Mercier - Study of silvopastoralism in the mbororo community in the north west region of cameroon

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Nothing is possible without the contribution of others. It is very important for
me to thank everybody who participated in the elaboration of my dissertation.

I am most grateful to:
− Mr Nganteh from ANAFOR for his sound advice.
− Dr. Mbanya and all the staff of IRAD Bambui for their scientific support and
advice. Thanks to them to let me enter their research centre.
− Dr. Bayemi (Ing. Agr.), my external supervisor, who helped me to design my
project and all the background of my study. He provided me the necessary
documentation needed in the realisation of my dissertation. Thanks to his
wisdom.
− Mr Sali and all the staff of Mboscuda for their friendship, their advice and all
the help they gave to me.
− All Mbororo-en from the North West region who let me enter their house, their
families and who shared with me a part of their life, a part of their knowledge
and a part of their wisdom.
− My friends Bubakar Ali Shiddiki, Ousman Haman and Neba Derik for their
field assistance and all their extraordinary knowledge about forestry and the
Mbororo community.
− Mr Robrecht, Mr Bamps and all the staff of the National Botanic Garden of
Belgium who gave me the opportunity to verify my herbarium and to use their
scan material.
− Mr Marche and Mr Warnant, the supervisors of my dissertation whom were
always available during all the realisation of this work. Also for the hints, the
help and the time they have dedicated to me.
− All the professors and staff of the ISIa who contributed to my training.

I am deeply thankful to my parents, Mr. Mercier Luc and Mrs. Yolande Georges
for their love and the emotional and financial supports they provided to me.
Special thanks to Ángeles Luciana González Alcaraz, my beloved friend, for her
encouragements.

Thanks to every person that in one way or another contributed to the
elaboration of this work.

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RESUME
Une étude sylvo-pastorale a été menée dans la communauté Mbororo de la
région de Bamenda dans la province du Nord-Ouest au Cameroun. Le but de
cette étude était de comprendre la situation agro-socio-économique actuelle du
peuple Mbororo. Pour cela il fallait rechercher et comprendre les causes de la
transhumance et ce qu’elle implique dans la vie des éleveurs de bétail. Il a fallu,
également, faire un compte-rendu de la situation sociale, géographique et
agronomique de la communauté Mbororo dans la région de Bamenda. L’étude
souligne les problèmes rencontrés entre les éleveurs de bétail et les cultivateurs,
surtout durant la saison sèche quand les ressources alimentaires et en eau
potable pour le bétail sont beaucoup plus limitées. Le système pastoral de la
communauté Mbororo a ensuite été étudié. Des problèmes de gestion des terres,
notamment, ont été mis en lumière, tels que : le surpâturage, l’érosion, l’invasion
des pâtures par des fougères. La conclusion du travail consistait à dégager, à
travers des solutions agro-sylvo-pastorales préalablement étudiées, des pistes de
travail ultérieur dont l’objectif global est la sauvegarde du mode de vie et de la
culture du peuple Mbororo. Pour atteindre ces objectifs, des entretiens structurés
et semi-structurés, à l’aide notamment d’un questionnaire, ont été menés auprès
des éleveurs de bétail Mbororo dans la région de Bamenda. Une collection de
plantes, centrée sur les arbres, fut réalisée pour identifier les espèces les plus
utiles aux éleveurs. Afin d’en faciliter la consultation, cette collection a été
numérisée et présentée sur DVD-ROM. Une liste de plantes traditionnellement
employées en médecine ethno-vétérinaire a été réalisée. Et un transect permet
de comprendre la réalité agronomique et culturelle des deux protagonistes, les
villageois (dit autochtones) et les Mbororo-en.

ABSTRACT
A silvopastoral study was carried out in the Mbororo community in the North
Western province the region of Bamenda, Cameroon. The purpose of this study
was to better understand the Mbororo agro-socio-economic situation. In order to
do this we had to investigate and understand the causes of transhumance and its
implications on the lives of cattle breeders. A report was drawn up to consider the
social, geographical and agronomic situation in the Mbororo community, in the
Bamenda region. The study highlighted the problems arising between grazers
(cattle breeders) and farmers (villagers), especially during the dry season when
food resources and water supplies for livestock are more limited. The report also
studied the Mbororo pastoral system. Problems of land management including
overgrazing, erosion and fern invasion of pastures were considered. The
conclusion of this work was, using previously studied agro-silvo-pastoral
solutions, to find leads for future works, the overall objective of which is the
protection of Mbororo culture and lifestyle. To reach the objectives of this study,
structured and semi-structured interviews were carried out, notably with the use
of a questionnaire completed with Mbororo cattle breeders in the Bamenda
region. A plant collection (focused on trees) was realized to identify which species
are most useful to cattle grazers. The plant collection was scanned and presented
in HTML format in order to facilitate access to it. A list of plants traditionally used
in ethno-veterinary medicine was also made. Finally, a transect helped come to
the understanding of the agronomic and cultural realities between the two
protagonists; the villagers (autochthones) and the Mbororo-en.

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KEYWORDS
Cameroon – North West – Community – Mbororo – Fulani – Transhumance –
Silvopastoralism – Nomadism

LIST OF ACRONYMS

− ANAFOR = Agence Nationale d’Appui au Développement Forestier
− a.s.l. = Above Sea Level
− CIRAD = Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique
pour le Développement
− HPI = Heifer Project International
− IRAD = Institut de Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement Rural
− MBOSCUDA = Mbororo Social and Cultural Development Association
− MINADER = Ministère de l’Agriculture et du Développement Rural
− MINEF= Ministère de l’Environnement et des Forêts
− MINEPIA = Ministère de l’élevage, de la Pêche, et des Industries Animales
− MINTRANS = Ministère des transports
− PRA/RRA = Participatory (Rapid) Rural Appraisal
− SNV = Stichting Nederlandse Vrijwilligers (Foundation of Netherlands
Volunteers)
− TLU = Tropical Livestock Unit

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I
RÉSUMÉ II
ABSTRACT II
KEYWORDS III
LIST OF ACRONYMS III
TABLE OF CONTENTS IV

CHAPTER ONE. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. BACKGROUND 1
1.2. STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 3
1.3. OBJECTIVES 3
1.4. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 4
1.5. SCOPE 4
1.6. DURATION 4
CHAPTER TWO. LITERATURE REVIEW 5
2.1. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 5
2.1.1. TECHNICAL ASPECTS 6
2.1.2. INSTITUTIONAL RELATED ASPECTS 8
2.1.3. SOCIAL ASPECTS 8
2.1.4. ECONOMIC ASPECTS 9
2.1.5. SOME KEY CONCEPTS 9
2.2. MBORORO COMMUNITY IN CAMEROON 10
2.3. PROBLEMS FACED BY MINORITIES IN CAMEROON 11
2.4. CONFLICTS BETWEEN GRAZERS ANS FARMERS 12
2.5. POPULATION GROWTH AND INFLUENCE ON CONFLICTS OF INTEREST BETWEEN
FARMERS AND GRAZERS 12
2.6. LAND TENURE 13
2.7. ACCESS AND CONTROL OVER LAND 15
2.8. IMPLICATIONS OF TRANSHUMANCE 16
2.8.1. TRANSHUMANCE PASTORALISTS 16
2.8.2. TRANSHUMANCE ACTIVITIES IN THE NORTH WEST REGION 16
2.9. FARMING SYSTEMS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION 17
2.10. CATTLE PRODUCTION FOR THE NORTH WEST REGION 18

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2.11. LIVESTOCK INFRASTRUCTURES 19
2.12. MAIN CATTLE MARKETS IN THE NORTH WEST REGION 20
2.13. LABOUR AND GENDER 21
2.14. CATTLE DISEASE 21
2.15. SYLVO-PASTORALS SYSTEMS 22
2.15.1. SUB-SYSTEMS 22
2.15.2. PRUNING OF TREES : POLLARDING AND LOPPING 22
2.15.3. NOTION OF FORAGE SPECIES 24
2.15.4. PASTURES EVOLUTION FACTORS 25
2.15.5. OVERGRAZING 28
2.15.6. BUSH FIRES (PASTORALISTS’ POINT OF VIEW) 29
2.15.7. PASTURE IMPROVEMENT 31
2.16. IMPROVEMENT BY HAYMAKING 33
CHAPTER THREE. METHODOLOGY 35
3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN 35
3.2. POPULATION OF THE STUDY 35
3.3. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA OF STUDY 36
3.3.1. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 36
3.3.2. TOPOGRAPHY 38
3.3.3. CLIMATE 39
3.3.4. VEGETATION 41
3.3.5. SOIL TYPE 42
3.4. COLLECTION OF DATA 43
3.5. PRIMARY DATA 43
3.5.1. QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT 44
3.5.2. INTERNAL VALIDITY OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE 44
3.5.3. DIRECT OBSERVATIONS 45
3.5.4. TRANSECTS 45
3.5.5. CHART OF TRADITIONALLY USED PLANTS 45
3.5.6. VIRTUAL PLANT COLLECTION 46
3.6. LIMITATION OF THE STUDY 46
3.7. ANALYZING DATA 47

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CHAPTER FOUR. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF THE RESULTS 48
4.1. VIRTUAL PLANT COLLECTION 48
4.2. TABLES OF TRADITIONALLY USED PLANTS 48
4.3. TABLES OF RESULTS 53
4.4. BRACKEN FERN INVASION 59
4.5. TRANSECT 60
CHAPTER FIVE. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 64
CHAPTER SIX. BIBLIOGRAPHY 67

ANNEX 1 69
ANNEX 2 74

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Chapter One. INTRODUCTION

1.1. B ACKGROUND

The past years witnessed a number of measures in Africa as well as a number
of violations of human and indigenous rights. It also witnesses a clear rise in the
struggle of the minority movement, particular in Algeria, Niger, Mali and Nigeria.

The struggle for land and resources rights remained the mayor concern of
indigenous peoples throughout 2002 – 2003. A number of legal victories were
recorded such as the adoption by the Nicaraguan parliament of law on indigenous
communal lands and two landmark ruling on indigenous land rights. In other part
of the world, like Cameroon, Cambodia and Namibia, the indigenous people
feared the impact of cross-border development (e.g. Pipe-lines, hydroelectric dam
and commercial agriculture) (IWGIA 2003).

One of the indigenous groups in Cameroon is the Mbororo of the North West
region. The North West region, known as the Western Grassfields, covers an
area of about eighteen thousand kilometres. The majority of the population in the
area is subsistence farmers who belong to linguistically distinct communities but
share common features of socio-political organization. (Dafinger & Pelican, 2006:
132)

The Mbororo-en constitute a minority in the Westen Grassfields, accounting for
5 to 10% of the region’s total population. The majority are Grassfielders which are
largely subsistence farmers and are organized in centralized chiefdoms and
confederations. They consider themselves “natives” and “guardians of the land”.
(Pelican, 2008: 3)

The spatial pattern of farmer-grazer relation, in North West Cameroon,
separates herders’ and farmers’ settlements. Farmers concentrate in the valleys
and riverside areas, grazers dwell on the highland pastures. (Dafinger & Pelican,
2006: 132).

The Mbororo community is internally diversified, comprising members of two
main sub-groups, namely Jaafun and Aku. Originally, both groups dwelled in the

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Kano area in present-day Nigeria. In the course of the nineteenth century they
adopted diverging migration trajectories and developed distinct sub-ethnic
identities. Driven by a continuous search for new pastures, The Jaafun started
entering the western Grassfields in the early twentieth century. They came mainly
from the Adamaoua Plateau. The Aku followed later, from the 1940s onwards,
attracted by favourable grazing conditions and administrative policies. (Pelican,
2008: 3-4)

Now Mbororo-en are well settled in the highlands of the region of Bamenda
and territories are clearly defined in their mind. They have occupied places
neglected by villagers, sometimes far away from cities. But with the colonisations,
the arrival of commercial crops and plantations (such as tea) and the increase of
population, farmers have seen in the highlands a new source of incomes by
exploiting plots of lands, especially closed to stream banks, that they didn’t care
about before because too far from their houses.

Because of poverty or hard lifestyle, some Mbororo-en attempt to change their
conditions of live by moving into cities. Inside towns, where they don’t find any
works because of lack of education or discriminations, some of them turn toward
Islamic fundamentalism. Away from their cultural fashion of life, religion stays
their ultimate identity.

Growing up separately from the majority of their livestock, young Mbororo-en
no longer develop an interest in their cattle. An idle lifestyle results, and they sell
their animals with little concern for their pastoral future. Over the long term, this
sedentary way of life lends itself to the development of dangerous behaviours.
(Boutrais, 1996: 967).

During the dry season, feed and water is lacking in the highlands. Cattle
breeders have to move down from the highlands to find better conditions in the
lowlands. This is transhumance which is experienced by Mbororo-en as much as
a suffering as a part of their culture. During transhumance, they know they will
lose animals, the dairy productivity will be reduced and they will have to fight
against villagers to reach pastures, to reach drinkable water or to defend
themselves and their cattle. It’s also the good period to contract diseases due to
the change of climate. Faced with the reality, Mbororo-en prefer the welfare of

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their animals to the continuation of some traditions. They are often described as a
community with strict customs, but they may be more ready than expected to
change if changes respect their deep nature.

Some governmental organizations like ANAFOR are sensible to the conflicts
between Mbororo-en and farmers. For ANAFOR, an important part of the
problems faced by the Mbororo community could be resolved with transhumance
stopping. In facts, ANAFOR for which the role is to provide trees and develop
agroforestry systems is ready to work hard to integrate Mbororo ethno-veterinary
know-how in a silvopastoral system for Mbororo-en use. Around water
catchments, they would develop kind of parks where Mbororo-en will find water
and all necessary plants to feed and cure their cattle. Final objective of this
process would be the settlement of Mbororo-en in defined places to ease their
education and provide healthcare to a community usually broken up and isolated.

1.2. S TATEMENT OF P ROBLEM

The Mbororo-en as an indigenous group has been faced with several
problems. Some of them are transhumance due the lack of animal feed, water
and land. Urbanization, as a result of population growth, and agricultural
development activities help in reducing the available pastoral land on the
lowlands and the highlands at large. In consequences, tensions and conflicts
have appeared between farmers/grazers and between grazers themselves. What
directly contributes to the conflicts is also the lack of technical knowledge on
modern farming.

1.3. O BJ ECTIVES

The global objective of this survey is the preservation of a fashion of life.
Through agronomic skills, the specific objectives of this survey will try to bring
some elements of response to the Mbororo’s problems. These specific objectives
are:

1. To identify the socio-economic activities of Mbororo-en.
2. To examine the silvopastoral systems in the Mbororo’s communities.
3. To identify trees, grass and shrubs species integrated in the system.

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4. To determine the problems involved in pasture improvement and prefer
solutions.

1.4. S IGNIFICAN C E OF THE S TUDY

The Mbororo people have long faced problems of integration. Today, their
culture is threatened by a policy that does not take them into consideration, and
indeed exploits them. The issues raised here relate to preserving a fashion of life,
and preserving cultural diversity that enriches the world. We should not neglect
that with the loss of Mbororo culture, we run the risk of losing unique African
ethno-medicinal know-how.

Through this research, we hope to collect sufficient data on silvopastoral
systems and on present Mbororo society to find solutions to problems faced by
cattle breeders including transhumance, grazer-farmer conflicts, animal diseases,
pasture improvement and a lack of technical knowledge.

1.5. S COPE

The study will identify the socio-economic activities and the silvopastoral
system of Mbororo people.

1.6. D URATION

The study was carried out from May until July 2009. This included one month
of field research undertaken to conduct interviews with members of the Mbororo
community of Santa subdivision and to collect, from the regions of Santa, Sabga
and Ndop, the plant samples needed for the establishment of the plant collection.

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Chapter Two. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. T HEORETICAL F RAMEWORK

The main objective of this study is to understand the socio-economic context in
relation with grazing activities for the development of a sylvo-pastoral system for
the improvement of the Mbororo community in the North West region of
Cameroon. This study will use the concept of project elaboration that was
described by GITTINGER in 1985.

Technical aspects:
Soil and water resources
Animal breeds used
Animal feeding
Fight against diseases and pests
Transhumance
Plants species utilization
Pastures Management

Institutional related aspects:
Organization and management
Land tenure
Use of local institutions
Management capacity of exploiters
Government policies and policies of
concerned structures

Social aspects:
Customs and cultures of grazers
Conflicts between grazers and farmers
Regional development
Role of women

Economic aspects:
Farm size
Revenue
Production costs
Source: Based on Ndambi, 2005

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The socio-economic and agro-environmental context of the Mbororo
community (MC) is function of: technical aspects (T), institutional related aspects
(I), social aspects (S), economic aspect (E).

MC = f(T,I,S,E)

2.1.1. T ECHNIC AL A SPECTS

a) SOIL AND WATER RESOURCES

The availability and the type of land and water used in pasturing are important.
The obtaining of a good pasturage depends on the quality of soil. Unfortunately,
in continuation to advanced erosion the quality of soils is poor. Moreover,
culturally, Mbororo don’t maintain soils voluntarily. They let animal droppings
there but they don't exercise an organized manure of pastures.

Animal health can greatly be influenced by impurities of soil and resources in
waters. In Cameroon, bovine local productions depend on water streams as only
drinkable water by animals. An elevated biologic load or pollution closed to farms
can affect the health of animals and endangered their production.

b) ANIMAL BREEDS USED

Some races in the world are known for their dairy performances (Holstein
Frisian, Jersey, Boran) or their performances for meat production (Blue Belgian,
Aberdeen Angus, Charolaise, Blond of Aquitaine…). Such performance is gotten
under some conditions as a high-quality food, technical knowledge bound to the
race, adequate infrastructures, a regular veterinary follow-up… the introduction of
high performance races in regions of the world where conditions of rearing for
these animals are not the same than in the original countries, cannot provide an
optimal yield of production. In Cameroon local races, that we can meet, are the
Gudalis, Red Fulani and White Fulani. Until now, the most present imported race
in aim to improve the Cameroonian cattle is the Holstein. Recently, other races
like Jersey, Simmental or Montbéliarde have been introduced to ends of
research.

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Traditionally, Jaafuns rear the Red Fulani and Akus, the White Fulani. But it
doesn't prohibit co-existences in breeds of both communities. The mixed breed
between Red Fulani and White Fulani is called Gudali.

c) ANIMALS FEEDING

Nutrition is a key element in the metabolism of the cow and within all product of
the metabolism. It imports therefore in dairy production, as in growth of the animal
or even in reproduction maturity. Malnutrition is the first cause of delay in sexual
maturity tropical zebu. Diminution in yield production occurs during the dry
season, when available food stocks, mainly in the highlands, decrease. In fact,
culturally, Mbororo-en don’t make crops. Another fact is feed conservation as hay
or silage which could totally or partially stall the lack met during the lean season.

d) PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Pastures are the main food resource for the livestock of the North West cattle
breeder. Cattle is the most important good in Mbororo culture and people
dedicate their lives to rearing their animals with care. Mbororo-en deliberately
avoid fertilization of the land that receives only animal droppings during grazing
time and is insufficient to counter soil depletion. Better pasture and manure
management could provide a better quality feed over a longer period. It would be
interesting to find out if Mbororo-en would be prepared to maintain pastures in the
Highlands and practice effective pasture rotation to enable vegetation
regeneration.

e) FIGHT AGAINST DISEASES AND PESTS

The control of and the fight against cattle diseases are both essential. Not only
do diseases affect cattle productions (milk, growth…) but some, including
tuberculosis can be transmitted to humans in milk. Prophylactic treatment
programs should be organized in the aim to control such losses all the while
ensuring that veterinary services are sufficiently wide to cover all cattle breeders.
This coverage is, in general, very difficult to develop. In Cameroon, in 2003, of the

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457.838 heads of cattle counted in the North West region, only 72.070 (31.48%)
animals were vaccinated against regional endemic diseases. (Ndambi, 2005)

f) TRANSHUMANCE

Transhumance is practiced in Cameroon as a method of survival. Not providing
enough feed and drinkable water for the cattle during the dry season, cattle
breeders of the highlands must go down to the lowlands, in proximity to streams
and where feed remains plentiful. During this period, a herder burns land when he
reaches it in order to encourage grass regrowth. This technique has the terrible
drawback of killing the soil’s biosphere. This could affect the fertility of the land
over the long term. It is also during this period that conflicts worsen between
highlands cattle grazers and lowlands farmers.

g) PLANTS SPECIES, UTILIZATION AND IMPROVEMENT

Mbororo-en have their own veterinary medicine based on the use of natural
resources and plants in particular. This knowledge could be preserved by
integrating these into an agro-forestry system to which cattle breeders have
access. Before this occurs however, it is necessary to identify the entirety of the
vegetal species used by the Mbororo community.

2.1.2. I NSTITUTIONA L R ELATED A SPECTS

These are very vital aspects since they determine the degree to which other
aspects could be influential. They include organization and management of
structures involved, land tenure systems, farm sizes, use of local institutions,
management capacity of exploiters government policies and policies of
concerned structures, customs and cultures of cattle breeder and the degree of
acceptance of innovation. (Ndambi, 2005: 7)

2.1.3. S OCIAL A SPECTS

Social organisation brings out patterns of social relationship and institutional
arrangements within production set-ups. It includes roles, rules, authority systems
as well as their enforcement mechanisms. (Ndambi, 2005).

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Attempting to resolve conflicts between grazers and farmers by managing
transhumance could improve life standards of both protagonists. Indeed, farmers
wouldn’t suffer propriety trespassing and, in the other hand, grazers wouldn’t be
attacked, insulted or stolen; they wouldn’t have to take as many risks and
marginalize them-selves to rear their cattle.

2.1.4. E CONOMIC A SPECTS

These include the farm size, the revenue of farmers and production costs for
cattle rearing. Transhumance and conflicts generate situation where grazers may
lose their animals, because of diseases, thieves and attacks. These facts could
lead to a reduction of their incomes. Cattle improvement is a possibility to get an
alike production with less heads of cattle. Breeders could focalize on quality
rather than quantity.

2.1.5. S OME K EY C ONC EPTS

Though they all refer to livestock farming, terms like nomadism, pastoralism,
silvopastoralism or transhumance can sometimes remain confused in their use.
Therefore, for a better understanding of the survey of cattle rearing systems in the
concerned region, it would be interesting to present a definition of these terms.

Pastoral nomadism: “Pastoral nomads, who depend on domesticated
livestock, migrate in an established territory to find pasturage for their animals.
Most groups have focal sites that they occupy for considerable periods of the
year. Pastoralists may depend entirely on their herds or may also hunt or gather,
practice some agriculture, or trade with agricultural peoples for grain and other
goods.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica online)

Pastoralism: “Herding societies are in many respects the direct opposite of
forest horticulturalists. They are usually the most nomadic of primitive societies,
they occupy arid grasslands rather than rainforests, they have a nearly total
commitment to their animals, and their sociopolitical system is nearly always that
of a true hierarchical chiefdom rather than of egalitarian villages and tribal
segments.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica online)

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Silvopastoralism: “In the case of dry tropical tree formations, silvo-
pastoralism is defined as the utilization by transhumant and agro-pastoral herds,
of natural environments that may be occasionally, but not permanently farmed or
cultivated.” (Bellefontaine, 2000)

“… silvopastoral systems will be considered as those where
trees are grown in grazed pasture in a regular or varied pattern.” (International
Congress on Silvopastoralism and Sustainable Land Management, 2004)

Transhumance: “form of pastoralism or nomadism organized around the
migration of livestock between mountain pastures in warm seasons and lower
altitudes the rest of the year. The seasonal migration may also occur between
lower and upper latitudes. Most peoples who practice transhumance also engage
in some form of crop cultivation, and there is usually some kind of permanent
settlement.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica online)

2.2. M BORORO C OMMUNITY IN C AMEROON

The Mbororo-en in Cameroon make up one of the largest single ethnic group
who speak the same language: Fulani (or Fulfulde), in the North West province.

The Mbororo-Fulani arrived in Cameroon in the early eighteen century,
entering through the Adamaoua and Northen Provinces. They later migrated and
settled in eight of Cameroon’s ten provinces to the exception of the South and
Litoral Provinces which are not suitable for cattle rearing. (Mboscuda.org, 2010)

The Mbororo-Fulani can be divided into three major ethnic groups identified by
the colour of their cattle, style of decoration of their bowls, and migratory
movements. These are the “Aku-en” (-en is the plural form), Bodaabe and the
“Jaafun-en”. In Cameroon Mbororo-en (singular: Mbororo) are found all over the
national territory under four Lamidats (the paramount traditional institution) under
whom are found community leaders called ArDos. The four Lamidats are found in
Fuigil in the North Province, Lompta in the Adamaoua Province, Sabga in the
North West Province and Didango in the West Province. (Mboscuda.org, 2010)

The Mbororo-Fulani follow the traditions of their ancestors, and are considered
the purist of all Fulani groups. These nomadic herdsmen consider the long-

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horned cattle to be a prized possession and have dedicated their lives to caring
for their herds. Owning cattle is a symbol of health and well-being among all
Fulani. In fact, the level of a man's respect is based on the number of cattle he
owns and how much he knows about herding. The cattle have their own names
and are treated with affection by the Mbororo-en. Milk is the staple food of the
Mbororo-en. Their daily diet usually includes milk, butter, and cheese. They feel
very strongly about morality, and constantly strive to be generous, honest, and
respectful. They are very reserved people, who are shy and modest in public.
Family relationships are therefore restrained. Even mothers are not permitted to
be with their infant sons, since the Mbororo feel that it is inappropriate for
affection to be shown in public. (Joshua Project, 2010)

2.3. P RO BLEM S FACED BY M INORITIES IN C AMEROON

The Mbororo in the Western Grassfields experienced themselves as a
politically marginalised and economically exploited minority. The British colonial
administration had classified them as “strangers” and had denied them
autonomous political representation. Local Grassfielders’ (“autochthones’”)
attempts to integrate them into their socio-political community constituted a
constant source of dependency and exploitation. (Pelican, 2007: 7)

A draft law on Marginal Populations in Cameroon is being prepared by the
Ministry of Social Affairs. The process started in 2007 and focuses on the
promotion and protection of marginal populations. The Ministry of Social Affairs is
the main actor. Though not officially consulted, in 2008 the indigenous
communities made their contributions through the United Nations Sub-regional
Centre for Human Rights and Democracy. The draft law has not yet been
validated. Groups to be protected by this law includes the Mbororo-en, the
Pygmies, the mountain dwellers (the Kirdi people), and the people of the creeks
(people of the small islands). The present draft law is favourable to indigenous
populations, as it deals with delicate questions of land ownership, culture and
social rights. With this law, indigenous people will have a legal base on which to
make claims whenever such rights are violated. (IWGIA 2009: 536)

11

2.4. C ONF LICTS B ETWEEN G RAZ ERS ANS F ARMERS

Competition between husbandry and farming is common in tropical Africa. If
both activities are sometimes complementary, confrontational relations almost
always result. However, since farmers began to rear cattle, the problem is no
longer so simple. The success of new cattle rearing programs shows that this
activity is within reach of farmers themselves. Considered another way, conflicts
need not be reduced to a confrontation between those that own cattle and others.
Mbororo-en become aware of being directly blamed, to a greater extent than the
cattle, and as such, begin to consider themselves as being excluded as
“strangers”. A spatial dispute can thus deteriorate into ethnic and cultural
opposition.

To explain the nature of these conflicts, BOUTRAIS (1996) attempts a livestock
reasoning approach. According to him, the antagonism arising from the use of
plateaus opposes livestock on the one hand and women farmers on the other.
The importance of this pastoral case can be explained by the notion of ‘livestock
density’1. Female farmers, for their part, represent the main farming actors,
supported by the village population. According to the same author, the relative
population-livestock densities would appear to indicate the most plausible
tensions areas.

2.5. P OPULATION G ROWTH AND I NFLUENCE ON C O NFLICTS OF
I NTEREST B ETW EEN F ARMERS AND G RAZERS

Conflicts of interest between grazers and farmers due to population increase
and pressure on natural resources are discussed here.

The sporadic or ribboning growth of towns brings pressures on such natural
resources as land, vegetation, streams and air. All uncontrolled development as
such causes loss of economic land, deforestation, air and water pollutions.
Deforestation itself reduces the water levels and moisture quantity in the air and
causes droughts. Grazers are pushed farther away resulting in conflicts between

1
Boutrais (1996) defines the livestock density as the average density of animals per km² and
per year.

12

Agriculture and Forestry. All these bring pressure on the natural resources and
create problems both for urban and rural populations.

The towns are growing fast and uncontrolled in such a way that Bamenda town
for example is likely to link up with Bali, Mbengwi, Bafut, Bambili if things are
allowed to grow the way they go. In this connection the town would consume the
agricultural, grazing and forestry land between urban communities. This reduction
of land by city development and extension and increase of population using such
land will create a problem since each user will be struggling to get a sufficient
share of the land for its development. (MINEF, 1994: 11)

2.6. L AND T ENURE

Access to land and land tenure security are the heart of all rural societies and
agricultural economies. Land tenure comprises the rules and norms governing
how, when and where people access land and other natural resources. These
rules and norms can be administered by statutory (formal) and customary
(informal) systems. The two systems will be described briefly to highlight existing
linkages with livestock-related activities. (IFAD, 2009: 2)

− Statutory laws refer to legislation and/or other legal instruments promulgated
by official authorities. The term is used to denote law as made by the State,
in contrast to customary law, which derive from the customary institutions
specific to particular contexts and circumstances. In statutory systems,
access to and use of natural resources are governed formally by the State
and any dispute deriving from conflicting interests by various categories of
stakeholders (pastoralists, farmers, tenants) is also regulated by national
laws.

− Customary systems are context-specific and diverse. They tend to balance
individual and group rights and generally have a collective element to
resource management, including group decision-making for determining
access and use and management of resources in common areas. In such
contexts, group identity plays a significant role in managing access to land
and resources. Indeed, the right to access common property is based on

13

forms of group membership, in particular ethnicity, village affiliation and/or
residency.

Generally in Cameroon, land is state property. However, national land in the
North West region is owned and controlled by traditional authorities through
customary tenure. To acquire a piece of land one has to pass through these
traditional authorities. In 2006, a majority of people indicated land is mostly
acquired through inheritance within their communities, while others indicated that
families and individuals buy land. The landlords sometimes lease portions of their
land to individuals or groups for agricultural activities. A negligible portion of the
land is given out as gifts.

In most grazing communities, land which is not private property (has no land
title) is communally owned and grazed. Hence, there is usually a scramble over
resource use without adequate management leading to overexploitation and
depleting of rangeland resources.

The value of the land is determined by the nature of the terrain, its fertility
status, location and therefore the type of activity to be carried out on the piece of
land. There is no discrimination on the sale of land to non-indigenes. However, in
some rural areas where land is in abundance and the value is low, land is not
bought but acquired from the traditional rulers. (MINADER, Nov 2006, p. 42)

According to DAFINGER & PELICAN (2006), in Cameroon, colonial and post-
colonial governments grappled with the question of how to coalesce customary
and modern land tenure, that is, how to combine land ownership and property
rights. Approaches to nationalize and privatize land were already introduced by
the German and British colonial regimes and implemented after Cameroonian
independence. Through control over land, the government attempted to exercise
control and political power over people and their economic production. In the
early 1940s, the British administration, confronted with the problem of recurrent
crop damages, decided to intervene into farmer-herder relations and take control
over the allocation of land. They split the land into farming and grazing areas,
assigning these to farmers and herders, respectively. With the official
nationalization of all lands in 1974, farmers and herders were only given the
usufructs rights in the respective zones. Yet acquiring a land certificate is a

14

distinctively individual act and requires a fair amount of economic and social
capital. The majority of farmers and herders have not been able to do so and
therefore remain “landless”. The shift control over land from the local to the
national level had serious impacts on the power balance between farmers and
grazers. Both farmers and the herder lost large parts of the power as they
withdrew from active negotiation over land rights. The state, meanwhile, became
more powerful.

2.7. A CCESS AND C O NTRO L OVER L AND

A survey of 2006 shows men mostly control land while 92% indicated that
women have access over land. It is worth noting that most traditional norms and
customs of the province prohibit the girl child from inheriting land.

Most women do not have the economic power to buy land and decisions on
households income is largely determined by men thus limiting women to buy and
own land. However, women who have money can buy and own land but the
situation is difficult. Applying for land grants by individual women or women
groups to carry out permanent development initiatives is an alternative option to
encourage. (MINADER, Nov 2006: 41)

PROBLEMS RELATED TO LAND TENURE SYSTEM:

− Unequal distribution of farmland (some people have excess while others have
little or no farmland)

− Conditions to acquire land from the traditional councils are rigid and take long

− Individual women do not have the right to acquire land from the traditional
council

− Family dispute on family land

− Poor demarcation of land leading to boundary and farmer/grazer conflicts

− Poor implementation of the land tenure law at grassroots e.g. administrative
and traditional bottlenecks at village and Sub Divisional levels hinders land
acquisition and resolution of land disputes.

15

POSSIBLE AREAS OF INTERVENTION:

− Train and educate traditional leaders and parents on gender issues

− Carryout workshop at grassroots on the land tenure law in Cameroon

− Carryout proper demarcation and recognition of village boundaries

− Set up transparent local commissions to resolve land conflicts

− Lobby and advocate for simplification of the procedure to acquire land
certificates

− Exploit possibilities of enhancing farmers/grazers integrated activities

− Carryout workshop for farmers, herders, traditional authorities and
administration on conflict resolution and form farmer/grazer mixed conflict
resolution commissions in the communities (MINADER, Nov 2006: 41)

2.8. I M PLICATIO NS OF T RANSHUMANC E

2.8.1. T RANSHUMANC E P ASTORALISTS

Transhumance pastoralists follow a cyclical pattern of migrations that usually
take them to cool highland valleys in the summer and warmer lowland valleys in
the winter. This is seasonal migration between the same two locations in which
they have regular encampments or stable villages often with permanent houses.
Transhumance pastoralists usually depend somewhat less on their animals for
food than do nomadic ones. They often do small scale vegetable farming at their
summer encampments. They also are more likely to trade their animals in town
markets for grain and other things that they do not produce themselves. (0’Neil,
2007)

2.8.2. T RANSHUMANC E A CTIVITIES IN THE N ORTH W EST
R EGION

In the dry season, grazers in search of green pasture and water, move their
cattle down the plains and valleys. Prominent transhumance areas in the
Province include the Ndop plains (Ngoketunjia), Ako Sub Division, Mayo Binka

16

(Nkambe), Sabongari (Nwa), Moons (Mbven), Batibo Sub Division, Njikwa Sub
Division, Menchum Valley and Wada Valley (Menchum), Ber and Wasi (Jaliri).
During transhumance, some negative consequences are witnessed which
include:

− High death rate of calves due to hunger, pests, diseases and stress

− High transmission rate animals pests and diseases

− Farmer/grazer conflicts

− Children drop out of school to become herds men

− Increased bush fires by grazers

− Cross border infections of humans and animals

− High rate of cattle theft

(MINADER, Nov 2006: 56)

2.9. F ARMING S YSTEMS IN THE N ORTH W EST R EGION

In general, farming in the North West region is extensive and dominated by
four main agricultural domains: crops, livestock, aquaculture and non-
conventional activities (mosly bee-farming). There is the practice of crop
associations like plantain/maize/beans/cocoyams, maize/beans/yams,
maize/beans/solanum potato, maize/soyabeans/beans, etc, involving, at least two
to four crops planted on the same piece of land followed by five months to five
years fallow to restore the soil fertility. Crops rotation like maize-
bean/groundnuts/soyabeans or solanum potato-maize/beans, etc are also
common. Perennial crops like coffee/cocoa, oil palm are cultivated either pure or
in association with fruit trees, plantain/banana and food crops. Contour ridging is
common and is formed from crop residues and grasses.

The use of improved seed variety is common despite their inadequate
availability. The intensification of use of improved seeds will increase production,
reduce diseases and increase the income of the farmer. Chemical fertilizers and
pesticides used on food crops are low while their low availability and high prices

17

remain a problem. Labour is essentially provided by family members of farming
groups and hired labour for special activities.

Concerning animal production, there are the extensive and semi intensive
types, which involve large ruminants, small ruminants, pigs, poultry and cattle. A
lot of the extensive livestock production is praticed in Donga Mantung and
Menchum Divisions. Crop – livestock farmers’ conflict are predominant due to the
free ranging of livestock and the encroachment of crop farmers into grazing lands.
Conflicts usually occur during transhumance when animals stray into crop farms.

The concept of crops livestock integrations is still to be improved upon. The
agricultural pressure is more pronounced on lowlands and urban area than on the
highland due to easier cultivation possibilities and high population density
respectively.

The production of market oriented gardening crops like carrots, tomato,
cabbages is common in the high land zone involving an intensive use of inputs
and labour.

Concerning forest exploitation, there is mainly the fetching of wood for home
consumption and medicinal plants for traditional healing. However, some illegal
small-scale timber exploitation is carried out by individuals. Some forests need to
be conserved for bio-diversity and environmental conservation (Oku forest,
Bamenda Highland forest). There are also private forests made up of mainly the
eucalyptus trees (used for fuel and construction work), raffia palms and other
natural plants mostly used for craftwork and tapping of wine. (MINADER, Nov
2006: 8)

2.10. C ATTLE P RODUCTION FOR THE N O RTH W EST R EGIO N

Cattle rearing is a common practice in the Province due to its physical
landscape, climate and grasslands with spotted forest patches making it easy for
free range grazing.

The Province has a high potential for livestock production with the presence of
Mbororo-en that carry out the activity as their major livelihood. The availability of

18

markets for these products in Bamenda, Bafoussam, Douala and other parts of
the country is also an important factor contributing to livestock production.

Table: Cattle production in the North West region

Grazing land Grazing land Number of Number of Number of
(ha) (ha) invaded grazers 2005 cattle in cattle in
Divisions
by bracken 2005 2006
fern

Boyo 30,230 24,773 582 43,661 69,250

Bui 66,500 45,100 1,143 56,010 55,382

Donga
115,963 51,980 1,717 129,754 129,654
Mantung

Menchum 144,120 39,345 784 62,920 70,500

Mezam 37,431 478 2,988 26,937 62,920

Momo 105,610 44,179 515 14,745 28,934

Ngoketunjia 932 300 274 6,649 8,422

TOTAL 500,786 206,155 8,003 340,676 425,062
Source: Divisional Delegation of MINEPIA 2006

According to MINEPIA, about 90% of the cattle in the North West region owns
to the Mbororo community.

Bracken fern occupies approximately 41% of total grazing land in the Province.

Little or no measures are taken to eliminate bracken fern, which is a major
threat to livestock production in the Province. The ministry of Livestock, Animal
Industry and Fisheries (MINEPIA) encourages the establishment of improved
pastures in the Province. Guatemala, Brachiaria, Desmodium plots exist in some
parts of the Province, though quantity planted and area covered is insignificant
and not regularly managed. There is need to organise mass sensitization
campaigns against bush burning and embark on sustainable rangeland
management by supporting herders to carry out improved pasture development.
(MINADER, Nov 2006: 55)

2.11. L IVESTOCK I NFRASTRUCTURES

Generally, little efforts have been made to develop livestock infrastructure
through out the Province. Most Sub Division do not have major livestock

19

infrastructure such as slaughterhouses, modern vaccination and weighting
crutches. 53% of slaughterhouses and 60% of vaccination crutches in the
Province have temporal structures. Quarantine areas for cattle under custody do
not exist especially for areas vulnerable to cattle diseases and pests.

The absence of drinking points escalates conflicts especially during the dry
season when cattle stray into farms in search of water. Furthermore, in many
places both animals and humans tend to drink from the same water source, a
typical example being the Nkambe watershed, Lip, Mbonso, and other places.
(MINADER, Nov 2006)

2.12. M AIN C ATTLE M ARKETS IN THE N ORTH W EST R EGIO N

Livestock marketing is an important economic activity that provides
employment and generates revenue to most councils in the Province. Apart from
cattle markets, which are organised to an extent, small livestock are sold at
random.

Table: Bovine sold in cattle markets and cattle prices in 2006

Animals sold in Cattle prices (in CFA)
Division
cattle markets
Minimum Maximum

Bui 9,542 50,000 350,000

Boyo 2,432 120,000 376,000

Donga Mantung 2,520 40,000 430,000

Menchum 1,999 65,000 300,000

Mezam 23,395 110,000 450,000

Momo 2,432 250,000 500,000

Ngoketunjia 16 60,000 250,000

TOTAL 42,336

The prices of cattle show great variation from one division to another. This
variation can be accounted for by economic factors (market dynamics) as you
move from one location to another. (MINEPIA, 2006)

20

More than 80% of these cattle markets are not homologated and lack basic
market infrastructure. Over 90% of cattle bought in rural markets are taken to
Bamenda, Bafoussam and Douala for consumption.

2.13. L ABOUR AND G ENDER

Generally, the whole family is involved in cattle caring. In the more pastoralist
communities, adult men take cattle for grazing while women and children do the
milking, processing and milk marketing. School children milk cows before going to
school in the morning. The peak period for labour demand is the dry season
(January to March) when the farming season starts. At this time, labour is hired to
take cattle for transhumance at a cost of 15,000 FCFA per month. Labour is paid
for farm preparation at 10,000 to 20,000 FCFA for a one eighth hectare farm or
600 FCFA per man day. When men are married to many wives, at least one of
them is in charge of farming and gardening. In the Mbororo pastoralist
communities, men own cattle but the milk belongs to the women. In Mukweh,
some labour is paid with liquid milk. In Sabga peak labour demand in the rainy
season is for training of first-calf cows for milking. (Bayemi & Al., 2005: 16)

2.14. C ATTLE D ISEASE

Major dairy cattle diseases in the Western highland are in order of importance
ticks and tick born diseases: babesiosis, anaplasmosis, dermatophilosis,
cowdriosis; mastitis in milking cows; diarrhea; foot and mouth disease (FMD);
black quarter; ephemeral fever and ear infection. Veterinary services are provided
by non governmental organizations or private veterinarians. Vaccination is done
yearly against black quarter, haemorrhagic septicaemia, and contagious bovine
pleuropneumonia. Only few farmers spray their dairy animals. Hand de-ticking is
more common. It is the fear of ticks that prevents some farmers from sending
crossbred cattle in low and hot lands on transhumance during the dry season.
Many traditional farmers make use of ethno- veterinary medicine (Sabga, Jakiri,
and Bamdzeng). (Bayemi & Al., 2005: 17)

21

2.15. S YLVO - P ASTORAL S S YSTEMS

2.15.1. S UB - SYSTEMS

Silvopastoralism

Trees Animals

Association

Direct Indirect

Entomoforestry Pruning of trees used
as forage
(Forage bank)
Silvoapiculture

Silvosericulture

Aquaforestry

Silvopisciculture

Pisciculture in
mangroves

Mammals

Forestry pastoralism

Animal production
under tree cover

Based on Neba (2009) Ameliorated pasture

2.15.2. P RUNING OF T REES : P OLLARDING AND L O PPING

Pollarding consists in pruning branches level with the main stem, trimming-out
end parts of branches or apical shoots of the crown. It is very widely used by the

22

dry tropical zone pastoralists in order to increase fodder availability at the end of
the dry season. The woody vegetation provides about 50 percent of the proteins
in the lean period between the dry and the rainy season. (Bellefontaine and Al.,
2000: 157)

According to De BOER and KESSLER (1994), a study carried out on the
Mbororo livestock husbandry system in Burkina Faso, shows that it has very little
harmful effect on the environment, except on the trees which are pollarded.

Different types of pollarding and leaf stripping (extraction of leaves and twigs)
operations have been carried out in Mali (Cissé, in Le Houérou, 1980) on three
species (Combretum aculeatum, Cadaba farinosa and Feretia apodanthera): total
leaf stripping every 15 and 50 days respectively, partial leaf stripping the total
removal of the leaves every 15 days, the total removal of leaves every 30 days,
partial leaf removal and a control treatment. The results have shown that there is
a direct influence on leaf production of both the periodicity and the period of
lopping:

− The leaf biomass is larger after the rainy season;

− A partial pruning of the branches and stripping of the leaves is more
productive than a total extraction;

− When comparing the two leaf stripping operations at 15 and 30 days,
production is higher in the case of the 30-day leaf stripping;

− Leaf stripping can have both a depressive effect on leaf production (Cadaba
and Combretum) and a stimulating effect (Feretia);

− The protein content is inversely proportional to the frequency of pruning.

Few surveys and studies have been conducted into the response capacity of
different species to pollarding, lopping and stumping. Those that have shown that:

− If overdone, these practices threaten the survival of the species;

− The trees are more subject to termites attack;

− In the event of a fire, the whole tree is affected, especially umbrella trees
whose partially sectioned branches hang to the ground, protecting grass from
grazing (hence constituting a stock of flammable straw);

23

− The effect of pollarding varies according to the species and the season;

− Pollarding extends the fruit gathering period into the second half of the dry
season for some species.

CISSÉ (1992) has shown that lopping tends to spread out the period during
which trees bear leaves, if it does not kill it. Defoliation is delayed to the point that
the sprouts, which remain in the vegetative state, can keep their leaves in the off-
season. This is one of the practical advantages of the lopping technique.

Figure: Pruning of trees

Source: von Carlowitz, 1991

2.15.3. N OTION OF F ORAGE S PECIES

According to BELLEFONTAINE (2000), the term ‘Forage’ refers to all species
whose organs serve to feed livestock animals, whereas “fodder” refers more to
the function of a species than any specific characteristic. In fact, almost all plants
may be used as fodder when conditions are preferable to, or require their use.

Qualitatively however, not all species are equivalent. Some are considered to
be good forage, others only average or poor. Reaching a qualitative measure also
depends on the type of animal that appreciates a plant species to a greater or
lesser extent. A further consideration is the state of the plant organs to be
consumed.

24

Characteristics of forage species:

− Palatability: some plants or parts of plants seem more palatable to cattle than
others. Cattle are first attracted to these plants, neglecting less palatable
species.

− Nutritive value: as is the case for human food, nutritive values differ between
fodder types.

− Digestibility: a species can provide forage of high nutritive value for one
animal, yet pose digestive difficulties for others.

− Absence of toxicity: toxicity can occur in one animal and not in another. It is
possible that the organs of certain plants are toxic while others are not.

− Grazing resistance: it is essential that plants stay alive after grazing,
otherwise the species would disappear.

− Fodder productivity: the amount of forage produced by each plant is
important. Discrete species, the fodder organs of which do not grow back easily
will be eliminated during successive cattle movements.

− Exploitability: facility with which we can establish the species on a land and
exploit it.

All criteria listed above apply in a progressive manner. A given leaf is
particularly appetizing and digestible for cattle while it is young. Another type of
leaf, an irritant, is refused as long as it is living, but constitutes excellent forage
once wilted.

2.15.4. P ASTURES E VOLUTIO N F AC TORS

According to BELLEFONTAINE (2000), pasture is the land where herbivores –
domestic or wild – come to feed. This differs from fields on which crops are
cultivated. A pasture can be ‘natural’ if seedling occurs naturally and without
human intervention, or artificial when species developing there are in the greater
part, sowed by humans. Pasture vegetation is, generally, composed of many
seasonal, pluriseasonal or perennial species. They are either herbaceous or
woody.

25

If the term “pasture” refers to a particular geographic space, it also has a
botanical meaning: a group of associated or rival vegetables, constantly evolving
with changes in climate, soil fertility, the level of intensive cattle exploitation,
vegetative cycles and reproductive patterns of each species present.

Exploitation techniques for pastures also lead to different evolutions. If a land
is permanently grazed by cattle, its vegetation evolves differently than if this land
is in rotation. Likewise, land evolves differently depending on whether it is
mowed, pastured or burnt.

We must also distinguish forage fields – or forage orchards – from pastures.
Forage fields are plots of land cultivated to produce fodder that will be harvested
and stored before serving as cattle feed. In relation to types of fodder, we must
distinguish between two types of development, one annual and the other
pluriannual.

Seasonal development of pastures

Over the course of a year, plants succeed each other in occupying the land.
The most significant biomass activity occurs at the beginning of the rainy season.
There are both early species whose development proceeds in a few weeks and
more belated species, whose cycle only ends after the rainy season, or even
during the dry season.

Seasonal pasture development also depends on the reproductive patterns of
different species. Those that reproduce exclusively by seed can develop only
after the first rains and this development will be either hastened or slowed
depending on the conditions. Those that reproduce by rhizomes, by tillers, bulbs
or tubers have accumulated resources available that enable them to begin their
cycle earlier, sometimes even before the rains start. Some develop vegetation
during the dry season using stored water in their organs or water reserves stored
in soil layers deep in the earth.

It is in this progressive seasonal context that animals feed on natural pastures.
The interest hereby arises in species diversity of the pastureland as it enables the
production of edible matter for animals to be spread over time.

26

Pluriannual development of pastures

The constant presence of cattle on pasture changes its floral composition.
Developmental factors linked to the presence of cattle are the following:

− Selectivity: When cattle remain on the same land, the most palatable plant
species are first eaten by animals and are overexploited. They are
subsequently unable to complete their vegetative cycle and reproduce. The
dissemination of seed-reproducing seasonal or perennial species is thus
compromised and their density on the pastureland decreases. If the species
concerned is a tree sought after by cattle, young plants are not able to establish
themselves. On the other hand, less appreciated species will develop and,
eventually, invade the land.

− Proliferation of species less palatable to, or rejected by cattle. These have
time to complete their vegetative cycle and disseminate their seeds.
Furthermore, extinction of the most sought after species encourages this
proliferation, because rejected species meet less root competition. Only grazing
management that limits cattle density, encouraging the spread of best forage
species through adequate rotation of pasture and reaping periods, and
diversifying forage stratum enables unwanted proliferation of poor quality
species to be avoided. Fallow periods must be planned every year and over
different periods in order to periodically allow all species the occasion to
produce their seed and allow them to become established.

− Reaping does not have the same effects as cattle grazing, because all grasses
are cut, good and bad fodder alike. The least prized species do not have the
opportunity to proliferate by seed as is the case with grazing. It is necessary to
cut poor forage species rejected by cattle wherever they have a tendency to
proliferate.

− Stalling is another factor of impoverishment and reorganisation of forage
vegetation. Young plants of seed-reproducing seasonal species are either
totally destroyed by stalling, or damaged: their growth is disturbed and they are
badly developed when they reach maturity. Where pasture is constantly
exploited, stalling encourages tuft species. Soil between tufts is so compressed
and constricted that it is impossible for young plants, whether herbaceous or

27

woody, to develop there. Fire and erosion reinforce pasture development
against invasion by rhizome species. These tuft-forming species resist well
against fire whereas other species are more sensitive. Erosion occurs between
tufts, digging into the soil.

− Cultivation of lands is an additional factor regarding the reduction of natural
forage production. Successive ploughing and hoeing prevents natural forage
from developing and results in the collapse of the herbaceous forage species
seed stock.

2.15.5. O VERGRAZING

Overgrazing may be defined as action by livestock which modifies the potential
of a range land. The first manifestation of overgrazing is the modification of the
floristic composition. The sought-after palatable disappear giving way to non-
palatable species which are not sought after which have been given the chance
to multiply. This disappearance of sought-after species may be due to the
depletion of the root system, as will be seen later. But in physiognomic terms, this
development is not particularly visible. The other visible manifestation of
overgrazing is better known, because it brings erosion, and sometimes to a
spectacular degree. The gradual disappearance of the grass cover, and even its
total disappearance, and trampling encourage water erosion. This is particularly
acute in hilly areas, such as in the Adamawa in Cameroon. (Bellefontaine & Al.,
2000: 154)

Continuous grazing, which often leads to overgrazing, reduces the production
of regrowth. The grasses are unable to reconstitute their underground reserves,
with the result that the root system is depleted by losing mass. This reduces
production the following year. However, by introducing a rest period, since the soil
is not depleted, the grazing potential is restored. Old fallows and savannas which
seem to be fairly hardy and have sufficient biomass need to be managed with
great care. Range management in savanna areas must in fact operate to
maintain the pasture potentialities, while avoiding bush encroachment.
(Bellefontaine & Al., 2000: 162)

28

Figure: Evolution of the floristic composition resulting from different treatments on the
Abokouamékro Ranch in Côte d’Ivoire.

Source: Bellefontaine & Al, 2000: 163

2.15.6. B USH F IRES ( PASTORALISTS ’ POINT OF VIEW )

When discussing bush fires two questions arise: their causes and their
usefulness. CIRAD has addressed the question of bush fires in the paper Fiches
techniques d’élevage tropical (Ministry of Cooperation and Development, 1990),
and what follows is largely taken from this paper.

Apart from rare cases in which they are due to lightning, the main cause is
man. Fire is deliberate (fires ignited by hunters and herdsmen, or of malevolent
origin) or accidental (travelers’ fires not properly extinguished, agricultural
clearing fires which get out of control, etc.).

The impact of fire on the chemical contents of the soil is small. Virtually all the
mineral elements return to the soil after burning, except for nitrogen. However, it

29

should be remembered that the organic matter supplied to the soil comes
essentially from the underground system, which in humid regions, has a greater
biomass than the aerial complex. The rate of root renewal in tropical soils is
extremely fast. Considering the aspects of natural resource management through
use of early brushwood burnings and the problem of livestock production, the
author of this report concludes as far as the Sudano-Guinean area is concerned
that fire should not be viewed as a factor of transformation but as a factor of
savanna conservation. It is necessary in order to maintain the floristic variety of
the savanna, and particularly the grass cover which is indispensable to livestock.

To keep a neutral vision of bush fires, here’s a table showing the advantages
and disadvantages of using fire on pasture lands.

Table: Pros and cons of using fire to manage natural pasture

Advantages Disadvantages
− Stimulates vegetative regrowth, not − Loss of plant biomass and thus short-
only of grasses but also of many term decrease in available forage.
shrubs and trees during the dry
season.
− Increases plant biomass production in − Increased danger of erosion.
the following wet season, at least in
some cases.
− Rapidly mineralizes dead biomass, thus − Destruction of micro-organisms near
making the minerals which were fixed in the soil surface because of increased
it available for plant growth. soil temperature.
− Controls bush encroachment, thus − Loss of nutrients.
favouring growth of the herbaceous
layer, which is important for the nutrition
of cattle, buffaloes and sheep.
− Favours desired species (depending on − Suppresses desired species
plant community). (depending on plant community).
− Decreases the risk of uncontrolled fires.
Source: BAYER (1998)

The usefulness of fire depends, among other things, on the interests of the
people who use it. Pastoralists set fire to grassland mainly to stimulate plant
regrowth during the dry season. Mature plants are under considerable moisture
stress. The removal of much of the leaf and stem material greatly reduces the
plant surface from which evaporation can occur. Pastoral fires are often set early
in the dry season in upland areas and in the middle of the season in low-lying
areas, where regrowth is stronger than on the uplands. Crop farmers tend to burn

30

later than pastoralists, in the late dry season, to clear natural vegetation for
cultivation and to clean the fields. (BAYER and WATERS-BAYER, 1998: 85)

2.15.7. P ASTURE I MPRO VEMENT

This activity which demands a great deal of manpower often at a time when it
is not available is becoming evermore costly. It can therefore only be undertaken
on limited areas, which will facilitate guarding, because once they are restored,
grazing lands are often used by herds coming from elsewhere. (Bellefontaine &
Al., 2000: 165)

The most simple improvement technique consists in soil preparation. As far as
possible, the soil is turned over or ploughed along the contour lines. The lines are
about 10 m apart. This light preparation is sufficient to retain water and the seeds
of annual species. After the rains, the lines of grass become clearly visible, and
are effective for several years, in helping restore the soil, until its surface cover is
totally rehabilitated. This presupposes that for two to three years the area is under
full grazing exclusion. This technique can be improved by sowing fodder species
along the lines. At the beginning, the normal practice is to use seeds of natural
species collected during the previous dry season. The results are encouraging
but the village community that undertakes this work needs to exert perfect control
and supervision over its land.

Figure: Schematic profile of a sub-soiled and crescent-ridged compartment

Source: Bellefontaine, 2000 (from Toutain, 1993)

This technique can be improved by tracing the lines with a plough and a
tractor. The hollow and the cross fall form a small ditch which holds the water and

31

the seed on the slope on which legumes, hardy grasses and fodder shrubs can
be sown. Another variation is to make this ditch in a crescent shape in order to
collect the water from a micro-watershed. In this case the results are more
spectacular, but the whole area must be put under strict grazing exclusion.
Sometimes vegetation can develop between the small water-retention ditches,
particularly spectacular woody plant regeneration. (Bellefontaine & Al., 2000: 165)

According to DUPRIEZ & De LEENER (1993), there’s a lot of means in order
to avoid worsening in forages lands.

− To keep watch over or to fence in plots of land allows the development of
natural vegetation without cattle. Protected from herbivores, overgrazed
lands repopulate at different speeds depending on the diversity of both
herbaceous and woody local species. Keeping watch and erecting fences
allows the enrichment of vegetation by sowing or planting useful and diverse
forage species. This enrichment can be achieved at a maximum volume
level: lower strata can be made accessible to cattle, whilst higher strata can
be made inaccessible. This can be managed by the cattle breeder.

− Development of forage associations. This involves trying to understand the
most productive associations of woody and herbaceous species, in order to
encourage the most valuable combinations.

− Setting up a system of grazing rotation. Parcels of land are divided into
several plots that will be used for grazing at different times and on a rotational
basis. Rotation enables a more regular regrowth on non-grazed plots. It is
important to plan a staggered rotation, so that any given plot will not be
systematically grazed during the same period each year. Where possible,
one of all the parcels of land should be left fallow.

− Development of woody fodder strata. Fodder trees forming productive
strata inaccessible to cattle constitute an important fodder potential for cattle
breeders. However, it is necessary to take care not to compromise these
fodder resources by damaging or overexploiting trees. In natural pastures,
fodder trees are generally used as a contribution during the rainy season and
as the main resource during the dry season. Fully exploited during the rainy
season and stored after drying, tree fodder can be used as stock for the dry

32

season. Existence of a wooded forage producing stratum in fields during the
dry season is beneficial as it enables the global yield of the land to increase.
However it also allows attracts cattle onto temporarily uncultivated land.
Woody fodder strata also allow field fertility to increase as animals leave their
excrement whilst grazing at the foot of the trees.

− Fodder catch crops have also been developed in the aim of improving
forage production: millet, sorghum, beans, siratro2 etc are placed between
lines of seasonal crops at the end of the rainy season. Young plants will die
as the dry season progresses, but stocks of dry fodder are left to be either
reaped, or eaten by the cattle that remain there until the following rainy
season. Fodder trees and fodder catch crops allow the productive season to
be prolonged by a few weeks or a few months after cereal crops.

There are many ways to diversify fodder resources, as we attempt to organize
the productive strata on lands dedicated to either subsistence or commercial
productions.

Associating fodder crops and erosion control is an intelligent practice. This can
be achieved by inserting grassy hedges on plots whose leaves can be cut and
given to cattle. It is possible to associate fodder trees with these live hedges, an
association that would greatly improve the forage productivity of anti-erosion
buffer strips.

2.16. I M PROVEMENT BY H AY M AKING

Hay is the oldest, and still the most important retained forage, despite its
dependence on a favourable climate during the harvesting period. This can be
produced with simple equipment, manual or mechanised, and many small
farmers make hay to feed livestock through the lean season. The livestock needs
feed throughout the year. Plant growth is determined by the weather, but fresh
alimentation is only available during certain periods of the year, and the shorter
the period of plant growth, the greater the irregularity of the feed supply.

2
Macroptilium atropurpureum is a perennial twining legume, combined with tall grasses.
Siratro grows well in moist, subtropical and tropical climates with 800 – 1,500 mm rainfall and on a
wide range of reasonably drained soils (Partridge, 2003)

33

Consequently, in most climates (excepting temperate regions), in the period
where fresh feed is lacking, feed must be provided to substitute pasture and fresh
forage if losses in weight and production are to be avoided. Forage and crop
conservation is a traditional method for reducing seasonal variations of the
available feed.

Haymaking involves the reduction of humidity of freshly cut pastoral grass from
70-90% to 15-20% or less. This is simple in theory, but dependant on climactic
conditions, on the farmer’s technical knowledge and on his sense of observation.
Hay is classified as forage, that is, a feed with approximately 18% of raw cellulose
and less than 20% of raw proteins in dry matter. In practice, most hay has a
nutritive value far below these levels. It is rarely a complete feed and must -be
used as part of a global alimentary system. Crops residues, especially straws and
stems, but not limited to cereals, are also important cattle feed during the lean
season, and are often used in association with hay.

Natural drying of cut grass by the sun and wind is always the most common
method of forage conservation, natural grasses and crop residues. Artificial drying
is sometimes used in some highly mechanized systems. Hay is the best
conserved forage for small producers because in all but the most humid climates
it can be undertaken with little equipment and produced, excluding the costs
related to the labour force, at low-cost. Hay can be made with simple equipment
and, once dried properly, is easy to transport and store, and can be distributed
with very little wastage. As an adequate conserved forage for small cattle
breeders with limited resources, hay should be encouraged wherever climatic and
economic conditions are favourable. (Suttie, 2004)

34

Chapter Three. METHODOLOGY

3.1. R ESEARCH D ESIGN

This is a non-randomised survey research to understand the silvopastoral
system in the Mbororo community of the North West region of Cameroon.

3.2. P OPULATION OF THE S TUDY

The sampling frame consisted of the Mbororo herders of the subdivision of
Santa in the Mezam division in the North West region of Cameroon.

The subdivision of Santa involves 13 Ardorates whose 10 are Mbororo-en and
3 are none Mbororo-en.

Table of sampling distribution:

Number of Mbororo
ArDos Village Sampling Rate (%)
householders
Julie Ndzong 30 9 30

Musa Yaya Akum, Baba II, 115 41 35.7
Alatening,
Mbuh

Yaya Hamman Pinyin *
Sikod (NM) Pinyin *
Bouniidu Pinyin *
Umarou Pinyin *
Garga Buba Pinyin 40 15 37,5
Wilfred Muluh *
(NM)
Nana Jaki Baligham 13 3 23
Yaya Dewa Awing 18 7 39,9
Jaligae Awing 20 7 35
Bandiri Awing *
Ndenkeh (NM) Awing 11 5 45.5
Total and average rate 247 87 35,5
NM: None Mbororo, * No data

35

For this study, 7 ArDos were visited with a total of 87 participants. I choose to
sample around 30% of the population of each ArDos.

The sampling was entirely and deliberately selective. Reasons of that choice
were the lack of means of transport, the availability of my translators and field
assistants; climatic conditions, etc. I had to choose people living in places where I
could have access.

For a dependable study, I know I had to do a randomized sampling, for
example: putting the names of all Mbororo-en inhabitants of Santa subdivision in
a bucket and taking names one by one until reaching 30% of the whole
population. But instead of following the standards of the sampling methodology, I
choose the feasibility with the means in my possession.

3.3. D ESCRIPTION OF THE A REA OF S TUDY

3.3.1. G EOGRAPHICAL L OCATION

Source: World Factbook of Central Intelligence Agency of USA

The study was done in the North West region of Cameroon. Cameroon is
located in Western Africa. It is bound by the Gulf of Guinea to the West, Nigeria to
the Northwest, Chad to the Northeast, Central African Republic to the East,
Republic of the Congo to the Southeast, Gabon to the South and Equatorial
Guinea to the Southwest. Its geographic coordinates are: 6°
00N and 12°
00E. The

36

country has a whole surface area of 475,440 km² (involving 6000 km² of water
and 469,440 km² of land). The highest point of Cameroon is on Mount Cameroon
with 4,095m. Land use is distributed in this ratio: 12.54% of arable land, 2.52% of
permanent crop and 84.94% of other. (The World FactBook, CIA).

Source: MINEF, 1994

37

The North West region lies between latitudes 5° 43” and 7°
9”N and longitudes
9°
13” and 11°
13”E and covers an area of about 17,40 0 km². It is bordered in the
North and West by the Republic of Nigeria, in the South by the Western and
South Western Provinces of Cameroon, in the East by the Adamawa region. The
Province is divided into seven Divisions: Boyo, Bui, Donga-Mantoung, Menchum,
Mezam, Momo and Ngoketundjia with the following respective administrative
headquarters – Fundung, kumbo, Nkambe, Wum, Bamenda, Mbengwi and Ndop.

Santa Subdivision lies at latitudes 5.80° N and at longitudes 10.17° E. Santa
Subdivision includes these following villages: Akum, Alatening, Awing, Baba II,
Baligham, Mbei, Mbuh, Ndzong and Pinyin.

Source: CAMGIS, 2003

3.3.2. T OPOGRAPHY

The topography of the region is generally mountainous and undulating,
characterised by abrupt escarpments, towering mountain peaks, deep valleys and
broad alluvial plains. The highest point in the province is Mont Oku (in the Bui
division) with an altitude of 3011m above sea level (a.s.l.) and the lowest being
Mbembe plain with an altitude of 211 meters a.s.l.

38

This topography can be classified into three main zones: the lower altitude (<
900m a.s.l.), the mid altitude (900 – 1500m a.s.l.) and the high altitude (> 1500m
a.s.l.).

The topography of the region explains the difficulties encountered in the
attempts to reach a greater part of the province either by vehicle or even on foot.
Some areas are still isolated and not accessible by road. (MINADER, Nov 2006)

3.3.3. C LIMATE

The climate is greatly influenced by the topography. It is described as a tropical
transitional climate in the central mountainous region of Cameroon from the rainy,
humid and continuously warm climate in the south, to the extremely changeable
(in terms of temperature and rainfall) but relatively dry and hot climate of the
north.

On the average the North West region has a mild climate which is very
conducive for hard work. The province is marked by two distinct seasons. The dry
season starts from mid October to mid March and the rainy season from mid
March to mid October.

The dry season is characterised by harmattan3 and cold dry and biting wind
which blows from the Sahara desert. The evenings and morning are very chilly.
The atmosphere is generally clumsy and the monthly average maximum
temperatures for the Province range between 15° (i n the high mountainous
C
areas) to 27° (in the low altitude zones). The ann ual rainfall varies from
C
1300mm in Ndop plains to over 3000mm at Mbande and Mount Oku. (MINADER,
Nov 2006)

3
This is a hot, dry wind that blows from the northeast or east in the Western Sahara into the
Gulf of Guinea between the end of November and the middle of March. (“Harmattan”, Wikipedia
2009)

39

Source: MINTRANS (2009)

Rainfall Data - Bamenda Station

700 0
Height (mm)

600 10

500 20

400 30

300 40

200 50

100 60

0 70
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Days

Height (mm) 8.3 16.6 107.4 190.0 173.7 323.7 376.3 414.5 414.0 244.1 59.6 20.6
Days 1 4 11 20 22 24 27 26 26 25 12 2


40

Temperature Data - Bamenda Station

30.0
C)
T (°

28.0
26.0
24.0
22.0
20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Maxima 26.6 27.2 26.7 25.2 25.1 23.7 22.4 22.2 22.9 24.6 25.2 25.9
Minima 13.4 14.4 15.3 15.3 14.8 14.3 13.8 13.8 14.0 14.4 14.1 13.3
Moyenne 20.0 20.8 21.0 20.2 20.0 19.0 18.1 18.0 18.4 19.5 19.7 19.6


Both charts that I made above are an average of the monthly average data on
10 years. Primary data comes from the ministry of transports.

3.3.4. V EGETATIO N

The vegetation is as a result of the local climate, altitude, soil conditions, and
human activities on the natural resources. In the lower transitional zone and low
lands, we have the savannah covered with woods, mostly among the rivers
(Donga peneplain), shrubs and lower mountain forest (Batibo, Bambui, mount
Oku).

In the highland zone, we have grassland vegetation that is derived from
mountainous forests (Nkambe-Banso plateau, Santa and Oshie highlands). In the
mountain (and escapements) prevails a variable ecological condition with the
savannah-like vegetation in the escapements (Donga escapement, Jakiri and
Njnikom) and the grassland vegetation on the mountains (mount Oku, mount
Lefo). (MINADER, Nov 2006)

41

− Savanna: “vegetation type that grows under hot, seasonally dry climatic
conditions and is characterized by an open tree canopy (i.e., scattered
trees) above a continuous tall grass understory.” (Encyclopaedia
Britannica online)

− Grassland: “area in which the vegetation is dominated by a nearly
continuous cover of grasses. Grasslands occur in environments
conducive to the growth of this plant cover but not to that of taller plants,
particularly trees and shrubs.” (Encyclopaedia Britannica online)

3.3.5. S OIL T YPE

The province is characterized by many soil types, which give, rise to the
cultivation of a variety of crops. The soils are gradually being modified by some
circumstances like weathering, human activities (farming, construction and
burning)

Soil type of the North West Province:

Altitude Topography/Relief Soil type Areas

< 1000m Low altitude

Valley bottom Alluvial/Colluvial Widikum

Hilly slopes Clay-Loam

Lowlands Lateritic Dumbo, Tingo

1000 – 1500m Medium altitude

Hilly slopes Clay-Loam Belo

Plains Sandy-Loam Ndop and Mbaw
plains, Binka-Lus

> 1500m High altitude

Hilly slopes Clay-Loam Santa, Takum

(MINADER, Nov 2006)

42

3.4. C O LLECTION OF D ATA

Collected data are from two types: primary data and secondary data. Primary
data were collected trough interviews on the field with tools like a questionnaire, a
transect, maps, direct observations which were administered in the selected area
of study.

Secondary data were obtained from magazines, books, reports, journals,
handbooks, etc… from the following organizations:

− Regional Antenna of IRAD Bambui

− Provincial Delegation of MINEPIA

− Provincial Delegation of MINADER

− ANAFOR for Humid Savannah Area

− SNV documents and reports

− MBOSCUDA archives in Bamenda

− Websites on internet

3.5. P RIMARY D ATA

Collection of primary data was based on the RRA method (Rapid Rural
Appraisal method). Which is a semi-structured activity carried out on the field by a
multi-disciplinary approach and is designed to quickly acquire information on, and
new hypothesis about rural life.

Typology of participation: Participation in information. People participate by
answering questions posed by extractive researchers giving questionnaire
surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence
proceedings, as the findings of research are neither shared nor checked for
accuracy.

This methodology is relevant only to a multidisciplinary team. This study being
undertaken by but one relatively inexperienced person however, the choice was
made to not apply the RRA method as a whole but to draw from it extensively in
order to make this study viable for a Master’s degree student. With the aim of

43

studying a socio-economic system and a silvopastoral system, it makes use of
some of the tools of the RRA method.

3.5.1. Q UESTIO NNAIRE D EVELOPMENT

A questionnaire was drawn up and used for data collection In order to obtain
accurate information for this study. The questionnaire was written in English and
included both closed and open-ended questions. As the Mbororo cattle breeders
do not speak English, I was assisted by several translators, all of whom had a
level of education sufficient for the comprehension of questions included in the
questionnaire. A briefing was conducted before field interviews to be certain that
the questions were understood.

The questionnaire was divided in two sections: the first relates to the
participative interview and the second considers the socio-economic data of the
individual. The first, group section has two sub-sections: Part A covering
questions of transhumance and part B covering questions related to
silvopastoralism.

3.5.2. I NTERNAL V ALIDITY OF THE Q UESTIONNAIRE

The questionnaire was tested on a Mbororo group in ArDo Jullie’s compound,
in the Santa subdivision. The group included eighteen cattle breeders as well as
ArDo himself. This test highlighted the fact that it was easier and safer to
interview Mbororo-en in groups regarding agronomic questions rather than
individually. According to the one of my Mbororo-en translators, this is because
they feel more comfortable in groups than on their own. The sections of the
questionnaire relating to transhumance and silvopastoralism were lead in a
participative way whereas for the socio-economic section, we passed from one
person to another to collect data individually.

The test made it clear that the interview, taking 2.5 hours, lasted too long. It
should be taken into account however that this was the first interview, and time
was lost correcting some questions during the interview and agreeing on a good
translation in Pidgin English or in Fulfulde (language of the Mbororo-en).

44

Regarding the questions themselves, some were corrected during the
interviews and others were modified later. As I passed from the individual survey
to the participative survey for two of the three sections of the questionnaire, I
changed its presentation in order to establish a logical interview framework.
Ultimately, we began with the participative survey and finished with socio-
economic data.

3.5.3. D IRECT O BSERVATIO NS

Direct observations were made to be compared to collected data from the
questionnaire.

3.5.4. T RANSEC TS

Transects are systematic walks taken with farmers or key informant through an
area. Transects walks are recorded using sketches in the form of a matrix table
with the relief of the walked transect along forming the top of the table and the
studied criteria listed in the left-hand column. Field notes and comment are
entered in the appropriate box.

3.5.5. C HART OF T RADITIONALLY U SED P LANTS

This is a table including scientific names of plant in regards of their Mbororo
names and their use by the community. The chart is in the form of a matrix and
includes an exhaustive list of the use of each plant, whether it be animal
medicine, human medicine, animal feed, human food, water catchment
protection… A cross marks the correct use of each plant by the community.

This list of plants was created from a document called: “Taxonomic
classification of ethno-veterinary medicinal plants collected by HPI/Cameroon:
1991-1994”. The chart was next elaborated with the collaboration of Mbororo-en
in several villages.

45

Mercier - Study of silvopastoralism in the mbororo community in the north west region of cameroon

Mercier - Study of silvopastoralism in the mbororo community in the north west region of cameroon

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