: Pathways to Prosperity (2010) London, Earthscan
Papua New Guinea
Cambodia
Bhutan

In countries that are most dependent on tourism (particularly small
islands) tourism can account for 30–90% of GDP and 50–90% of
exports & can employ 20–50 % of the population.
More than 75 million people living on Pacific islands will have to relocate by 2050 because of
the effects of climate change, Oxfam has warned.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/environment/climatechange/5915829/Climate-change-to-force-75-million-Pacific-Islanders-from-their-homes.html
Fishermen paddle off Kennedy Island in the remote
Western Province of the
Solomon Islands

Tourism vital to most LDCs
http://www.undp.org/content/dam/aplaws/publication/en/publications/poverty-reduction/poverty-website/tourism-and-LDCs/Tourism_Poverty_Reduction_LDCs_web.pdf

Key issues that determine the relationship between
tourism & poverty
Pro-Poor Tourism info-sheets: Sheet No 3, http://www.propoortourism.org.uk/info_sheets/3%20info%20sheet.pdf

Costs of tourism development
Range of hidden costs to tourism - can have unfavorable economic
effects on the host community.
Potential for large-scale transfer of tourism revenues out of the host
country and exclusion of local businesses and products.
Leakage: In most all-inclusive package tours, about 80% of travelers'
expenditures go to the airlines, hotels and other international
companies (who often have their headquarters in the travelers' home
countries), and not to local businesses or workers.
Infrastructure costs: Tourism development can be a financial burden
on the local government & taxpayers - developers may want the
government to improve the airport, roads & other infrastructure -
possibly to provide tax breaks & other financial advantages, which are
costly activities for the government. Source UNEP: http://goo.gl/NJk3Ed

Costs of tourism development
Economic dependence of the local community on tourism.
Increase in prices: Increasing demand for basic services & goods from
tourists will often cause price hikes that negatively affect local
residents whose income does not increase proportionately.
Seasonal character of jobs: Creates economic problems for
destinations that are heavily dependent on it. Problems that seasonal
workers face include job (and therefore income) insecurity, usually
with no guarantee of employment from one season to the next,
difficulties in getting training, employment-related medical benefits,
and recognition of their experience, and unsatisfactory housing and
working conditions. Source UNEP: http://goo.gl/NJk3Ed
Enclave tourism – restricting opportunities locals, isolating tourists
from locals.

MDG targets & Indicators
Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty
Target 1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the
proportion of people whose income is less than
$1 a day
Indicators
1. Proportion of population below $1 (1993 PPP)
per day (World Bank)
2. Poverty gap ratio [incidence x depth of poverty]
(World Bank)
3. Share of poorest quintile in national
consumption (World Bank)
Target 2. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the
proportion of people who suffer from hunger
Indicators
4. Prevalence of underweight children under five
years of age (UNICEF-WHO)
5. Proportion of population below minimum level
of dietary energy consumption (FAO)
http://www.mdg1.ewebsite.com/photos/extreme-starvation.htmlhttp://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/11_MDG%20Report_EN.pdf
http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/goals/gti.htm

Tourism Policies
Tourism policies should be applied in such a
way as to help to raise the standard of living
of the populations of the regions visited &
meet their needs through increased income
distribution.
Where skills are equal, priority should be
given to local manpower - M/SMEs.
Hotels and guesthouses should be
encouraged to use local handicrafts and
artwork or local products.
Tour Operators; Tour Guides; and Hotels and
Guesthouses should give preferment to the
hire of local workers and train them
accordingly, particularly where local skills
are favoured.
Sustain poor communities’ access to
environmental resources Hawkins + Noakes 2007http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/icrmdgleafleteng12042012.pdf
www.mdg1.ewebsite.com

MDG targets & indicators
Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education
Target 3. Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere,
boys and girls alike, will be able to complete a full
course of primary schooling
Indicators
6. Net enrolment ratio in primary education
(UNESCO)
7. Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach
grade 5 (UNESCO)
8. Literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds (UNESCO)
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/11_MDG%20Report_EN.pdf

Tourism Policies
Tourism should be incorporated
into the general national
education framework for all ages,
particularly in secondary school
and higher education.
Tourism workforce development
efforts will require higher
literacy levels .
Hawkins + Noakes 2007http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/icrmdgleafleteng12042012.pdf
www.unesco.org

Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower
Women
Target 4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and
secondary education, preferably by 2005, and in all
levels of education no later than 2015
Indicators
9. Ratio of girls to boys in primary, secondary and
tertiary education (UNESCO)
10. Ratio of literate women to men, 15-24 years old
(UNESCO)
11. Share of women in wage employment in the
non-agricultural sector (ILO)
12. Proportion of seats held by women in national
parliament (IPU)

1. Women make up between 60 and 70% of the
labour force in the tourism industry (ILO).
2. Women are well represented in service and clerical level jobs but poorly
represented at professional levels
3. Women in tourism are typically earn up to 25% less than their male
counterparts (ILO)
4. The tourism sector has almost twice as many women employers as other
sectors
5. One in five tourism ministers worldwide are women
6. Women make up a much higher proportion of own-account workers in tourism
than in other sectors
http://ethics.unwto.org/en/content/women-tourism-empowerment-programme-witep

iowaworkcomplaw.com
A large amount of unpaid work is being carried out by women in family
tourism businesses
Most of the jobs for women are in unskilled or semi-skilled work and they
are often employed in the informal sector with poor wages and working
conditions.
Women are therefore vulnerable in the industry and face precarious types of
jobs, inequality, violence at work, stress and sexual harassment.
radiolabour.net

http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/global_report_on_women_in_tourism_2010.pdf
The relationship between increased gender equality
and poverty reduction

Tourism Policies
Employment and training policies
should not exclude ethnic minorities or
women, but should efficiently utilise
and develop their specific skills.
The tourism industry should not alter
the gender balance of access to, and
utilisation of these resources.
Gender studies should be incorporated
into all impact assessment studies.
www.tourismgender.com was/is a
global knowledge e-network providing
an on-line tourism resource promote
gender equity and the empowerment
of women.
www.oxfam.org.nz
blogs.worldbank.org

http://www.3sistersadventuretrek.com/
• ‘Since 1994, they have worked towards empowering women
in Nepal. In the early nineties no one would have dreamed of
a Nepalese woman guiding a trek.
• Nepalese society is ruled by the orthodox Hindu religion
where women are considered second-class citizens.
• Their role is to be a diligent wife, a loving mother, and an
obedient daughter-in-law.
• Society dictates that a woman should not cross out of her
home threshold.
• But the Chhetri sisters did just that.’

Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality
Target 5. Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990
and 2015, the under-five mortality rate
Indicators
13. Under-five mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO)
14. Infant mortality rate (UNICEF-WHO)
15. Proportion of 1 year-old children immunized
against measles (UNICEF-WHO)

Tourism Policies
New tourism development
can finance new social
infrastructure such as a heath
center, water supply,
sanitation & energy supply
infrastructure through options
such as:
(i)developer incentives
(ii)tourism related taxes
(iii) other means
Hawkins + Noakes 2007
www.unicef.org

Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health
Target 6. Reduce by three-quarters, between
1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality ratio
Indicators
16. Maternal mortality ratio (UNICEF-WHO)
17. Proportion of births attended by skilled
health personnel (UNICEF-WHO)

Tourism Policies
New tourism development
can finance new social
infrastructure such as a heath
center, water supply,
sanitation & energy supply
infrastructure through
options such as:
(i) developer incentives
(ii) tourism related taxes
(iii) other means
Hawkins + Noakes 2007http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development/2012/sep/07/philippines-battle-reproductive-health-bill

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases
Target 7. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of
HIV/AIDS
Indicators
18. HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24 years
(UNAIDS-WHO-UNICEF)
19. Condom use rate of the contraceptive prevalence rate (UN
Population Division)
19a. Condom use at last high-risk sex (UNICEF-WHO)
19b. Percentage of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive
correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS (UNICEF-WHO)
19c. Contraceptive prevalence rate (UN Population Division)
20. Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of
non-orphans aged 10-14 years (UNICEF-UNAIDS-WHO)
Target 8. Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of
malaria and other major diseases
Indicators
21. Prevalence and death rates associated with malaria (WHO)
22. Proportion of population in malaria-risk areas using effective
malaria prevention and treatment measures (UNICEF-WHO)
23. Prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis (WHO)
24. Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under DOTS
(internationally recommended TB control strategy) (WHO)

Interconnectedness of tourism networks
http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_dialogue/@sector/documents/presentation/wcms_162293.pdf
ILO Programme on HIV/AIDS
and the world of work
http://www.unaids.org/en/

Key lessons: ILO & HIV AIDS in Tourism
HIV/AIDS is reducing labour productivity in the tourism sector.
• HIV/AIDS is increasing labour costs in tourism.
• It makes economic sense to provide treatment to employees in
the sector.
• Working in the sector puts young adults at the risk of infection.
• Tourism sector offers an opportunity to target a high risk group.
• Timely prevention efforts hold the key.
• Management commitment is the key to success.
http://www.un.cv/agency-unaids.php http://www.unaids.org/

Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability
Target 9. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies
and programs and reverse the loss of environmental resources
Indicators
25. Proportion of land area covered by forest (FAO)
26. Ratio of area protected to maintain biological diversity to surface area (UNEP-
WCMC)
27. Energy use (kg oil equivalent) per $1 GDP (PPP) (IEA, World Bank)
28. Carbon dioxide emissions per capita (UNFCCC, UNSD) and consumption of
ozone-depleting CFCs (ODP tons) (UNEP-Ozone Secretariat)
29. Proportion of population using solid fuels (WHO)
Target 10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to
safe drinking water and basic sanitation
Indicators
30. Proportion of population with sustainable access to an improved water source,
urban and rural (UNICEF-WHO)
31. Proportion of population with access to improved sanitation, urban and rural
(UNICEF-WHO)
Target 11. Have achieved by 2020 a significant improvement in the lives of at least
100 million slum dwellers
Indicators
32. Proportion of households with access to secure tenure (UN-HABITAT)

Tourism Policies
Tourism should be planned and
practised as a means of
individual and collective learning
about the legitimate differences
between peoples and cultures
and their diversity.
Access and facilities for disabled
and older tourists should be
incorporated into overall design,
planning and implementation of
tourist facilities.
Hawkins + Noakes 2007Rainforest destruction, Kalimantan, Indonesia

Tourism policies (cont)
All stakeholders in tourism development
should safeguard the natural and cultural
environment with a view to achieving
sound, continuous & sustainable economic
growth geared to satisfying equitably the
needs and aspirations of present and future
generations.
Financial resources derived from visits to
cultural sites and monuments & natural
heritage should, at least in part, be used for
the management of protected areas
Negative impacts of the tourism sector
need to be mitigated—e.g.: carbon neutral
travelwww.environment.com
http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-
warming/gw-causes

Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development
Target 12. Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable,
nondiscriminatory trading and financial system (includes a
commitment to good governance, development, and poverty
reduction?both nationally and internationally)
Target 13. Address the special needs of the Least Developed
Countries (includes tariff- and quota-free access for Least
Developed Countries? exports, enhanced program of debt relief
for heavily indebted poor countries [HIPCs] and cancellation of
official bilateral debt, and more generous official development
assistance for countries committed to poverty reduction)
Target 14. Address the special needs of landlocked developing
countries and small island developing states (through the
Program of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small
Island Developing States and 22nd General Assembly provisions)
Target 15. Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of
developing countries through national and international
measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term

Target 16. In cooperation with developing countries,
develop and implement strategies for decent and
productive work for youth
Indicators
45. Unemployment rate of young people aged 15-24 years,
each sex and total (ILO)
Target 17. In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies,
provide access to affordable essential drugs in developing
countries
Indicators
46. Proportion of population with access to affordable
essential drugs on a sustainable basis (WHO)
Target 18. In cooperation with the private sector, make
available the benefits of new technologies, especially
information and communications technologies
Indicators
47. Telephone lines and cellular subscribers per 100
population (ITU)
48. Personal computers in use per 100 population and
Internet users per 100 population (ITU)
Some of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the
least developed countries, Africa, landlocked developing countries,
and small island developing states

Indicators
Official development assistance (ODA)
33. Net ODA, total and to LDCs, as percentage of
OECD/Development Assistance Committee
(DAC) donors' gross national income
(GNI)(OECD)
34. Proportion of total bilateral, sector-allocable
ODA of OECD/DAC donors to basic social
services (basic education, primary health care,
nutrition, safe water and sanitation) (OECD)
35. Proportion of bilateral ODA of OECD/DAC
donors that is untied (OECD)
36. ODA received in landlocked developing
countries as a proportion of their GNIs (OECD)
37. ODA received in small island developing
States as proportion of their GNIs (OECD)
Market access
38. Proportion of total developed country imports
(by value and excluding arms) from developing
countries and from LDCs, admitted free of duty
(UNCTAD, WTO, WB)
39. Average tariffs imposed by developed countries
on agricultural products and textiles and clothing
from developing countries (UNCTAD, WTO, WB)
40. Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries
as percentage of their GDP (OECD)
41. Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade
capacity (OECD, WTO)
Debt sustainability
42. Total number of countries that have reached
their Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative
(HIPC) decision points and number that have
reached their HIPC completion points (cumulative)
(IMF - World Bank)
43. Debt relief committed under HIPC initiative (IMF-
World Bank)
44. Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods
and services (IMF-World Bank)

Tourism Policies
The exploitation of human beings in
any form, particularly sexual, especially
when applied to children, should be
energetically combated with the
cooperation of all States.
Multinational enterprises in the
tourism industry should not exploit the
dominant positions they may occupy;
partnerships and the establishment of
balanced relations between enterprises
of generating and receiving countries
contribute to the sustainable
development of tourism and an
equitable distribution of the benefits of
its growth.
Rural Cambodia
Hawkins + Noakes 2007

Tourism Policies (cont)
Exchanges of experience offered to
executives and workers, whether
salaried or not, from different
countries, contribute to foster the
development of the world tourism
industry;
Staff from tour operators and tour
guides should be encouraged to
train abroad where possible to gain
essential hospitality and
international relations skills.
Hawkins + Noakes 2007www.dreamprojectun.ning.com

Global progress toward achieving the MDGs has been uneven

Transition from MDGs to SDGs.
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/

United Nations Summit set to adopt the post-2015 development
agenda: 25 Sep 2015 - 27 Sep 2015 , New York
The World We Want - A Future For All
 Outcomes of the Rio+20 Conference - agreement by member
States to launch a process to develop a set of Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs),
 Build upon the Millennium Development Goals + converge with
the post 2015 development agenda
Sustainable Development Goals - SDGs
See: http://www.uncsd2012.org/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u5BDIBRwQ88&list=PLKnUaRyhTxD0l5fOt4ZgxV60Jyz2tkTd-
(3 minutes)
A Better World by 2030 - Post-2015 Development Goals

Sustainable Development Goals: 2015 - 2030

https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/focussdgs.html

Multilateral agencies Bilateral agencies NGOs
International donors (development partners) &
funding for tourism projects

‘Donors’ supply funds for International Development
(Official Development Assistance ODA)
http://photography.nationalgeographic.com/photography/photo-of-the-day/jamuna-river-bendiksen/
http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/beyond-oda.htm
Established in 1961
Headquarters: Paris, France
Membership: 34 countries
www.oecd.org
Development Assistance Committee (DAC) - groups the world’s main donors,
defining and monitoring global standards in key areas of development.
http://www.oecd.org/dac/
Watch video (approx 3 minutes) - overview of DAC statistics, with
a special focus on statistics beyond ODA.

Why Is Foreign Aid Important?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hFbOzEI6IYk 2 minutes
A view from Bill Gates.

The World Bank Group
International Bank for Reconstruction & Development (IBRD ) - serves middle-income
countries with capital investment and advisory services
International Development Association (IDA) – provides assistance for the world’s 79
poorest countries, 39 of which are in Africa - the single largest source of donor funds
for basic social services in the poorest countries
International Finance Corporation (IFC) –
fosters private sector investment in developing nations
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA ) –
Assists Investors & lenders managing economic & political
risks
International Centre for the Settlement of
Investment Disputes (ICSID) - provides facilities for
conciliation and arbitration of international investment
disputes
http://zunia.org/p/2/
http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTABOUTUS/Resources/IBRDResults.pdf

Tourism Development Cycles
• 1966 – 1979: Macro Development--Between 1966 and 1979, 19 Financial
Intermediary Loans were made to 17 countries totaling US$ 590 million.
• 1980 – 1990: Disengagement--The rapid growth of tourism as a productive
economic sector in the 1970s (Harrison 1992) led to the WB decision in 1979 that
tourism projects were not a good fit with development policies driving WB lending
at that time and that the TPD should be closed.
Management at the WB believed that the markets and the private sector were the
most appropriate growth engine for tourism
• 1991 – 1999: Sustainable Development--Hand in hand with “sustainable
development” was “sustainable tourism” and the ideology of environmental and
social sustainability provided another entry opportunity for tourism at the WB
• 2000-2006: Micro development policies--Tourism-related projects are currently
spread throughout the WB for a total active commitments portfolio of over US$ 3.5
billion
Maun & Hawkins 2005

Contemporary tourism activities
 Tourism – a component of multi-sectoral projects and studies – not a theme nor
sector
 Constitutes a significant source of foreign exchange for many countries -
significant environmental effects from tourism development such as waste
management and marine pollution.
 To be sustainable, tourism-based economic growth needs to take into account the
carrying capacity of the environment in order to not undermine the very resource
in which this activity is based.
 Needs multi-institutional coordination - brings together several government
agencies with direct or indirect mandate on tourism-related activities and the
large number of private stakeholders involved in them.
World Bank Tourism page: http://tiny.cc/c2jucx

Examples of contemporary tourism activities
Messerli,Hannah R.. 2014. Ethiopia - Tourism Development : P098132 -
Implementation Status Results Report : Sequence 10. Washington, DC: World Bank.
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2014/02/18897872/ethiopia-tourism-development-p098132-implementation-status-results-
report-sequence-10
Cultural Heritage and Sustainable Tourism Thematic Group
http://goo.gl/o5Z5Mf
Guizhou Province, China: SEA: Tourism Development in the Province of Guizhou
(March 2007)
Mozambique: An SEA for Beach Development (relating to tourism), cited in Chapter 6: SEA Experience in
Developing Countries (page 263), in International Review of SEA Experience and Practice (International
Institute for Environment and Development, 2005)
http://goo.gl/A8i1Tz

Examples of contemporary tourism activities
World Bank's Africa Region Tourism Page http://tiny.cc/c2jucx

Uganda
World Bank. 2013. Economic and
statistical analysis of tourism in
Uganda. Washington DC : World
Bank.
http://tiny.cc/stmucx
Collaboration: WB & UK

Ethiopia: Sustainable Tourism Development Project
US$35 million – loan to
Federal Republic of
Ethiopia –
implementing agency:
Ministry of Culture and
Tourism.
Objective: Contribute
to the enhancement of
the quality and variety
of tourism products &
services in targeted
destinations so as to
increase tourist
visitation, foreign
exchange earnings,
and jobs.

UK AID supported early work on pro-poor tourism
Promoting Poverty Issues in Tourism Policy
http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/Project/3010/Default.aspx
Objectives: Increased knowledge, awareness and hence implementation of
strategies that enhance tourism's contribution to poverty reduction in poor areas
of the south.
Development and Learning and Sharing: Lessons on Pro-poor Tourism Strategies.
http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/Project/3013/Default.aspx
Objectives:
To encourage tourism practicioners (private, governmental and others) to adopt
strategies that enhance the poverty impacts of tourism - specific objective was to
further expand the knowledge base of useful pro-poor tourism (PPT) strategies,
enhance the dissemination of ideas, and stimulate on-going dialogue on PPT
approaches.

Uganda
Mwauri, F.; Ssekitoleko, S.
Reviewing Uganda's tourism
sector for economic and social
upgrading. Economic Policy
Research Centre, Kampala,
Uganda (2012) 48 pp. [Research
Series No. 91]
http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/pdf/outputs/tradepolicy/series91.pdf

http://www.usaid.gov/content/global-climate-change/sustainable-tourism

Incorporates tourism into its
development activities
1. Reduce poverty through market responsive enterprise
development - sharing of profits within communities;
2. Provide higher education & economic opportunity through the
training & capacity-building that accompany tourism
development;
3. Promote gender equality by involving women in tourism
activities, providing them with access to credit & training -
supporting women-owned businesses;
4. Ensure environmental sustainability & the vitality of the resource
base on which tourism depends;
5. Develop global partnerships by collaborating with developing
countries, other donor agencies & private partners in
development activities.
Source: http://www.usaid.gov/content/global-climate-change/sustainable-tourism

USAID - Ethiopia Sustainable Tourism Alliance
Project Management: Solimar International, USA.
Partners: Frankfurt Zoological Society (FZS), TESFA Community Based Tourism, Ecotourism
Association of Ethiopia, SNV, Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society.
Project Duration: July 2008 – July 2013

Major Activities
Created 7 community tourism enterprises utilizing training tools, which provides jobs and
revenue for the communities in the Central and Southern Rift Valley in Ethiopia.
Developing brand and website (Roots of Ethiopia) for the various community tourism
enterprises to showcase each community offering and help reverse Ethiopia’s negative
international image.
Developing marketing and awareness collateral: marketing and educational collateral aimed
at increasing awareness of community tourism and incentivizing the travel trade.
Managing relationships: utilizing online tools and traditional communication platforms to
establish linkages between stakeholders in community tourism and engage the international
travel community.
Building capacity: conducting training workshops and creating training materials for ESTA
personnel to ensure that they can use the tools and activities necessary to implement
community tourism in Ethiopia and continue towards the goal of sustainable development.
USAID - Ethiopia Sustainable Tourism Alliance
More at: http://www.solimarinternational.com/our-work/projects/ethiopia

 Currently implementing approx 50 projects with a tourism component, or the
potential to promote tourism.
 Active in the field of environmental protection and resource conservation -
aims to tap new resources of income for people living in the periphery of
nature reserves.
 Promotion of small and medium-sized enterprises in the tourism sector is also
of growing importance.
Key thematic areas of tourism promotion:
 environmental protection and natural resource conservation
 economic development and poverty reduction
 ecological and social standards.
http://www.giz.de/expertise/html/6499.html
Project list: http://www.giz.de/expertise/html/6503.html

Promoting a Model for Rural Tourism in
Natural Protected Areas in Mexico
Project Description: To consolidate a sustainable
tourism in rural communities by promoting the
conservation and alternate income sources.
Estimated Total Cost USD 815,035
The IDB Group uses loans, grants, guarantees and
investments to fund development programs.
http://www.iadb.org/projects/project.cfm?id=ME-M1064&lang=en

UN Participating Organizations
• UNDP - United Nations Development Programme
($1,181,600)
• UNESCO - United Nations Educational and
Scientific Organization ($2,979,600)
• FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations ($647,035)
• ILO - International Labour Organization
($2,862,250)
• UNEP - United Nations Environment
Programme ($1,214,405)
Sustainable Cultural Tourism in Namibia

ILO External Collaborator:
Steve Noakes
UN agency example: Indonesia
Tourism jobs are green when they help reduce
negative environmental impact ultimately leading
to environmentally, economically & socially
sustainable enterprises & economies.

Sustainable Cultural Tourism in Namibia
• Amount Requested:
$8,884,890
• Duration: 36 Months
• Aims to strengthen the contribution of
cultural diversity to the achievement
of the MDGs.
• Namibia’s richness in cultural &
natural heritage represents the basis
for the development of cultural
tourism.

EU + ADB + International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is a regional
intergovernmental learning & knowledge sharing centre serving the eight regional member countries of
the Hindu Kush Himalayas. www.icimod.org

Evaluating ST-EP projects
LAO PDR
VIETNAM
2009
www.unwto.org/step/index.php
Ban Kandone, Sekong Province in
southern Lao PDR
Vietnam: Ha Tay Province
near Ha Noi renowned for
its handicraft industry

International Finance Corporation
www.ifc.org
MPDF is a multi-donor program of ADB, Australia, Canada,
Finland, IFC, Japan, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden,
Switzerland and the United Kingdom.
Managed by the
International Finance Corporation (IFC),
part of the World Bank Group.
http://www.mekongtourism.org/site-t3/partners/development/ifc-mpdf/

MPDF
TOURISM SECTOR STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT
• Hotel Marketing-Booking & Rating Services
• Hotel Operational Support
• Hotel Association and Destination Marketing
• Corporate Social Responsibility/Sustainability agenda
• Pilot destinations for MPDF’s planned interventions
Vietnam, Cambodia & Lao PDR

Worldhotel link project
 whl.travel business is the original business of the WHL Group
 Started life as a development project in the Mekong region trying to
find a way to get travel product from the developing world online and
able to be transacted just as it is in the West
IFC: Once the company is profitable, WHL is obligated to repay all of IFC-MPDF’s
investment, plus 5%.

Mekong Tourism Development Project
Four parts: 2003 - 2007
Taking Action in CAMBODIA

Part A: Tourism-related Infrastructure Improvements
Upgrading priority tourism related infrastructure that will facilitate
access or improve the environmental situation of destinations

1. Improving environments in Siem Reap:
Rehabilitating the urban sewer on the west side of Siem Reap, constructing new
connections in the system and stabilizing lagoons to treat discharges from a
population of about 17000 and preparing a community sanitation and health
awareness program and a small resettlement plan.
Part A: Tourism-related Infrastructure Improvements
2. Improving road access to the genocide memorial
Elevating the 6.3km access road to the Cheong Ek Genocide memorial, surfacing it
with asphalt concrete, rebuilding two bridges and improving the drainage system
for the road.
3. & 4. Improving Rattanakiri & Stung Treng Airports
Resurfacing and extending the runway, constructing a new taxi way, apron,
drainage system, passenger terminal airport fence, control tower, operations
building, car park and access and securing navigation, security and
communication equipment and land acquisition and resettlement in Rattanakiri
TAKING
ACTION
TAKING
ACTION
TAKING
ACTION

Part B: 10 Sub-components
1. Institutional strengthening & community participation
2. Tourism awareness and conservation awareness
3. Pro-poor tourism product development
4. Small-scale tourism related infrastructure development
5. Capacity building for tourism related micro-enterprises and
communities
6. Gender development program
7. Indigenous people development program
8. Marketing and promotion
9. Promotion of community-based tourism networks and
ecotourism stakeholder associations
10. Monitoring and evaluation program
TAKING
ACTION

Part C: Sub-regional tourism cooperation
Sub- regional cooperation in tourism is not a slogan in the GMS – it is central to its
existence.
Cambodia, Lao PDR, and Viet Nam have emerging tourism industries in transitional
economies.
They have recognized the advantages of cooperating in order:
•to develop new products,
•improve the policy climate and
institutional capacities,
•strengthen promotion and marketing
•establish effective partnerships between
the public and private sectors.

1. Strengthening GMS facilities for tourism cooperation
2. Improving tourism-related facilities at border posts
3. Establishing a GMS network of tourism marketing and
promotion boards
4. Standardising a GMS Hotel Classification System
5. Developing a GMS tourism plan
6. Improving and harmonizing GMS tourism statistics
7. Diversifying the Mekong Tourism Coordinating Office
8. Developing GMS tourism human resources
Part C: 8 sub-projects Sub-regional tourism cooperation
Taking
Action

Move from a history of border conflict
where the emphasis has tended to be on
border protection and defence…
To …….
A spirit of cooperation designed to
facilitate cross border trade and
tourist flows.
Dong Kralor,
Cambodia – Lao PDR border
Veunkhan border post,
Champrasak Province, Lao PDR
Are the border checkpoints ready
for the growth in overland travel
into and within the GMS?

Part D: Tourism-related Infrastructure Improvements
1. Project management
Supporting consulting services and project management, tourism
development and sub-regional cooperation.
2. Project infrastructure development
Supervising detailed design and supervision of tourism related
infrastructure and pro poor, community based tourism development.
3. Project administration
Meeting MoT, MEF & ADB project administration needs.
TAKING
ACTION
TAKING
ACTION
TAKING
ACTION

Australian AID funded sustainable tourism in the Pacific

AusAID and Carnival Australia to tackle poverty in the Pacific
10 July, 2013
includes increasing access to the cruise tourist market for local
producers through improved infrastructure for visitors
providing vocational education and training to local vendors in
areas such as hospitality and financial management
http://aid.dfat.gov.au/LatestNews/Pages/AusAID-and-Carnival-Australia-to-tackle-poverty-in-the-Pacific.aspx

http://aid.dfat.gov.au/LatestNews/Pages/AusAID-and-Carnival-Australia-to-tackle-poverty-in-the-Pacific.aspx
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1KTi4AZMbSw (10+ minutes)

Review of learning objectives
 Improve student knowledge of the concepts of:
 sustainable development, including the implications of global population growth, wealth
distribution
 poverty & the poverty trap, Human Development, Millennium Development Goals and
Sustainable Development Goals.
 Increase student understanding of the role and practices of tourism as an
international development tool.
 Identify & describe key issues relating to the use of tourism in emerging
economies.
 Critically analyse & evaluate costs & benefits associated with developing tourism.
 Reflect on approaches aimed to improve the management of sustainable tourism
– with a focus on emerging economies.

This is your life.
Graduate.
Travel often.
Do good.
www.holstee.com

http://photography.nationalgeographic.com.au/photography/photos/moons-and-sunsets-photo-gallery/#/palm-tree-fiji_26301_600x450.jpg
Discuss: How could tourism contribute to the post
2015 global development agenda?

Additional slides on
Four parts: 2003 - 2007

2003 site
inspection
Mekong Tourism Development
Project (MTDP)
Part A – Improvement of Tourism
Related Infrastructure
Choeung Ek Genocide
Memorial
Road improvement project
Project infrastructure development

Photos by: Michael Darter http://www.war-memorial.net/Killing-Fields-Memorial-at-Choeung-Ek-1.80
Choeung Ek Genocide Memorial
129 mass graves dug by the Khmer Rouge
Estimated 17,000 people executed

Access was possible only by motos, tuk-tuks, and 4WD vehicles
• Prior to commencing work under the MTDP, the road was totally dilapidated.
• Tour buses and tour coaches would not drive to the site because of the very
poor road conditions.
• During the Monsoon Season the road was impassable for about 4 months
because of flooding.
Only about 60,000 tourists a year visited the site
Choeung Ek Genocide Memorial road improvement project

Part A – Improvement of Tourism Related Infrastructure
Choeung Ek Genocide Memorial Road improvement project
This project quired upgrading 6.3 km from Phnom Penh to the historical Genocidal
Memorial Centre of Choeung Ek.
Cheung Ek Museum
Bridge No.1 (Phum Mall bridge) – bridge
and road to be constructed Bridge No.2 (Cheung Ek bridge) – bridge
and road to be constructed
Between 2004 & 2008 - the dirt road that linked Choeung Ek to
Phnom Penh about six miles away was paved - project funded
by the Asian Development Bank.
More reading: http://ictj.org/sites/default/files/ICTJ-Cambodia-Legacy-Genocide-2009-English.pdf

Road improvement project
Carraige wayRoad shoulder Road shoulder
 
 

 






 
 


 


  
 

 







Typical Cross-section
PK 1+140-PK4+540
El. Pole
RC Pipe Ø1000mm
Fence
2.5%
Subbase (Granular 20cm.thk)
CL
2.5%
Based Course ( M 30 ,15cm.thk)
Road pavement (AC ,5cm)
RC Pipe Ø1000mm
El. Pole
Fence
4%4%
Laterite 15cm Laterite 15cm
The road improvement construction was
carried out under the direct supervision and
administration of the Municipality of Phnom
Penh Department of Public Works &
Transport (PMU/MPP).

Part A – Improvement of Tourism Related Infrastructure
road improvement project

road improvement project
Bridge No.1 (Phum Mall bridge) -
old bridge

Part A – Improvement of Tourism Related Infrastructure:
Even before the road was sealed the dramatic improvement in the road surface
attracted tour buses and tour coaches and they began using the road to visit the
site in December 2006.
Over the first four months, the number of buses increased from 2 to 3 per day to
as many as 30 buses per day taking tourists to the site
A monitoring system put in place to gauge the success of the
upgrading of the road in attracting visitors
In first two months of 2007 reached almost 10,000

The Revenue Fields
By Kevin Doyle/Phnom Penh Monday, Apr. 11, 2005
Should genocide should be commercialized ?
Japanese company, JC Royal Co., expected to "increase revenue for
the state and develop and renovate the beauty of Choeung Ek killing
fields."
JC Royal pays the municipality of Phnom Penh $15,000 a year
Allowed to determine entrance fees (US$5 each in 2013)
Chea Vandeth, Cabinet Chief for Prime Minister Hun Sen, is
Chairman of JC Royal
Now (2013) receives 400 to 500 visitors per day
http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1047552,00.html

Tourism & Sustainable Development Goals. Steve Noakes March 2015.

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