The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5672±0.0006 by] therefore, it is inferred that the Earth must have been formed by accretion around this time. By 4.54±0.04 by the primordial Earth had formed. The formation and evolution of the Solar System bodies occurred in tandem with the Sun. In theory a solar nebula partitions a volume out of a molecular cloud by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a circumstellar disk, and then the planets grow out of that in tandem with the star. A nebula contains gas, ice grains and dust

1. Chapter 2
Journey to the Center of the Earth
LECTURE OUTLINE
earth
Portrait of a Planet
Third Edition
©2008 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

2. Journey to the Center of the Earth
Prepared by
Ronald Parker
Earlham College Department of Geosciences
Richmond, Indiana

3. Earth’s Surface
Our experience with Earth is limited to its surface.
 Yet Earth has a complicated interior.
 Earth is characterized by…

 An internally generated magnetic field.
 Solid and liquid surfaces.
 A gaseous envelope.
 A layered interior.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

4. The Solar System

Human perceptions have changed.
 Early history – Planets as moving lights.
 1600s – 1st telescopes saw hazy spheres.
 Today – A complex, evolving system.
Structure
History
Space probes have photographed
and analyzed planets.
 Scientists have hypothesized likely
origins of the solar system.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

5. Earth and the Solar System

What would solar system visitors notice?
 Magnetic field.
 Atmosphere.
 Surface features.
Continents.
Oceans.
Polar ice caps.
Evidence of humanity?
Structures.
Dams.
Great Wall of China.
Cities.
Roads / canals.
Electric lights.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

6. The Celestial Neighborhood




Interstellar space: a vacuum with a virtual absence of matter.
The amount of matter greatly increases approaching the Sun.
The Sun ejects matter outward into space as the solar wind.
Solar wind:
 Magnetically charged particles.
 Stream outward in all directions.
 Consists of…

Protons (+ charge).
Electrons (– charge).
A small percentage of the solar
wind impinges upon Earth.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

7. Magnetic Field




The Earth has a prominent dipolar magnetic field.
Like a bar magnet, the field has north and south ends.
Magnetic flux has a direction that flows N to S.
Magnetic field lines…
 Extend into space.
 Weaken with distance.
 Create a shield around
Earth (the magnetosphere).
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

8. The Van Allen Belts


The solar wind is deflected by the magnetosphere.
Near the Earth, the stronger magnetic field forms the Van
Allen belts, which arrest deadly cosmic radiation.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

9. Aurorae

Some ions escape Van Allen belts.
 These ions are pulled to the magnetic poles.
 The ions create light in the upper atmosphere.

Spectacular aurora follow solar flares.
 Aurora borealis – Northern lights.
 Aurora australis – Southern lights.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

10. The Atmosphere
Earth has a well developed atmosphere.
 Thus, Earth is unique among the terrestrial planets.
 Densest at sea-level, the atmosphere thins upward.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

11. The Atmosphere

The atmosphere is mostly nitrogen.
Oxygen was absent from the atmosphere before 2.5 Ga.

Other gases include:

Argon (Ar)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Methane (CH4)
Neon (Ne)
Ozone (O3)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

12. The Atmosphere


99% of atmosphere is below 50 km,
the rest is between 50 and 500 km.
The atmosphere is layered.
 Troposphere (0-11 km).
Mixing layer.
Weather is limited to this layer.
 Tropopause (11-12 km).
 Stratosphere (12-30 km).

Sea-level atmospheric pressure.
 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi).
 1.0 bar.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

13. Surface Features


Earth’s surface is dominated by water and land.
Water is a part of the hydrosphere.
 Surface water
 Ground water.
 Glacial ice.

Impact craters occur rarely on Earth.
 Removed by weathering and erosion.
 Unlike other planets in the solar system.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

14. Surface Features

Earth’s surface reveals high continents and low ocean basins.

Position due to the differing buoyancy of each type of crust.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

15. Hypsometric Curve




Most land lies within 1 km of sea level.
Most ocean floors are close to 5 km depth.
Extremes of depth or height are rare.
The 2 dominant
“levels” reflect
continental vs.
oceanic crust.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

16. Elemental Composition

~Ninety percent of Earth is comprised of 4 elements.
 Iron (Fe) ~35%
 Oxygen (O) ~30%
 Silicon (Si) ~15%
 Magnesium (Mg) ~10%

The remaining 88 naturally
occurring elements?
 Form ~10% of Earth.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

17. Earth Materials

Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
 Organic compounds – Carbon-containing compounds.
Most are residue from once-living creatures.
Include wood, peat, lignite, coal, and oil.
Geologically rare (decomposes in contact with oxygen).
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

18. Earth Materials

Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
 Minerals – Inorganic crystalline solids.
Comprise rocks and, hence, most of the Earth.
Most rocks on Earth are silicates (based on Si and O).
 Glasses – Non-crystalline mineral-like matter.
 Rocks – Aggregates of minerals. There are many types.
Igneous – Cooled from a liquid (melt).
Sedimentary – Debris cemented from pre-existing rock.
Metamorphic – Rock altered by pressure and temperature.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

19. Earth Materials
Metals – Solids made of metallic elements.
 Melts – Rocks that have been heated to a liquid.

 Magma – Molten rock beneath the surface.
 Lava – Molten rock at the surface.

Volatiles – Materials that turn into gas at the surface.
 H2O, CO2, CH4, and SO2
 Volatiles are released from volcanic eruption.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

20. A Layered Earth
We live on the thin outer skin of Earth.
 Early perceptions about Earth’s interior were wrong.

 Open caverns filled with magma, water, and air.
 Furnaces and flames.

We now know that Earth is comprised of layers.
 The Crust.
 The Mantle.
 The Core.
Outer Core.
Inner Core.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

21. A Layered Earth
Several clues indicate a layered structure.
 Density – Plumb bob deflection estimates density.

 Average density greater than surface density.
 Density must increase with depth.

Shape – A rotating sphere requires centered mass.
 Mass away from center would result in a flattened disk.
 Solid interior - Surface doesn’t undulate from tidal forces.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

22. A Layered Earth

Earthquake clues - Earthquake energy transmitted
as seismic waves that pass through Earth.
 Seismic waves have been used to probe the interior.

Wave velocity changes with density.
Velocity changes give depth of layer changes.
Changes with depth.
 Pressure.
 Temperature.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

23. Earth’s Interior Layers

Earth (and other planets) have layered interiors.
 Crust
Continental
Oceanic
 Mantle
Upper
Lower
 Core
Outer – Liquid
Inner – Solid
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
© W. W. Norton
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

24. The Crust

The outermost “skin” of Earth with variable thickness.
 Thickest under mountain ranges (70 km – 40 miles).
 Thinnest under mid-ocean ridges (3 km – 2 miles).

The Mohorovicic discontinuity is the lower boundary.
 Separates the crust from the upper mantle.
 Discovered in 1909 by Andrija Mohorovicic.
 Marked by a change in the velocity of seismic P waves.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

25. Two Types of Crust

Continental crust – Underlies the continents.
 Average rock density about 2.7 g/cm3.
 Average thickness 35-40 km.
 Granitic in composition.

Oceanic crust – Underlies the ocean basins.
 Density about 3.0 g/cm3.
 Avg. thickness 7-10 km.
 Basaltic in composition.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

26. Two Types of Crust

Crustal density controls surface position.
 Continental crust
Less dense; “floats higher.”
 Oceanic crust
More dense: “floats lower.”
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

27. Crustal Composition


98.5% of the crust is comprised of just 8 elements.
Oxygen is (by far!) the most abundant element in the crust.
 This reflects the importance of silicate (SiO4-based) minerals.
 As a large atom, oxygen occupies ~93% of crustal volume.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

28. Earth’s Mantle
Solid rock layer between the crust and the core.
 2,885 km thick, the mantle is 82% of Earth’s volume.
 Mantle composition is the ultramafic rock peridotite.
 Below ~100-150 km, the rock is hot enough to flow.
 It convects: hot mantle rises, cold mantle sinks.
 Three subdivisions: upper, transitional, and lower.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

29. The Core
An iron-rich sphere with a radius of 3,471 km.
 2 components with differing seismic wave behavior.

 Outer core
Liquid iron-nickel-sulfur
2,255 km thick
Density – 10-12 g/cm3
 Inner core
Solid iron-nickel alloy
Radius of 1,220 km.
Density – 13 g/cm3

Flow in the outer core generates the magnetic field.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

30. Lithosphere-Asthenosphere

Lithosphere – The outermost 100-150 km of Earth.
 Behaves as a non-flowing, rigid material.
 The material that moves as tectonic plates.
 Made of 2 components: crust and upper mantle.

Asthenosphere – Upper mantle below lithosphere.
 Shallower under oceanic lithosphere.
 Deeper under continental lithosphere.
 Flows as a soft solid.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

31. Earth’s Interior
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

32. This concludes the
Chapter 2
Journey to the Center of the Earth
LECTURE OUTLINE
earth
Portrait of a Planet
Third Edition
©2008 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 3rd edition, by Stephen Marshak
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth