This presentation is an overview of females in sport, especially female coaches.

1. WOMEN COACHES IN SPORT
By Rewa Gonzalez-Granda Inder
K0517329

2. AIMS:
To explore and understand females participation in

sport.
Examine the factors affecting females participation

in sport.
To explore and understand the lack of female

coaches in sport.
Examine the factors affecting female coaches.


3. INTRODUCTION
If women participate in sport, people assume that it

is their hobby
Males sexual orientation is hardly ever questioned

because of their interest and participation in
sports, and the media reaction to them multi-tasking
parenthood or marriage alongside a career is a big
plus
Women on the other hand have to fight for a

picture of them sweating on the field as opposed to
twiddling the ball in high heels for portraits
Ahmed, M(2003)

4. INTRODUCTION
Women's sexual preferences are constantly under

attack, especially if they are rising athletes. They
are also never commended for managing a full-time
career and their personal relationships.
It is expected that if a woman steps into sports, she

has to work twice as hard to maintain her familial
responsibilities.
Ahmed, (2003)

5. DEFINITIONS:
Femininity has been characterized by certain

qualities, such as sensitivity, fragility, dependence
on men and slim (Coakley, 2001).
Masculinity has been characterized as

aggression, tough, independent, strength and
power (Cassidy, Jones and Potrac, 2004).
Hegemony (masculinity) refers to the dominance of

one form of masculinity over others (Connell, 1995).

6. TITLE IX
“No person in the

United States shall, on
the basis of sex, be
excluded from
participation in, be
denied the benefits
of, or be subjected to
discrimination under
any educational
program or activity
receiving federal
financial assistance.”
 (Coakley, 2007. p235).

7. TITLE IX
Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972

concentrated on the rights of all
individuals, regardless of sex, to join in educational
programs or activities that receive federal financial
assistance.
Title IX required that both boys and girls have equal

opportunities to participate in sports and derive the
benefits of participation.
Title IX have been overshadowed by the losses

women have suffered despite their supposed
protection under Title VII.
Whisemant, 2003

8. TITLE IX
Since the passing of Title IX there was a rise in

female participants in sport, including 90% of
female coaches (Knoppers, 1994).
Nevertheless, females coaches gradually

decreased in numbers and by 1985 there was a
32% decrease (True, 1986) as cited by Weiss &
Stevens (1993). The reasoning for this decline can
be explained by their high-pressured working
schedules, lack of female role models and family
life (Weiss & Stevens, 1993).

9. FACTORS AFFECTING FEMALES IN SPORT
 Media
 Social Class
 Homophobia
 Race

10. MEDIA
 “Media stories and
images provide
the
symbols, myths
and resources
which help
constitute a
common culture
for the majority of
individuals...”
(Kellner, 1995)

11. MEDIA
Sports media associate male athleticism with

strength, courage and competence, whilst at the
same time relating female athleticism with sexual
appeal, femininity and so-called limited physical
capacity.
This stereotypical coverage represents a common

sports culture in which men have the power and
women do not (Duncan & Hasbrook, 1988).
Kane & Lenskyj, (1998)

12. MEDIA
Male Sports Illustrated Female Sports Illustrated
Cover Cover

13. SOCIAL CLASS
Wilson (2002) stated that the „upper‟ class are more

likely to involved in sports, however, only certain
sports , which are not associated with the „lower‟
class .
Upper class more likely to be spectators and

participants in sport (Coakley, 1998; Nixon &
Frey, 1996; Scholsberg, 1987).
Social Class in sport is a paradox, which can be

explained by Pierre Bourdiu‟s concept of cultural
capital

14. SOCIAL CLASS
According to Bourdieu all cultural

consumption, including sports
consumption, requires the appropriate preferences
and tastes as well as skills and knowledge, which
he terms cultural capital (Wilson, 2002).
As women usually do not earn as much as

men, they might not be able to afford to participate
in certain or desired sports.

15. HOMOPHOBIA AND RACE IN SPORT
Although opportunities and involvement have

increased, many significant differences have been
exacerbated by racial barriers (Theberge &
Birrell, 1994)
Many factors affecting female participation and

female coaching are Heterosexism and/or
Homophobia (Coakley, 2007). Many females do not
want to be perceived as lesbians and participating
or coaching in sport could stereotype and
generalize their role (Coakley, 2007).

16. WHERE ARE ALL THE WOMEN COACHES?
“ Coaching remains

one of the most
prestigious areas of
sport which embodies
grossly unequal gender
relations”

17. WHERE ARE ALL THE WOMEN COACHES?
Evidence shows that there is a lack of female

coaches (Fasting & Pfister, 2000)
The institution of sport and it‟s many sub-cultures

clearly implying a male domination in sport.
Sports council shows evidence that demonstrates a

general trend toward fewer women coaches, as the
level of coaching awards increase.

18. PERCENTAGE OF WOMEN COACHES BY LEVEL
OF COACHING AWARD
Level of Gymnastics Badminton Volleyball Tennis
award
5 24 0 8 21
4 39 19 - 20
3 55 22 13 31
2 70 24 16 24
1 78 36 35 22
Sports Council, 1993

19. TYPE OF NGB AWARD BY GENDER
Award Male (%) Female (%)
Advanced 13.7 4.2
Senior 41.3 16.7
Intermediate 34.8 62.5
Elementary/ 10.0 16.7
Introductory
Sports Council, 1993

20. PERCENTAGES OF FEMALE COACHES IN THE
UK SUMMER OLYMPIC SQUADS
Year Male Coach (%) Female Coach
(%)
1976 96 4
1980 91 9
1984 96 4
1988 90 10
1992 92 8
Sports Council, 1993

21. FACTORS AFFECTING FEMALE COACHES IN
SPORT
Low expectations

Limited scale of performance sport

Absence of social support

Patterns of recruitment

Lack of social flexibility

Lyle, 2006

22. LOW EXPECTATIONS
Opportunity
missed
Absence of
expectations
Reinforcement of
lack of expectations
Failure of social
learning
Lack of motive
Lyle, 2006

23. LIMITED SCALE OF PERFORMANCE SPORT
Recruitment avenue straight from performance

Scale of women participants is much less than

males, decreasing the chance for females to carry
on coaching their sport
It can be exacerbated by two factors:

The age range of popular female sports such as

gymnastics and swimming may negatively influence the
transition to becoming a coach
 Fewer rewards in females sports have resulted in less
professionalisation
Lyle, 2006

24. ABSENCE OF SOCIAL SUPPORT
Due to the domination of males in sport it is evident

that there is a lack of social networks and support
mechanisms.
The lack in females coaches, influence, power and

authority, and the failure to provide formal support
structures are likely to
affect, recruitment, maintenance and retention.

25. PATTERNS OF RECRUITMENT
Initiation Development Maintenance
Motives Ladders of
opportunity
Experience Achieved
Pool of
status
Stages in Performance
Personal professional coaches
X X
Qualities Perceptions
development
of coaching
Education and practice
Reward
Training environment
Relative status and standing of the sport

26. LACK OF SOCIAL FLEXIBILITY
Society often make the assumption that females will

take responsibility of the children and domestic
household.
This restricts a females social freedom and

flexibility
Factors such as lack of financial resources and

early exit from performance sport may also
influence recruitment and progress in coaching

27. CONCLUSION
Title IX has caused much controversy, receiving a

great deal of resistance when it came to promoting
sport. Previously men had dominated sports
departments and the notion of sharing their
equipment with females seemed unreasonable
Hasbrook et al. (1990) indicate that a coach needs

to be aggressive, competitive and firm and women
are perceived as soft, feminine and yielding.

28. CONCLUSION
The fact that there is a large number of women

participation coaches should not be overlooked.
Females in performance coaches are greatly under-

represented.
Coaching is perceived to be more male orientated

and early socialisation into coaching roles is not an
expectation for women performers
Lyle, 2006

29. REFERENCES:
Ahmed, M (2003)

http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/local/scisoc/sports03/papers/mahmed.ht
ml
Cassidy, T., Jones, R & Potrac, P. (2004) Understanding Sports

Coaching. (2nd Edition) New York: Routledge.
Coakley, J. (2007) Sport in Society: Issues and Controversies (9th

Edition) London: McGraw-Hill
Coakley, J.J. (1998) Sport in Society (6th Edition). Boston, MA: Irwin

McGraw-Hill.
Connell, R., W (1995) Masculinities. Sydney: Allen & Unwin

Hasbrook, C., A. Mathes, S., A. & True, S. (1990) Sex Bias and the

Validity of Believed Differences between Male and Female
Interscholastic Athletic Coaches. Researcg Quarely for Exercise and
Sport. 61:3: 259-267
Kane, M., J & Lenskyj H., J. (1998) Media Treatment of Female

Athletes: Issues of Gender and Sexualities. In: Wenner, L., A.(1998)
Media Sport. USA: Routledge, Pgs 186-202

30. REFERENCES:
Knoppers, A. (1994) Gender and the Coaching Profession.

Birrel, S. & Cole, C., L (Ed) Women, Sport, and Culture. p. 119-
133. USA: Human Kinetics
Lopiano, D., A. (2000) Modern History of Women in Sport: Twenty-five

Years of Title IX. Clinics in Sport Medicine. 19:2. Pg 163-173
Nixon, H.L., II, and Frey, J.H. (1996) A Sociology of Sport. USA:

Wadsworth. (cited in Wilson, T., C. (2002) The Paradox of Social
Class and Sports Involvement: The roles of Cultural and Economic
Capital. International Review of Sociology of Sport. 37:5
Rowe, D. (2004) Sport, Culture and the Media. (2nd Edition) UK;

McGraw-Hill
Theberge, T & Birrell, S. (1994) Structural Constrains Facing Women

in Sport. Costa, M & Guthrie, S., R. (Ed) Women and Sport
Interdisciplinary Perspectives. P 331-340. United Kingdom: Human
Kinetics
Weiss, M., R. & Stevens, C. (1993) Motivation and Attrition of females

Choaches: An Application of Social Exchange Theory. The Sports
Psychologist. 7, 244-261
Wilson, T., C. (2002) The Paradox of Social Class and Sports

Involvement: The roles of Cultural and Economic Capital.
International Review of Sociology of Sport. 37:5.
http://irs.sagepub.com/cgi/reprint/37/1/5

31. ANY
QUESTIONS?