IJSSHR - Vol.2 No.4 (4th edition 2011)

International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Review Vol.2 No.4
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES REVIEW
Fourth Publication 2011
www.ijsshr.com
Copyright Oteh Chukwuemeka O.
Department of Sociology/Anthropology
Ebonyi State University Abakaliki
Ebonyi State - Nigeria.
ISSN 0781 – 3232
Published by Ebonyi University Press
Abakaliki
VOL.2 NO.4 OCTOBER 2011.

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Guidelines for Submission of Articles
 Authors are to submit clear copies of manuscripts type-written, double spaced on A4 paper with
margin on both sides not more than 15-20 pages in length including abstract and references.
 The title pages of Articles should carry the authors names, status, addresses, place of work e-mail
address and phone numbers and abstract about 250 words (with at least five key words).
 Manuscripts are received on the understanding that they are original and unpublished works of
authors not considered for publication else where
 Current APA style of referencing should be maintained.
 Figures, tables, charts and drawing should be clearly drawn and the position marked in the text.
 All manuscripts and other editorial materials should be directed to the:
Editor-in-chief Dr. Oteh, Chukwuemeka Okpo
Department of Sociology/Anthropology Ebonyi State
University Abakaliki, Ebonyi State
e-mail: oteh_c@yahoo.com; oteh@ijsshr.com
Phone: +2348034356286
OR
Dr. E.B.J Iheriohanma
Directorate of General Studies
Federal University of Technology, P.M.B 1526 Owerri, Imo
State Nigeria.
e-mail: injodemarng2007@yahoo.com
 All online submission of Articles should be forwarded to:
ijsshr@gmail.com
 You can also visit our website at www.ijsshr.com

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EDITORIAL BOARD
EDITOR-IN-CHIEF:
DR. OTEH CHUKWUEMEKA OKPO
Ebonyi State University- Abakaliki
e-mail: Oteh_c@yahoo.com; oteh@ijsshr.com
CONSULTANT EDITORS:
PROF. I.V.O. MODO
University of Uyo Akwa Ibom State
PROF. NTUNDE FLORA
Enugu State University of Sciences & Technology ESUT
PROF E.B.J. IHERIOHANMA
Federal University of Technology,
P.M.B 1526 Owerri, Imo State Nigeria
e-mail: injodemarng2007@yahoo.com
DR. LIONEL E. UKOKA
Department of General Studies
Akwa Ibom State Polytechnic Ikot Osurua,
Ikot Ekpene
DR. C.I. ANAH
Federal University of Technology, Owerri Imo State Nigeria
DR. WALTER MBOTO
Department of Sociology/ Anthropology
University of Calabar Cross-Rivers State
DR. EDET ABU SOLOMON
Ebonyi State University Abakaliki, Ebonyi State.
DR. NNAMDI TOBECHUKWU EKEANYANWU
Head, Department of Mass Communication
Covenant University, Ota, Nigeria.
Email: nnamdiekeanyanwu@yahoo.com
nekeanyanwu@covenantuniversity.edu.ng
DR. OKOLO, N. C.
Sociology Department
Usmanu Danfodiyo University, Sokoto
Sokoto State, Nigeria.
E-mail ngcokolo@yahoo.com

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CONTENTS
1. THE COPING MECHANISM OF WOMEN IN CONFLICT TIMES: A CASE STUDY OF
INTERETHNIC CONFLICT IN NORTHERN GHANA BETWEEN GONJA ON ONE
HAND AND NAWURI AND KONKOMBA ON THE OTHER IN THE EAST GONJA
DISTRICT IN 1991
- AHMED BABA YAHAYA - - - - - - - 1
2. DISPOSITION OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS TOWARDS CAREER
IN SOCIOLOGY
- AJIBADE DAVID - - - - - - - 11
3. HOME-BASED FEMALE SEX WORKERS AND EXPOSURE TO HIV IN SUBURB OF CITIES IN NIGERIA
- AMOO EMMANUEL OLAGUNJU - - - - - - 17
4. AGENDA SETTING, FRAMING AND MASS MEDIA COVERAGE OF OBASANJO/ATIKU FEUD
- NWABUEZE, CHINENYE (Ph.D), UGWONNO CHINEDU & NGONSO, BLESSED - 26
5. AN ANALYSIS OF TEMPORAL PATTERN OF DAILY ACTIVITIES IN A TRADITIONAL AFRICAN CITY
AND ITS IMPLICATION FOR URBAN INFRASTRUCTURAL PLANNING: A STUDY OF ILORIN,
NIGERIA
- ADEDOKUN, OLUTOYIN MOSES (Ph.D) - - - - - 36
6. HARNESSING TRADOTRONIC MEDIA POTENTIALS FOR CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN NIGERIA’S
NIGER DELTA
- KONKWO, DEDE E. J. (Ph.D) - - - - - - - 47
7. CHALLENGES OF GENDER STUDIES IN AN AFRICAN SOCIETY: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE
- BAMMEKE, FUNMI (Ph.D) - - - - - - - 60
8. INTERMEDIARIES IN STAPLE FOODSTUFF DISTRIBUTION AND FOOD SECURITY IN THE BENIN
REGION
- IKELEGBE, O. O. (Ph.D) - - - - - - - 68
9. THE CRISIS OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE IN NIGERIA
- JUMARE, BASHIR - - - - - - - 75
10. COMMUNITY CONFLICTS AND MASS MEDIA RESPONSIBILITY IN SUSTAINABLE PEACE BUILDING
IN NIGERIA: A PRESCRIPTIVE DISCOURSE
- KUR, JUDE TERNA (Ph.D) & OBIORAH, COLLINS CHIDOZIE - - - 85
11. EMERGING YOUTH LEADERSHIP IN PANCHAYAT OF GUJARAT, INDIA
- MAKWANA, RAMESH H. (Ph.D) - - - - - - 95
12. FINANCIAL REFORMS AND FINANCIAL SECTOR DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA: DOES THE
MCKINNON – SHAW HYPOTHESIS HOLD
- YAQUB JAMEELAH O. (Ph.D) - - - - - - 103
13. EFFECTS OF STRATEGIES ON THREE MEASURES OF SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS MEMORY
PERFORMANCE
- OKEREKE, CHINWE (Ph.D) - - - - - - - 111

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14. THE ROLE OF HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN MITIGATING THE GLOBAL FINANCIAL
CRISIS
- IGBOKWE-IBETO, CHINYEAKA JUSTINE - - - - - 115
15. AN OVERVIEW OF AFRICAN MEDIA IN THE FACE OF THE NEW INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES
- LAMIDI, KAMORUDEEN I. - - - - - - 129
16. GLASS CHARACTERS IN J.D. SALINGER’S “A PERFECT DAY FOR BANANAFISH”: A
PSYCHOANALYTICAL STUDY
- HABIBI NESAMI MORTEZA, MONTASHERY IRAJ & SHAHBAZI MOGHADAM MASOOMEH 135
17. WOMEN, GENDER EQUALITY AND HEALTH IN THE CONTEXT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
- OKE, OLUBUKOLA A. - - - - - - - 141
18. STABLE DEMOCRACY AND AFRICAN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF
SELECTED AFRICAN COUNTRIES
- ABUBAKAR, SALISU - - - - - - - 148
19. DEMOCRACY AND INTERNAL SECURITY IN NIGERIA: AN EXAMPLE OF 2011 POST ELECTION
VIOLENCE
- DAHIRU, UMAR - - - - - - - 159
20. THE DIMENSIONS OF SECURITY DILEMMA IN SOUTH ASIA
- SUJIT KUMAR DATTA & NATASHA ISRAT KABIR - - - 168

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THE COPING MECHANISM OF WOMEN IN CONFLICT TIMES: A CASE STUDY OF
INTERETHNIC CONFLICT IN NORTHERN GHANA BETWEEN GONJA ON ONE HAND AND
NAWURI AND KONKOMBA ON THE OTHER IN THE EAST GONJA DISTRICT IN 1991
AHMED BABA YAHAYA
Department of Sociology & Anthropology
University of Cape Coast
Cape Coast, Ghana.
bambah20022003@yahoo.com
ABSTACT
This study discusses the efforts made by women to cope up with the difficult situation of war in seeking for
livelihood and survival for themselves and other members of the community in war times using the inter-
ethnic conflict between Gonja on one hand and the Konkomba and Nawuri on the other in 1991 in the East
Gonja District of Northern Ghana. Armed conflict decimates sources of livelihood and necessities of live
resulting into difficulty for the vulnerable women to survive. This is a descriptive study therefore the
qualitative method of study was used to collect data and analysed. The study revealed that women exploit
several new survival strategies in addition to what they were used to in the pre conflict era. Some of the
women falsely migrated to the southern cities of Ghana and other places to work for income. Women
become the sole bread winners in conflict times as men are engaged in fighting.
Keywords: East Gonja, conflict, women, survival, bread winners
Background to the study
Violent conflict has the tendency of destroying the limited available sources of livelihood causing hunger
and starvations to the communities affected by conflict. This is a problem as survival in any given situation
is significant. According to Rehn and Sirleaf (2002), local economies are sustained on a day-to-day basis,
by women’s participation in petty trade in local communities where conflict happens. It is worth noting
that some women occasionally extend their activities to involving themselves in male-dominated areas of
trade such as agricultural produce. This effort of women helps to provide income for the family and helps
the communities to sustain the economy or serves as mainstay of local economy during depressed
conditions. Petty trade seems to be an appropriate alternative opportunity for women because it does not
stop them from carrying out their traditional roles such as childcare and provisioning roles within the
family. Also trading may be less risky for women than for men. This is because conflict perhaps opens
opportunities for women traders in the sense that they could cross enemy lines and undertake long-distance
travel more safely than men. They could also easily transport and sell commodities at a time when the
usual marketing systems have broken down. Women could also act as a money transfer facility serving as
“mobile banks” (El-Bushra and Lopez 2003).
According to a World Bank report (1998), conflict affects societies in a variety of profound and far-
reaching ways that weaken their ability to complete the transition from war to a sustainable peace. Date-
Bah et al (2001), are of the view that insufficient gender analysis in the emergency relief and programmes
may sometimes create systems for delivery and distribution of aid that deprive women of access to
assistance, increase women’s dependence and expose them to sexual exploitation. This may be the case,
for example, when men are exclusive aid distributors or where the family’s eligibility for aid is based on
the registered male heads of households in a post-war situation with an increased number of female-headed
households.
Statement of the problem
According to Baden (1997), conflicts have an enormous human, social and economic impact. In terms of
death, disability, displacement and trauma suffered by the population. Violent conflicts break down the
underpinnings of the economy and undermine positive predictability and confidence in the future. Conflict
also disrupts markets distribution networks, and banking and credit systems. Displacement denies access to
previous livelihoods and to basic services. Social organization and group reciprocal support system are

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also frustrated (World Bank 1998). In the absence of all these facilities life becomes unbearable for the
society at large but women face the consequences more than men because of cultural roles assign to them.
Women often become the only remaining breadwinners, because their men are either involved in fighting
or have been killed, displaced or wounded. In view of this, women may be forced to adopt several survival
strategies to enhance their conditions in society and provide basic necessities of life to sustain the family
including the combatants exerting enormous pressure on them. The conflict in East Gonja was not
exceptional in terms of destroying the sources of livelihood causing hunger and starvation to the
inhabitants of the conflict areas especially women who are more vulnerable in times of wars.
Objective of the study
The focus of this study is to examine the survival strategies of women during the conflict. Men are mostly
the combatants in war situation leaving women to fend for themselves, children, aged, disadvantaged in the
absence of sources of livelihood and pervasiveness of insecurity. This renders life unbearable for women
as sole breadwinners of the households. The main aim of this work is to find out how women are able to
seek for means of survival in the conflict times among the conflict groups.
Source of data and method
Data for this study were sought from two main sources. The first was through library research which
constitutes the secondary data. The other source of data was obtained from the field. In-depth interview
and Focus Group Discussions were conducted to solicit for information. These two methods were used
because of descriptive nature of the study. Three communities engaged in the conflict were visited to
interview the women and also discussed with them their experiences during the conflict with regard to
their coping strategies. The respondents were all illiterates except the queen mother of Kpandai a Nawuri
community who is a professional teacher and could speak English. In view of this local languages were
used to solicit for information after which the responses were transcribed into English for processing. A
total of fifteen women were interviewed purposively that is only women who experienced the conflict and
were ready to be interviewed were considered. 8 women participated in each Focus Group Discussions.
The field work was undertaken in 2004 when the when I was undertaking a graduate programme.
Women’s survival strategies in conflict situations
According to Rehn and Sirleaf (2002), women use many different coping mechanisms which enable them
to survive in times of crisis. This section examines the literature on women’s survival strategies in conflict
situations.
Adaptations of harsh environment
A first coping or survival mechanism that women embark upon in their environment according to Date-
Bah (2003), is to make adaptations to their existing roles and activities. They often have to cope with the
scarcity of social basic services such as health and school education facilities and necessities of life: food,
water, and shelter, access to information and support networks. Consequently, women may have to walk
over long distances to collect water, whilst they are at the same time responsible for providing health care
to the ill, old and wounded family, and community members under circumstances of increasing
communicable diseases and higher risks of epidemics. They also provide home schooling to their children
thus limiting their time to undertake other tasks that will earn them income (Date-Bah, 2003).
Migration as a coping mechanism
Meertens and Clark (2001), observe that another coping mechanism employed by women is migration.
Migration is associated with many disadvantages including separation from sources of income such as
land, the community’s reciprocal labour, the community network for support and protection, adopting a
new lifestyle, building up new skills and expertise to generate income and making daily activities such as
collecting firewood, cooking and medical care extremely difficult. Women have been able to exhibit
remarkable resilience in adapting to these new surroundings and livelihoods than men (Meertens and
Clark, 2001:133-144).
Women are able to show a level of continuity in their household chores during migration, while relying on
familiar forms of informal networking. On the other hand, they tend to be lost and disoriented without their
usual employment and public roles to play.

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According to Lindsey (2000), women eventually become household heads taking over tasks previously
carried out by men. They undertake alternative livelihood activities for which they are untrained or under-
equipped. This means that they are overstretched in their daily activities. They are exposed to serious risks
because they are in a strange environment or away from their traditional community (Lindsey, 2000).
Bouta and Frerks (2002), argue that in this situation, women lack access to wage labour, they cannot get
traditional work groups, which are destroyed as a result of displacement, divorce, separation or death
(Bouta and Frerks 2002).
Women living on their own labour for survival in conflict situation
Another aspect of survival is getting help. Family networks, friends and persons born in the same locality
are of equal importance for women. However, their support generally is of short duration. Women get
work more easily than men. This means that they initiate all kinds of survival activities such as street
vending, washing of clothes or other kinds of domestic service. These activities give them a certain
guarantee of survival, no matter how dangerous they are. These strategies have the positive impact of
increasing women’s economic independence and ability to provide for their families. In addition, women
are likely to be more vocal and active in community decision making in an effort to take advantage of the
new opportunities. However, in some cases, these changes have long-term negative consequences.
Women who provide the resources to keep their families alive continue going to the fields to cultivate, to
the forest to make charcoal, or to markets to trade their goods even though doing so puts them at risk of
sexual violence (Akidiende 2002).
Commercial sex as a means of livelihood for women during conflict times
For some women, commercial work is used as one way in which to provide for their families. In addition,
some women whose husbands had died or migrated may engage in exploitative relationships such as
prostitution probably because they need economic or social security. In the long-term these women may
be exposed to sexually transmitted diseases including AIDS. The engagement of women in paid work
indicates “empowering experiences as they generally gain greater autonomy, decision-making and access
to the public sphere than before the conflict” (Date-Bah 2003:123).
According to Bop (2001), Women may also engage in more dangerous occupations such as smuggling and
sale of prohibited goods and services such as illegal drugs. For example, in Senegal women partisans of
the Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance were selling cannabis to fund the rebellion. Women
are perceived to be less threatening or less likely to be involved in any form of illegal business, and
therefore it is usually easier for them to cross the borders.
Involvement of women in distress work in conflict situations
Another coping mechanism used by women in conflicts is to take up activities that are not only new but
may be socially unacceptable, such as working outside the home (in societies where women are kept
indoors and only men go out and work to bring food home), petty crime, illegal trade, engagement in
prostitution, which, due to the absence of other sources of income and the availability of potential clients
such as male combatants or international peace-keepers, become a viable method of income – generation
(El-Bushra and Lopez, 1993:27). These latter forms of coping are categorised as distress coping
mechanisms. It is difficult to link or relate specific coping mechanisms to the pre-conflict, actual conflict
or post-conflict phase. However, women tend to continue with their normal life as long as possible. They
increasingly have to adapt with coping mechanisms, starting with relatively simple forms of coping but
gradually tending to forms of distress coping. Once conflict is declining, women are among the first to
contribute to rehabilitation efforts, often particularly paying attention to the rehabilitation of effective
health and education services, in order to take up their normal daily activities again (El-Bushra and Lopez,
1993).
Acceptance of badly remunerated work by women
Women are also compelled to accept badly remunerated work in the informal sector which tends to expand
rapidly in conflict situations as formal structures cease to function. In the post-conflict phase, women also
mainly find employment in the informal sector because this sector resumes almost immediately, whereas
investments in formal and larger enterprises are delayed as investors wait for political stability, peace and

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order before they become active. Women get involved in small-scale trading in markets and door-to door
sales (Date-Bah 2003) as it is extremely difficult for women to secure employment opportunities in the
formal sector. The collapse of the state and the closure of private companies may lead to a general loss of
employment during conflict. On the other hand, the loosening of traditional labour relations and the
increase in war-related sectors, such as arms manufacture and trade, may broaden women’s involvement in
the formal employment sector. In relation to the post-conflict phase, when combatants return to civilian life
during the early phases of post-conflict transition, female workers in the organised sector, regardless of
their education, were generally first to lose their jobs (International Alert, 2002). There is a recurrence of
traditional divisions of labour, which tends to limit women’s chances for formal employment. However,
the post-conflict phase may provide an opening to build on the progress made by women. Women who
become the sole providers of income after the conflict become frustrated because labour laws in most cases
do not protect women’s full and equal access to employment. Their wages are sometimes only half of their
male counterparts, and problems of leave allowances and forced early retirement are exacerbated in
conflict situations. Some of these impediments are the result of neo-liberal economic policies imposed by
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank (International Alert, 2002).
Transformation of women's domestic skills into profit venture in conflict times
According to Date-Bah (2003), the absence of male income support and labour may necessitate women’s
entry into wage work and assumption of male tasks that constitute more fundamental changes in gender
relations and societal norms. Some changes might not be drastic. It is easy for women to transform their
domestic skills into profitable ones such as catering; engaging in petty trade is also common among
women. Women also engage in production and sale of handicrafts and other goods. Agricultural tasks that
are performed by men such as clearing are also assumed by women, which give them greater access to and
control over income and surpluses. Some women also work as domestic helpers. These strategies have the
positive impacts of increasing women’s economic independence and ability to provide for their families
(Date-Bah, 2003:123).
According to the United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) (1998), the most common
obstacle of women is their limited land and property rights besides having difficulties in having access to
important training programmes, which can equip them with the expertise and knowledge to take up their
new tasks in conflict situations. It is extremely difficult for women to gain access to private or community
farms as combatants often destroy them as a means of warfare or because mines have made it too
dangerous to use such lands. However, the major cause preventing women to own land in some countries
such as Bosnia-Herzegovina is that under modern systems of customary law, women are prohibited from
owning, renting or inheriting land, property and housing in their own names, and access to and control
over land rests completely with male relatives. (International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)
2001:94).
El-Bushra and Lopez (1993) argue that on a more advantageous note, in conflict situations, there is general
breakdown of traditional systems and the traditional division of tasks, and that women are regularly
granted access to land for farming to ensure their own survival and that of their family. However, the
accessibility to land and property does not give the same title and safeguard as ownership. Husbands and
male relatives return home after conflict and restore the traditional divisions of tasks and roles. They take
over activities outside the home, which during conflict were undertaken by women. Also, women are
forced to take up their roles in the household again when men start generating income anew. The
restoration of traditional divisions of tasks and (inheritance) systems in the post-conflict era has a negative
impact on widows and female-headed households. Whereas they may be allowed access to land and
property during conflict probably because men are engaged in warfare and have no peace to think of
property, this may change after conflict, in the sense that, women’s legally recognised rights to inherit land
from deceased male relatives are lacking or ignored. For instance, in Bosnia-Herzegovina, women
returnees and widows in particular were disadvantaged by gender inequality.
Observations from the literature review
The review of the literature shows that women undertake many forms of survival strategies in conflict
times in order to survive. These include making adaptations to their existing roles and activities such as
petty trading and domestic services for economic reward. Other women also get involved in illicit work
like prostitution and petty crimes. The literature also highlighted that conflict has serious socio-political

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and economic effects ranging from death, disability, displacement and psychological trauma suffered by
the population. It also destroys social amenities such as health posts, schools, bridges, railways and energy
facilities which facilitate women's work. There may be insignificant difference in terms of negative
consequences of armed conflict between large scale and small scale conflicts and methods of survival
strategies adopted by women in the aftermath of conflict. In view of this the literature review will help the
researcher to find out in the field ways and means used by the women to survive after their means of
livelihood had been destroyed by the combatants.
Theoretical underpinning of the study
Lindsey (2003:13), makes a proposition that “women experience armed conflicts in a multitude of ways”.
According to Lindsey (2003), this includes participation of women in conflict as combatants, adoption of
unfamiliar roles, strengthening of existing coping skills and the development and adoption of new ones.
Lindsey further states that the unavailability of men’s income support and labour may necessitate the
engagement of women into waged work and assumption of male tasks that constitute more fundamental
changes in gender relations and cultural norms. Some changes may not be completely dramatic.
Rehn and Sirleaf (2002:43) postulate that:
In every society women bear the responsibility of the burden of caring for those who
are ill. This does not alter when women are in the midst of war; they still try to
protect and care for their children and the elderly and they also offer support for
husbands, their siblings and their parents (Rehn and Sirleaf, 2002:43).
The responsibility of care for others is so embedded in women’s psychology that even in the most
desperate condition, women still endeavour to take care of every person around them in the community.
This might mean that the social responsibility of caring for the ill or disabled adds heavily to the workload
of women in conflict times. Rehn and Sirleaf further observe that other roles women play in conflict times
to take care of themselves include carrying and smuggling weapons, providing intelligence of the
whereabouts of munitions and also ensuring that the daily household survival strategies are assured. Rehn
and Sirleaf (2002:43) further argue that:
given that many conflicts arise out of social and economic inequality, it is not
surprising that women take sides in an effort to better their lives, or to protect
themselves and their families. However, this can put them at even greater risk if they
are caught by the opposing side.
The link between theoretical underpinning and the study
The gender analysis takes care of the objective of the study; finding out the survival strategies of the
women in conflict times. Violent conflict has the tendency of destroying the limited available sources of
livelihood causing hunger and starvations to the communities affected by conflict. This is a problem
because to survive in any given situation is significant. The proposition of Lindsey (2003) reveals some of
the ways and means women adopt during difficult times of conflict to survive. For instance it is not
impossible for women to transform their domestic skills into profit making ventures such as catering. The
women’s responses on coping and survival strategies during the conflict conform to Lindsey’s proposition.
THE WOMEN’S VOICES:
SOURCES OF LIVELIHOOD FOR WOMEN DURING THE TIME OF THE CONFLICT
The following are the responses of women interviewed during the field work. The women’s voices
revealed how they struggled to get food to feed themselves, children, husbands, aged, and injured
combatants during the times of the conflict.
Survival strategies of women during the conflict
Respondents were interviewed or asked of what they were doing to earn a living during the time of the
conflict. A woman in Kito had this to say:
After our home was destroyed, I was virtually left with nothing. I started going to the
Battor community (fishing community) to buy fish, smoke it and sell to support my
family (quotations from a respondent in Kito).
A responded at Kito also narrated that:
I fled to Salaga and I was idling there. People were helping me once in a while with food,
money and clothing (quotation from a respondent in Kito).

6
This respondent solely depended on charity and aid in Salaga in order to survive. The respondent further
said when she was asked whether she received aid:
I personally had only two bars of soap and that was all. I can’t best tell the source of the
aid (quotation from a respondent in Kito).
Another respondent at Kuwani also narrated that:
My husband was bringing food to the house and I was responsible for bringing money
which I got from my fish business. Considering our plight the Government brought us
rice, beans, maize and oil. The church also gave me second–hand clothing (quotation
from a respondent at Kuwani).
A respondent in Kpandai also narrated that:
I got aid from the Government in the form of oil, second hand cloth, rice and sorghum.
The church also gave me milk powder, maize and sorghum (quotation from a respondent
in Kpandai).
Another respondent from Kito lamented that:
I was doing nothing. People were supporting me. I also got support from Government
and NGOs (quotation from a respondent in Kito).
The Queen Mother in Kpandai also expressed her view in the following:
I was fortunate that the NGOs and the church came to my aid and gave me food items
(quotation from a respondent in Kito).
During Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) at Kpandai, respondents were of the view that:
The chief of Lungi provided us with shelter, and water. The church also gave us second
hand clothes, wheat and soap for bathing and washing of our dresses. The Government
however was discriminative providing assistance only to our enemies and forgetting of us
(quotation from respondents during FGDs at Kpandai).
It is possible to see these activities adopted by the respondents being executed by both men and women
beyond the research areas in Ghana. However, what makes these activities undertaken by the respondents
worth mentioning is that prior to the conflict, the majority of the respondents claimed that they were
involved in agriculture as a main occupation. This means that agriculture was the dominant occupation of
the women. Prior to the conflict, the respondents were not used to some kinds of jobs such as “kayayoo”,
asking for charity and involvement in domestic work for reward. This indicates that conflict has the ability
and capability of changing means of livelihood or survival mechanism of a social group or individuals as it
had happened in East Gonja District. Conflict could also change a social status of social group either by
elevating them or relegating them to the background. Here, the women’s honour, dignity and integrity was
reduced as some of them had become house helps, a service they might not had offered if conflict had not
happened in their communities. Another implication may be that conflict could forcefully change
occupation of people. The respondents deserted the land and involved themselves in other means of
livelihood in order to survive which were hitherto not common to them.
The In-depth Interview and FGDs confirm that another aspect of survival strategy for women in conflict
times is relying on charity. The majority of respondents stated that they were getting help from their men
and grown –up children who survived the violent conflict. They also mentioned their sources of help to be
from individuals or neighbours in the communities they emigrated to as well as Government and religious
organizations. This help was in the form of money and basic petty goods that could help recipients in their
daily lives. However the help was short-lived. The women had to fend for themselves after some time
when the help ceased.
Employment in the informal sector
A respondent at Kpandai was interviewed about what she did to survive and she said that:
I was doing abawa (working as a servant) work and also involved in hard labour –working
on people’s farms and getting money to help my family (quotation from a respondent in
Kpandai).
The Queen Mother at Kpandai commented that:
I am a professional teacher. During the conflict, the schools in Kpandai were closed down
as a result of insecurity. I stayed at Lungi (village )for many months without work and
salary. I could not travel to Salaga, the town of our enemy to collect my salary amidst the

7
conflict. I had to help people on their farms before I could get food to eat (quotation from a
Queen Mother at Kpandai).
A respondent at Kito explained that:
I fled to Kumasi and was doing kayayoo (head porter) in order to get money to support my
family back home (quotation from a respondent at Kito).
The FGDs at Kito revealed that the respondents were involved in:
Burning of charcoal and chopping firewood to get fuel wood to sell. We also became
domestic helpers in Salaga. Some of us were washing clothing of people in exchange for
basic needs and money. Our elderly women acted as baby sitters for people who had trust
in them that they are not witches before they could get food to survive (quotation from
respondents at Kito).
Also in Kuwani the FGDs revealed that the respondents were involved mainly in farming during their stay
in the bush. A few of them were involved in pito brewing, which gave them insignificant amounts of
money to enable them buy commodities such as salt and matches.
The responses of the respondents above buttress the views of Date- Bah (2003), that women mainly find
employment in the informal economy because job opportunities in the formal sector are scarce due to
break down of law and order which characterises conflict zones where public and privately owned
enterprises would not be ready to operate. Date- Bah (2003), further argued that women in most cases lack
skills required for formal employment in addition to their willingness to engage in any kind of work
available that will secure the survival of their families. These jobs are often gender–stereotyped extensions
of women’s household duties such as sewing, cooking, washing of clothing (laundry), which is low paid
but offer women opportunities. It can be observed from the responses that apart from teaching there was
complete absence of formal job opportunities for women. The teachers deserted the communities because
of insecurity.
The situation at Kito was however different because all the respondents emigrated to Salaga and almost all
of them became dependents in the Salaga community. The FGDs at Kito reveal that the respondents did
not trade. However, few of them mentioned that they were involved in:
Burning of charcoal, domestic work as house helpers and washing of people’s clothing in
order to get food and money to support their families (quotation from respondents at Kito).
In Kpandai a respondent explained that:
I was processing gari and sending it to Accra to sell. I got a lot of money out of it but I was
not able to make any savings. I used the money to take care of my families and also
sponsored the war by buying bullets for our men to fight our enemies (quotation from a
respondent at Kpandai).
Another respondent at Kpandai explained that:
I was preparing food and selling. I was not making profit because of some of our people
did not have money and were always begging to eat. I was satisfied with that situation
because my family was also depending on me for their livelihood (quotation from a
respondent at Kpandai).
FGDs in Kpandai revealed that the respondents were involved in a variety of income generating activities
to support themselves. These include processing of gari, working on the farms of their neighbours and
begging for basic materials such as utensils, food, water and clothing in order to live averagely.
Respondents explained that the petty trading in most cases was some kind of barter system where
exchange of goods and services took place without the use of physical cash. A respondent at Kuwani says:
There was no money during the conflict times. Those of us selling petty goods had to
exchange with other people’s goods in order to get what we did not have. One cannot get
money to buy salt so you have to use farm produce to exchange for salt (quotation from a
respondent at Kuwani).

8
The informal sector is always available that was why some of the women undertook petty trade as a means
of survival. The information gathered on the field buttresses the view of International Alert (2002) that
women find it difficult to secure employment opportunities in the formal sector. But the informal sector is
always available either in war or in peacetime.
Migration
One of the survival strategies of the women was migration. The majority of the respondents and even all of
them were internally displaced and this made them flee from the conflict-affected areas to other areas as
migrants. A respondent at Kito responded that: “I have run to Salaga to escape death”.
During the FGDs the above statement was confirmed by all respondents that they emigrated to Salaga.
They spent three days and nights in the bush. They narrated the following:
On Saturday early morning we were in our rooms when we were stoned out of the rooms
and our houses destroyed. We the women were all gathered under a big tree. Our men
also shot guns but they run out of bullets because they were not prepared for the war.
Most of them were killed and the few who were lucky managed to escape. After that they
(Konkomba) told us (women) to get up and go away. We told them that we could not go
because we were afraid of being killed on the way to Salaga. They later stopped us and
were searching us, because they thought some male babies were with us. Our baby boys
were seized and killed. We could not withstand the atrocities, therefore we ran into the
bush. Some of us spent three days and three nights in the bush before we finally got to
Salaga. In Salaga, some of us did not have relatives; therefore we entered people’s houses
unannounced seeking for accommodation, protection and security. It was indeed a sad
event (quotation from respondents at Kito).
In Kuwani the respondents did not migrate to any place. They rather fled to the bush to hide. The
respondents revealed the following during FGDs:
Some of us (women) were afraid and weak and could not fight. We ran into the bush with
our children and the disabled people among us. We were only suffering at that time. We
lost all our belongings as they were burnt. It is only unfortunate that human beings do not
eat grass otherwise that was what we would have depended on in the bush. We ate raw
cassava because we had no cooking utensils to cook. We did not have matches to use to
help us roast the cassava. We also ate all the yam seedlings of our men and they could not
get some to farm during farming season. Some of us (women) were beaten by snakes and
stung by scorpions. Reptiles also worried us a lot because we were sleeping with them in
the bush (quotation from respondents at Kuwani).
In Kpandai the FGDs revealed that respondents emigrated to Lungi because of general insecurity in their
native land.
We (women) took our children to the bush for several days before we emigrated to Lungi (a
village near Kpandai) with the permission and invitation of their chief. Even though we were
readily welcomed by the people, the situation was unbearable for us. The people shared their
accommodation, food and clothing with us for a short period of time and we had to fend for
ourselves afterwards. Some of us further emigrated to other places such as Bimbila and Tamale.
We did all kinds of manual work as refugees in order to survive. The salary earners among us
especially the men agreed to share their monies with us so that we could afford to buy basic
necessities such as salt, kerosene and matches. We stayed in Lungi for about three months before
we moved to Kpandai after our men conquered the town (quotation from respondents at Kpandai).
The women suffered a setback during the period of migration. According to International Alert (2002),
women in situations of migration cannot get access to wage labour and traditional work groups because of
false separation, divorce and death. Because they were foreign in the new environment, it became very
difficult for them to adapt and that was why they returned to their communities as soon as relative peace
was installed. The respondents in Kito commented that:
We could not pay our rent, light bills and water bills in Salaga that was why we are back to Kito
to live with Konkombas. If we could survive in Salaga better we would not have returned to this
place (quotation from respondents at Kito).

9
Reliance on grown-up daughters for livelihood
A respondent at Kito has this to say on the role played by her daughter to keep the family surviving when
she was asked to mention her source of livelihood.
I lost my husband during the conflict and it was morally wrong to instantly enter into
relationship with another man who would provide me with my basic needs. I have two
grown-up daughters who were befriended by young men in Salaga and they were
providing us with money and other material gifts (quotation from respondent at Kito).
The above response reveals an aspect of culture of the people in Kito. According to the women, widows
could not marry after the death of their husbands for at least four months. It is a taboo for a woman to
immediately or instantly remarry after her husband’s death.
FGDs in Kito and Kpandai revealed that:
It was difficult for our men to marry because of lack of money. Therefore, some of the
girls entered into relationships with soldiers, police officers and town young men who
were giving us assistance. Prostitution is a taboo in our society but there was nothing we
could do to stop our daughters because there was no job for them to do during the time of
the conflict. Some of the girls traveled further south to look for work. The girls in some
cases became our source of livelihood (quotation from respondents at Kito).
The attitude of the girls who entered into relationships with Government officials in order to get money
confirmed the view of Date- Bah (2003) that illicit work was one of the ways women adapt in order to
obtain food for their families during conflict times. She added that those women could be exposed to
sexually transmitted diseases including HIV/ ADIS, in the long–term.
Reliance on male children for livelihood
Respondents explained that some of the women relied on their male children for food to survive. A
respondent at Kuwani says:
My grown-up male child used to ride a bicycle in the night to search and collect water for
us to use. It was difficult for us (women) to search for water as a result of general
insecurity. I was afraid that enemies would attack me in the process of looking for water
(quotation from respondent at Kuwani).
Another respondent in the same community expressed her appreciation to her son in the following:
He was responsible for going to my husband’s farm in the night to bring food to our
settlement. He also helped in bringing fuel wood for me to roast cassava for the young
ones (quotation from respondent at Kuwani).
FGDs at Kito and Kpandai confirmed that the grown-ups males were helpful to the women. The young
men served as security for the women, after the latter lost their husbands and other male relations in the
conflict.
Major findings
The study reveals that women are not just always dependents solely on others for survival in adversity;
women rather continue to work assiduously in difficult situations to fend for themselves. The women were
involved in numerous and varied forms of survival strategies and coping mechanisms. Some of the women
got involved in domestic work, or became migrant head porters in the southern cities of Ghana (Accra and
Kumasi). Others also depended on NGOs, religious bodies, and benevolent individuals for charity. These
were new survival strategies adopted by the women which hitherto were uncommon to them.
Limitations of the study
The limitation of this work is that there had been conflict in many districts of Ghana destroying sources of
livelihood rendering women in a state of unbearable situation of fending for themselves and other members
of the community. However, this study takes care of only East Gonja District making it difficult to
generalize the findings. To make a generalization of the finding of the study, it is appropriate to take a
sample of women of all the conflict areas in Ghana and undertake a similar study.
Summary and conclusions
The study seeks to investigate the survival strategies of women during the inter ethnic conflict between
Gonjas on one hand and the Konkomba and Nawuri on the other in the East Gonja District of Northern
Ghana. The study revealed that sources of livelihood such as farms have been destroyed. Also the men
were mostly engaged into fighting desserting women to fend for themselves and other disadvantaged social

10
groups in the community. The women coped up with this situation by engaging into several new survival
strategies in addition to the traditional ones they are used to during peace times. Some of the women
transformed the cultural domestic work such as childbearing into commercial ventures as they were
involved in babysitting during the period of migration in order to survive. It is a descriptive study hence
the qualitative method of data collection and analysis were used to undertake the study.
References
Akidiende, O. (2002). West Africa. (4351).
Baden, S. (1997). Post – conflict Mozambique: women’s special situation,
population issues and gender perspectives and the integration of these concerns in skills and
employment promotion. Unpublished.
Bop, C (2001). Women in Conflicts, Their Gains and Their Losses in Meinjes
S.; Pillay A.; Turshen M., The Aftermath-Women in Post-Conflict Transformation. London: Zed
Books.
Bouta, T, and Frerks, G. (2002). Women’s Roles in Conflict Prevention, Conflict Resolution and
Post Conflict Reconstruction. Hague: Netherlands Institute of International Relations
Cliengendael.
Date-Bah, E (2001). Crises and Decent Work: A Collection of Essays. Geneva: ILO.
Date-Bah, E. (2003). Jobs After War. A Critical Challenge in the Peace and Reconstruction Puzzle.
Geneva:International Labour Organisation.
El-Bushra, J and Piza-Lopez, E. (1993). Gender Related Violence: Its Scope and Relevance in H.O’
Connell (ed). Women and Conflict, Oxfam Focus on Gender: 1(2) 1-9.
International Alert (2002). The Sharing Know-How Workshop. Oxford: International Alert.
Lindsey, C. (2000). Women and War. Geneva: ICRC.
Lindsey, C. (2002). Women Facing War. Geneva: International Committee On the Red Cross.
Meertens, D. (2001).The Nostalgic Future –Colombia, in Moser, C..O and Clark F.C Gender, Armed
Conflict and Political violence. London: Zed Books.
Rehn, E and Sirleaf, E. J. (2002). Women, War and Peace: The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the
Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and Women’s Role in Peace-building. New York: UNIFEM.
United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) (1998),
Yahaya, A. B (2007). The Implications of the Konkomba-Nawuri-Gonja armed conflict of 1991 For The
lives of Women in East Gonja District of Ghana. Unpublished M.Phil. Thesis, Department of
Sociology and Anthropolgy. University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast.
World Bank (1998). Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The Role of the World Bank.
Washington DC: World Bank.

11
DISPOSITION OF SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS TOWARDS CAREER IN
SOCIOLOGY
AJIBADE, DAVID
Department of Sociology
Kogi State University
P.M.B 1008 Anyigba,
Kogi State, Nigeria.
ajibade_d@yahoo.co.uk
ABSTRACT
This study examined the disposition of Senior Secondary School Students towards career in Sociology. A
total of four hundred (400) respondents were randomly selected from eight (8) public secondary schools in
Abeokuta metropolis. Data were generated through the use of both questionnaire and oral interviews.
Data generated through questionnaire were analyzed using descriptive technique such as frequency counts
and percentage while the data obtained through interviews were content analyzed. The study revealed
among others that majority of the respondents intend to enroll for tertiary educational degree/diploma
after completion of their secondary school education. Despite this, it was revealed that many of the
respondents were ignorant of the discipline of sociology and this accounted for its low preference among
the respondents as only 35.5 percent showed positive disposition towards career in sociology while 63.7
percent preferred studying other courses and the remaining 0.8 percent were neutral. The study concludes
with a set of recommendations which will help to popularize the course as well as arouse the interest of
students in the discipline of sociology.
Keywords: Disposition, Sociology, Students, Career, Abeokuta.
INTRODUCTION
Since the word sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857), it has become widely accepted not
only in Europe but also in United States of America, Japan, Canada and in other parts of the world as an
academic discipline and as a tool for analyzing and understanding society. But what is sociology? Several
scholars such as Kornblum (1994); Ross and Haag (1961); Wilmot (1985); Henslin (1997); Lindsay and
Beach (2003); etc have explained the meaning of sociology. For instance, Kornblum (1994) defined
sociology as the scientific study of human societies and of human behaviour in the groups that make up a
society. It is concerned with how social conditions influence our lives and individuals. Ross and Haag
(1961) on their own defined sociology as the study of the formation and transformation of groups and the
relationship of groups and group members with one another. To Wilmot (1985) sociology is a science of
human companionship, fellowship, association and interaction.
While all these definitions may be accurate/correct, however, in this study, Smelser (1994) definition was
adopted. He defined sociology as the scientific study of social relations, institutions and societies.
Although not all sociologists accepted the scientific status of the discipline (Tukura, 2004; Haralambos and
Holborn, 2004) but it is accurate to characterize the discipline as a scientific one given the very strong
emphasis placed on empirical investigation and systematic explanation according to the scientific method.
Most importantly, it utilizes a set of procedures that minimizes the personal bias of researcher while at the
same time maximizes precise measurement (Isiugo-Abanihe, Isamah and Adesina, 2002).
Sociology is an important discipline in faculties of social sciences in Nigeria universities. The social
sciences are academic disciplines that deal with people in their social and cultural context (Otite and
Oginwo, 2006). Other disciplines in the social sciences include Anthropology, Psychology, Political
Science and Economics. Some faculties of the social sciences include other disciplines such as
Demography, Geography, Social Work, and Accounting. But what distinguishes Sociology from the other
social science disciplines is that as each of these social science disciplines study an aspect of the society,
sociology is interested in all aspects of the society. Also, sociology has a unique way of analyzing reality
which has been referred to by scholars such as Hess, Markson and Stein (1996) as the sociological
perspective or way of seeing.

12
A major in sociology gives one distinct skills to look beyond the often neglected and taken-for-granted
aspects of our social environment and examine them in fresh and creative ways (Berger, 1963; James and
Zanden, 1996). People trained in sociology work in a wide range of interesting jobs, in the public,
corporate and community sectors. Sociologists work in neighbourhood and community development, in
ageing, urban, youth or women’s services in health program evaluation or program management. They
work in media, not-for-profit organizations and many works as researchers in areas from family life to
educational change. They are found in large corporations, community groups, and the three levels of
government i.e. Federal, State and Local (Huber, 1984; American Sociological Association, 1984).
Inspite of many job opportunities available for sociologists, information from literature (Nworah, 1997;
Iheanacho, 2000; Joshua, 2003) indicate that many secondary school students always aspire to study
courses such as Medicine, Accounting, Pharmacy, Business Administration, Engineering and Law without
a single thought on course like Sociology. This phenomenon is a threat as it has implication for planning
the recruitment into the sociology profession in Nigeria. Hence, this study was conceived to find out how
far such finding hold for the generality of senior secondary school students in Abeokuta metropolis. In
pursuance of this, attempts were made to provide answers to the following research questions: (i) what are
the career goals/intention of students after secondary school education? (ii) who influences their career
choices? (iii) are they aware of the discipline of Sociology? (iv) would they like to choose sociology as a
course to study in tertiary institution after their secondary school education?. The result of this study will
contribute to a better understanding of the disposition of senior secondary school students in Abeokuta
towards career in sociology. The finding will also go a long way in making an empirical contribution to the
literature on career education and sociology in Nigeria.
AREA OF STUDY AND METHODOLOGY
This study was carried out in Abeokuta, a city in South Western Nigeria. Abeokuta is the capital of Ogun
State. It is located between latitude 7o
00W – 7o
30N and longitude 3o
00E – 3o
30E, and it hosts two local
government areas namely Abeokuta South and Abeokuta North. Most of the inhabitants of Abeokuta are
Egba, a subgroup of the Yoruba people. Other Nigerians from other parts of the country as well as
expatriates are also living in the city. Abeokuta has over twenty public secondary schools.
The study population consists of the final year senior secondary school commercial class students in
Abeokuta metropolis. The science and art oriented students were excluded because of their subject
combinations which cannot permit/allow them to study sociology in any Nigerian university. As regards
selection of sample, a total of eight (8) public secondary schools were selected using random sampling
technique. The schools selected were African Church Grammar School, Abeokuta; Gateway Secondary
School, Abeokuta; Lisabi Grammar School, Abeokuta; Unity High School, Abeokuta; Premier Grammar
School, Abeokuta; Olumo High School, Abeokuta; Abeokuta Girls’ Grammar School, Abeokuta; and
Baptist Boys High School, Abeokuta. Selection of sample of students was done through the use of simple
random sampling technique. A total of fifty (50) students were chosen from each of the eight (8) selected
schools to give 400. Equal numbers of students were selected in order to ensure equitable representation
and reduce bias.
Data for the study were collected through the use of both questionnaire and oral interviews. The
questionnaire revolved around the (i) respondents social background (ii) other issues raised in the research
questions of the study. Oral interviews were also held with some of the respondents in order to have in-
depth information on some of the issues raised in the research questions. However, before administering
the questionnaire, the permission of the selected school authorities was sought and obtained after
introduction of the study. The verbal consent of the respondents were also sought and obtained. The
researcher personally administered the questionnaire to all the respondents in their various schools during
the school hours to ensure maximum return of the instrument. In all, 100 percent return rate was achieved.
Data collected through questionnaire were analysed using descriptive techniques such as frequency counts
and percentage while the data obtained through interviews were content analyzed.

13
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
TABLE 1: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE RESPONDENTS
VARIABLES CATEGORIES FREQUENCY PERCENT
Sex Male
Female
Total
201
199
400
50.3
49.7
100.0
Current age of the
respondents (years)
0-10
11-12
13-14
15-16
17-18
>18
Total
-
-
02
137
142
119
400
-
-
0.5
34.2
35.5
29.8
100.0
Respondents position
in the family
First born
Second born
Third born
Others
Total
99
110
121
70
400
24.8
27.5
30.2
17.5
100.0
Fathers’ educational
level
No formal educational
Primary school certificate
Secondary/technical school
certificate
Tertiary certificate
Others
Total
42
100
130
128
-
400
10.5
25.0
32.5
32.0
-
100.0
Mothers’ educational
level
No formal educational
Primary school certificate
Secondary/technical school
certificate
Tertiary certificate
Others
Total
60
140
125
75
-
400
15.0
35.0
31.3
18.7
-
100.0
Source: Field Survey, 2010
Table 1 shows the demographic profile of the respondents. From the table, a little more than half (50.3
percent) of the respondents were male while the remaining (49.7 percent) were female. The high figure of
male respondents is an indication that more male than female enrolled in secondary schools in the study
area. Currents age of the respondents shows that about 35.5 percent fell within age 17-18 years, 34.2
percent were within age 15-16 years while 29.8 percent were age 18 years and above. The high proportion
of those whose age ranges between 17-18 years is an indication that most of the respondents began their
educational career at the national official age of six years.
Respondents position in the family shows that about 30.2 percent were third born, 27.5 percent were
second born while the remaining others were17.5 percent. Education level of the respondents father show
that about 32.5 percent had secondary/technical school certificate, 32.0 percent had tertiary school
certificate while 25.0 percent had primary school certificate. This finding implies that the respondents
father were fairly literate. Respondents mothers’ educational level show that about 35.0 percent had
primary school certificate, 31.3 percent had secondary/technical education certificate, 18.7 percent hold
tertiary education certificate while the remaining (15.0 percent) respondents never attended school. This
result also indicates that the mothers of the respondents were equally fairly literate.
TABLE 2: RESPONDENTS CAREER GOALS/INTENTION AFTER SECONDARY
SCHOOL EDUCATION
CAREER GOALS/INTENTION NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS PERCENTAGE
(%)

14
Enroll for tertiary educational
degree/diploma
236 59.0
Work immediately after completion of
Secondary school education and later
enroll for tertiary educational
degree/diploma
81 20.3
Enroll for short term vocational training 66 16.4
No response 17 4.3
TOTAL 400 100.0
Table 2 shows the intention of the respondents after leaving secondary school. Majority (59.0 percent) of
the respondents intend to enroll for tertiary education degree /diploma. About 20.3 percent intend to work
for some time and later enroll for tertiary educational degree/diploma; 16.4 percent intend to enroll for
vocational training in either tailoring, carpentary, painting, hairdressing, barbing saloon, etc, while the
remaining (4.3 percent) respondents did not respond. A situation where more than half of the respondents
intend to enroll for tertiary educational degree/diploma could be as a result of the role of education in the
enlightening and liberation of man from the vagaries of nature. It enables man to be self sufficient
materially and philosophically (Martin, 2003). Furthermore it is the most potent weapon of political
influence and power (Amingo,2003). Also, in a country (like Nigeria) of over 400 language groups (Otite,
2000) higher education seems the sole open sesame to elite status (Amingo,2003).
TABLE 3: INFLUENCE ON RESPONDENTS CAREER CHOICE
INFLUENCE ON CAREER CHOICE NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE (%)
Teacher 62 15.5
Career guidance 47 11.7
Parents 251 62.8
Peers 34 8.5
Others 06 1.5
Total 400 100.0
Table 3 shows influence on respondents career choices. From the table, more than half (62.8 percent) of
the respondents rated their parents as the most important influence on their career choice while teachers
(15.5 percent) were the next followed by career guidance (11.7 percent) peers (8.5 percent) and others (1.5
percent). By and large, a situation were more than half of the respondents rated their parents as the
influence on their career choices indicates that parents are the most significant individuals influencing
career choices of their children in the study area. This finding conforms to that of Breakwell, etal, 1998;
Dick and Rallis, 1991; Ferry, 2006; Agarwala, 2008. These scholars in their various studies unanimously
found parents to have important influence on children career choice.
TABLE 4: RESPONDENTS AWARENESS OF THE DISCIPLINE OF SCIOLOGY
AWARENESS OF THE DISCIPLINE NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE
(%)
Yes 57 14.3
No 339 84.7
No response 04 1.0
Total 400 100.0
Table 4 shows the respondents awareness as regards the discipline of sociology. Majorities (84.7 percent)
of the respondents were ignorant of the discipline of sociology; about 14.3 percent knew of the discipline
of sociology while the remaining (1.0 percent) did not respond. It is unfortunate that as much as 84.7
percent of the respondents were ignorant of the discipline of sociology. Ignorance about the existence of
the discipline of sociology and what it entail is likely to be a key factor responsible for its low level

15
popularity. This is unlike the case of other courses such as Medicine, Pharmacy, Engineering, Law,
Accountancy, and Business administration where awareness of and interest among students is very high
before they are ready for tertiary level education. Respondents who claimed the awareness of the discipline
of sociology were asked the source of their information. Majority of them claimed to know of the
discipline through the Unified Tertiary Matriculation Examination/Joint Admissions and Matriculation
Board (UTME/JAMB) brochure while the remaining had knowledge of the discipline through their school
teachers.
TABLE 5: RESPONDENTS DISPOSITION TOWARDS CAREER IN SOCIOLOGY
CAREER IN SOCIOLOGY NUMBER OF
RESPONDENTS
PERCENTAGE
(%)
Yes 142 35.5
No 255 63.7
No response 03 0.8
Total 400 100.0
Table 5 shows the respondents view towards career in sociology. Majorities (63.7 percent) of the
respondents signify no; about 35.5 percent indicates yes, while the remaining (0.8 percent) did not respond.
The result of the interviews equally corroborates this finding as many of the interviewees show
unfavorable disposition towards career in sociology. Majority of the respondents perceived sociology as
unprestigious course that cannot fetch them good income, high social status and respect. They however
preferred career in accountancy, banking and finance and business administration. They perceived these
courses as the one that can enhance their social status as well as prospects of securing high paying job in
the banking, oils and gas, shipping, insurance and manufacturing industries. In the words of one of the
interviewees: I would like to be addressed by people either as an Accountant or Banker than sociologist.
The unfavourable disposition of majority of the respondents could be attributed to their ignorance of the
essence, utility and career prospects of the discipline of sociology. In sum, this finding indicate that
majority of the respondents have negative disposition towards career in sociology. This however partly
confirmed the finding of scholars such as Nworah, 1997; Iheanacho, 2000; and Joshua, 2003. For instance,
Nworah in his work titled “Factors Influencing Career Choice among Secondary School Students in
Onitsha Zone” found out that students preferred reading courses such as law, accounting, banking and
finance, medicine and geology. Similarly, Joshua (2003) in his work titled “Aspiration Pattern of Senior
Secondary School Students in Calabar Municipality” found greater numbers of students aspiring to read
medicine, law, accountancy, and business administration.
CONCLUSION
This study examined the disposition of senior secondary school students towards career in Sociology. The
finding revealed among others that majority of the respondents intend to pursue tertiary educational
degree/diploma after their secondary school education. Despite this, it was revealed that many of the
respondents were ignorant of the discipline of sociology. This ignorance makes the courses to be largely
unpopular in the study area and thus accounted for its low preference as only 35.5 percents intended to
study sociology while 63.7 percent preferred studying other courses such as Accountancy, Banking and
Finance, etc and the remaining (0.8 percent) were neutral. Based on the findings of this study one can
conclude that senior secondary school students in Abeokuta metropolis have negative disposition towards
career in Sociology after leaving secondary school.
RECOMMENDATION
In view of the forgoing findings and conclusion, it is hereby recommended that:
(1) Adequate and sustained publicity especially among the students in the secondary schools should
be made by the Nigerian Sociological Association in order to increase awareness on the benefits
of the discipline of Sociology to society and to popularize the course.
(2) Government through Ministry of Education should provide schools with career guidance
counselor who will be enlightening students on the career prospect of the discipline of Sociology.
(3) Parents being most important influence on career decision of their children should be enlightened
by the Nigeria Sociological Association on the essence, utility and career prospects of the
discipline of Sociology.

16
(4) Accomplished sociologists should take up responsibilities in organising and sponsoring mass
publicity programmes on the discipline of Sociology. Apart from its obvious advantage of wider
outreach, this strategy will help to bring great public awareness about the course among a wider
audience.
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Development International, Vol. 13, Iss.4: 362-376
Amingo, 1 (2003) “Higher Education and Development in Nigeria” in S.B Nwideeduh (ed) Trends and
Issues in Managing Universities in Nigeria, Owerri: Spring Field Publisher Ltd. Pp 90-105
American Sociological Association (1984) Careers in Sociology, Washington DC: American Sociological
Association.
Berger, P.L (1963) Invitation to Sociology: A Humanist Perspective, Garden City, N.Y: Anchor Books.
Breakwell, G.M; Fife-schaw, C and Devereux, J (1988) “Parental Influence in Teenagers Motivation to
Train for Technological Jobs” Journal of Occupational Psychology,61:79-88
Dick, T.P and Rallis, S.F (1991) “Factors and Influences on High School Students Career Choices”
Journal of Research in Mathematics Education, 22: 281-292
Ferry, N.M (2006) “Factors Influencing Career of Adolescents and Young adults in Rural Pennysylvania”
Journal of Extension, Vol 44, No. 3:1-4
Haralambos, M and Holborn, M (2004) Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. 6th
ed. Hammersmith,
London: HarperCollins Publisher Ltd.
Henslin, J.M (1994) Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach, 3rd
ed, Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Hess, B; Markson, E and Sten, P (1996 )Sociology, Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Huber, B.J (1984) Career Possibilities for Sociology Graduates, Washington DC: American Sociological
Association.
Iheanacho, R.A.E (2000) “Comparative Preference for Professional Training in University of Calabar:
Implications for Universal Basic Education” The counselor, 18, 1:77-83.
Isiugo-Abanihe, U.C, Austin, N and Adesina, J.O (eds) (2002) Current and Perspective in Sociology.
Lagos: Malthouse Press Limited.
James, W and Zenden. V (1996) Sociology: The Core, 4th
ed, USA: McGraw-Hill Inc
Joshua, M.T (2003) “Aspiration Pattern of Senior School Students in Calabar Municipality” Olumo
Journal of Education, Vol .2 No 1:65-76.
Lindsay, L and Beach, S (2003) Essentials of Sociology, U.S.A.: Printice Hall.
Martin, 1 (2003) “Women: Education and Empowerment in Nigeria-An overview” in S.B Nwideeduh (ed)
Trends and Issues in Managing Universities in Nigeria, Owerri: Springfield Publishers Ltd. Pp
189-202.
Nworah, O.M. (1997) “Factors Influencing Career Choice among Secondary School Students in Onitsha
Zone” The counselor, Vol.15 (1&2): 89-96.
Otite, O (2000) Ethnic pluralism, Ethnicity and Ethnic conflicts in Nigeria, 2nd
ed, Ibadan: Shaneson.
Otite, O and Ogionwo, W (2006) An Introduction to Sociological Studies, Ibadan: Heineman Educational
Books (Nigeria) Plc.
Ross, R and Haag, E.V.D (1961) The Fabric of Society: An Introduction to Social Science, New York:
Harcourt Brace.
Smelser, N (1994) Sociology, Cambridge: Blackwell.
Tukura, D.W (2004) What is Sociology? Groundworks of Sociology Monographs, Vol. 1, No1, Jos: Mt
Tabor University Book.
Wilmot P.F (1985) Sociology: A New Introduction, Zaria: Asekome Academic.

17
HOME-BASED FEMALE SEX WORKERS AND EXPOSURE TO HIV IN SUBURB OF CITIES
IN NIGERIA
AMOO EMMANUEL OLAGUNJU
Demography and Social Statistics Program,
Department of Economics and Development Studies, School of Social Sciences,
Covenant University, Canaanland, Ota,
Ogun State, Nigeria.
emman_amoo2007@yahoo.com
+234 8035520849
Abstract
Sex workers are widely present around the globe but yet publicly acknowledged by none. The covert
activity of their trade is a catalyst for plausible spread of HIV/AIDS. The study examined the knowledge
and sexual behaviour of home-based-sex-workers (HBSW) and their exposure to the risk of HIV. Data
were generated via a face-to-face structured interview with 94 identified female homeworking prostitutes
in two suburb communities around Lagos and Abuja using non-probability informant sampling technique.
Data were analyzed using only univariate and multivariate statistical analysis. The study revealed that
most respondents are young literate females in age group 30-39 year. Knowledge about HIV is very high
(79.2%), however, it does not significantly reflect in their practice. 79.8% would concede the use of
condom if the client is ready to pay higher money while only 11.7% knows their HIV status. All
mechanisms against HIV are self-medicated/prescription. The business’ peak period is
festival/holiday/weekends and charges varied depending on the client status. The paper recommends
sexual health education (SHE) outreaches and occupational rehabilitation for female sex workers.
Key words: Home-based-sex-workers, sexual education, HIV, prostitution, etc.
Statement of the problem
Sex is sacrosanct and prostitution is surrounded by myths. Round the globe, sex workers are widely
present everywhere but yet publicly accepted or acknowledged by none. The presence but covert activity
of this trade is a catalyst for the silent spread of HIV/AIDS among the sub-populations that are vulnerably
high-risk for sexually transmitted infections. Despite the effort of governments` and international agencies
in tackling the menace of HIV/AIDS with a focus on the conspicuously street and professional prostitutes,
the preponderance of women who use their homes or apartments for the illicit acts of exchanging sex for
money calls for serious concern.
Commercialisation of sex remains an illegally professional in Nigeria and some other countries of the
world, however, the operation of homeworking prostitution cannot be deniable. In spite of all programs
and provisions, the challenge does not only remain but could be regarded as a demographic, socio and
political affronts. The potency of hitherto efforts cannot be doubted except that it could be considered as
‘horizontal-approaches’ at reducing the risk of HIV/AIDS. Till date, sparser efforts have been devoted to
the examination of the magnitude and impact of home-based prostitutes. Specifically, streetworking
prostitutions have been the cynosure of the public interventions, societies permissiveness of exchange of
sex for money within and in the neighbourhood might be a formidable hindrance to manifestation of the
gains of most interventions on HIV (Hor et al, 2008). The sub-group of population concern is a hidden
population. The clout of secret over them and their activities make them more exposed to numerous
adverse sexual hazards including STIs. Home based prostitute is shielded from any form of societal
pressures, stigma, and discrimination as experienced by streetworking prostitutes. However, with the kind
of social changes that Nigeria like other transiting economies is experiencing coupled with the recent
globalisation, the societal condition and attitude towards obscene or illicit act of homeworking prostitute is
expected to be improving. Thus, there is need to examine the societal attitude towards this clandestine act
as a way of curbing the spread of HIV in the society. It is also expedient to unearth the module operandi of
homeworking prostitutions and probable effects on the incidence of sexual transmitted diseases.

18
Objectives of the study
While this study is not a mapping of homeworking prostitutes or census exercise, it is instituted to assess
the operation of homeworking sex workers and examine their knowledge and precautionary mechanisms
they are adopting to reduce their being infected with HIV/AIDS. Efforts were specifically devoted to
identification of home-based female sex workers and modus operandi. The overriding objective is to
provide recommendations for effective prevention strategies towards the incidence of HIV/AIDS in
Nigeria. It is strongly believed that findings will be useful for planning, implementation and evaluation of
HIV/AIDS intervention programs in at least Nigeria and other parts of sub-Sahara Africa.
Literatures Review
Commercial sex workers have been everywhere since the time immemorial, though there are no record to
show where commercial sex first started in any country neither is there documentation of the category of
home-based prostitutions. Also, the desire to measure, define and keep statistics on sexuality or sexual
comportment and gender is a relatively new phenomenon in human history (Neil and Barnard, 1997). Not
until recent times, the terms heterosexual, HIV/AIDS, safer sex and a host of others were non-existence but
now in vogue due to the advent of ‘modern socialisation’ (Eleanor et al, 2007). In ancient times, sanctity
of sex and limited sexual partners are sacrosanct in this part of region but the emerging new societies have
created categories for sexual orientation and gender without observable control over emergence sexual
behavior especially among women. These unchecked behaviours have covertly or overtly created
catalogue of sexual deviancies with disregard towards existence of HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS, 2002; WHO,
2010).
Sex work activity is conceptualized in this context as sexual activity performed for the purpose of
receiving compensation especially financial benefit from the buyer. It is regarded as a business-like service
adopted as means of livelihood by the suppliers (women in this regard) whereby the women made herself
available for the opposite sex exclusively for sexual activity. While the open operation of this trade is
known as prostitution and believed to be at variance with social and religious dictates, its clandestine
practice is seemingly unchallenged in the society. Also, it is known fact that the trade is frown at by the
federal constitution, and deceitfully abhorred, the buyers and the sellers live within the community.
However, this paper is not intended to contest the legitimacy of the trade but to examine the risk factors
inherent in business of disguised transactional sexual activity among women in their usual residential
homes within the community.
There is limited statistics on prostitution and there is known know literature that confirm their total number
in Nigeria. However, the HIV/AIDS statistics both at global and national levels are awesomely
frightening. A total of 33.4 million people were living with HIV/AIDS in 2008 in the world all over
(WHO, 1989; UNAIDS, 2002; WHO, 2010; Federal Ministry of Health (FMOH), 2005 and 2007).
Estimated number for women living with the disease in 2008 was 15.7 million, and children living
constituted with it 2008 were 2.1 million in number. In addition, more than 25 million people have died of
AIDS since 1981. Africa has over 14 million AIDS orphans. A disturbing revelation showing that at end
of 2008, women accounted for 50% of all adults living with HIV worldwide. In developing and transitional
countries, 9.5 million people are in immediate need of life-saving AIDS drugs; of these, only 4 million
(42%) are receiving the drugs and the proportion is very much on the increase. Despite the efforts towards
curbing the menace of HIV, the number of people living with HIV has risen from around 8 million in 1990
to 33 million today, and is not yet abated (UNAIDS, 2002; UNAIDS 2009; WHO, 2010).
Two-thirds of all people infected with HIV live in sub-Saharan Africa, although this region contains little
more than 10% of the world’s population. AIDS has caused immense human suffering in the African
continent. During 2008 alone, an estimated 1.4 million adults and children died as a result of AIDS in sub-
Saharan Africa. Since the inception of the disease, over 15 million Africans have died from AIDS
epidemic. Recent reports also highlighted that fewer than half of Africans who need treatment are
privileged to have access to them (WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF 2009; UNAIDS 2009; UNAIDS 2008).
Going by the world data, HIV/AIDS is a ravaging disease and sub-Saharan Africa has been the hardest-hit
by it. Over 6,000 young people are infected with HIV daily in sub-Saharan African region and 62 percent
of the people living with HIV/AIDS are young women (Population Council and United Nations Population

19
Fund (UNFPA), 2002; UNAIDS, 2002; National Population Commission (NPC) and Federal Ministry of
Health (FMOH), 2004). The prevalence of HIV is alarming in Nigeria and sub-Saharan region in general.
The disease was first discovered 24 years ago in Nigeria with a prevalence rate of 1.8 percent in the year
1991. This figure rose to 3.8 percent in 1993, 4.5 percent in 1995 and 5.2 percent in 2007 (Federal
Ministry of Health (FMOH), 2007). The current prevalence rate of HIV/AIDS in Nigeria is 4.4 percent
that covers both rural (3.9 percent) and urban (3.9 percent) (FMOH, 2005; FMOH, 2007). Till date, there is
general yearning for a decline in incidence of this terminal disease in all nooks and crannies of the nation.
Since its first discovery in Nigeria in 1986 and until 1991 there was no intervention assessment by the
Nigerian government (Amoo et al, 2010). Several campaigns, initiatives and other interventions have been
on the increase but the disease is still with us today.
In Ethiopia, the incidence of HIV was regarded as worrisome between 1988 and 1991 with about 20% in
urban centers and up to 50% in some other towns within the country (Mehret, 1990; Workineh, 1990).
Programs were instituted like venereal diseases (VD) control program which examined sex workers and
waitresses working in hotels, bars, restaurants on a monthly basis for sexually transmitted infections (STI)
and other communicable diseases at government health centers and clinics between 1960 and 70s. The
economic downturn and cost of living have been ascribed to be the widening factors of prostitution in
Pakistan despite its illegal pronouncement.
Every Nigerian today has seemingly smattering knowledge that transmission of HIV/AIDS is through
multiple sexual partners however this knowledge is inversely related to extramarital affairs and indecent
sexual comportment (Isiugo-Abanihe, 1994; Amoo et al, 2010). There is great difference between
knowledge and the actual behaviour. Thus, it is exigent to have well-well-articulated studies that could
inform, cause wariness and inject decent sexual comportment among the youth and the public as a whole.
Every study that could delve into the whys of continue exposure of adolescent, the youth and the general
public to sexual hazards should be encouraged. There is urgent need for modification and radical change in
premarital, extramarital and sex working if the aspiration for millennium development goals and vision 20-
2020 are anything to go by.
Unsafe sexual behavior is an important challenge associated with the spread of HIV/AIDS especially
among Africans. Sexual studies have associated HIV/AIDS as a health problem associated with poor
sexual habits, cultural and gross negligence among health personnel. With level of heterosexually
transmission and women having a high population of the infection, which implies faster spread due to
multiple partners and sex trade. Status of HIV/AIDS calls for a realistic re-engineering of the current
strategies in order to ensure a reduction in the spread by enhancing preventive measures such as high use
of condom and changing the quest for sex trade. Sex industry is characterized by unsafe sexual practices
such as sex without condom, use of drugs and poor health seeking behavior. The economic impacts of
HIV/AIDS are enormous. For example, HIV/AIDS unlike most other infectious diseases, strikes the
working-age adults during what should be their most productive working years. The mortality component
is the loss of lives that suppose to be contributing to economic growth. In addition, the morbidity
associated with HIV/AIDS lead workers to be less productive coupled with the fact that other AIDS-
related diseases increases absenteeism from work (Fox et al, 2004). The paper therefore investigates
homeworking prostitution and their perceptions concerning HIV/AIDS, knowledge of prevention and
willingness to quit the sex work. Despite the challenges inherent in describing the gamut of circumstances
of sex workers and the reasons for indulging in the trade as encountered in this study, the author is
confident on all assertions indicated in this paper.
Research Methods
The technique of quantitative research approach was employed for data gathering. Data were collected
using survey that was aided by semi-structured questionnaires in a face-to-face interview with only 94
identified homeworking prostitutes in the suburbs of Lagos and Abuja cities. All respondents were literates
and could speak pidgin fluently. The sampling procedure was non-probability informant technique since
there is known sampling distribution for the group involved. The choice of the study areas was also
subjective.
Data analyses were a combination of univariate and multivariate analytical techniques. The univariate
segment comprises of descriptive statistics such as frequencies, to assess the socio-demographic

20
characteristics of the respondents, inter-dependent association amongst identified variables vis-a-vis
indulgence in scanty dressing habit. Linear regression analytic procedure was also employed as the third
level of analysis principally to test hypotheses formulated. It was adopted because it can provide the line
of best fit which explains how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the
independent variables is varied assuming other independent variables are held constant (Hughes and
Grawoig, 1971; Sykes, 1993).
Results and Discussion
Socio-Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents
The study was carried out in two Suburbs of Lagos and the federal capital city Abuja Nigeria. Which were
purposively selected for the study. The target population was female sex workers who reside and operate
within their homes and not in brothel, hotels or other places known or acclaimed for such business. They
were identified with the assistant of key informants who are regular residents of the community where they
operate.
The result among other things revealed that the mean age group of the target population is 30-39 year
indicating they are adult individuals who could make informed decision about their lives. About 52.1
percent of them belong to the Christian faith while 38.3 percent are Muslims while only 9.6 percent
claimed to be traditionalists. 36.2 percent of the target population has never married; 34 percent are
currently married but are not living with their husbands as at the time of survey. About 25.5 are divorced
or separated while 4.3 percent are widowed. Generally, this observation revealed that the group involved
either have no spouse or are not living with one. Among this group of people, only one out of every five
of them desire to marry or re-marry as the case may be while about 66 percent would not want to marry or
re-marry. About 13.8 percent could not respond to the question whether they have intention to marry or
re-marry. Among the reasons cited for not wanting to marry/remarry ranges from inability to found a
suitable suitor to being tired of relationship having being jilted several times. The occupational status
indicates that larger proportions (about 61 percent) have no other regular means of livelihood while only
39 percent claimed they have a regular job. This implies that more than half of the respondents
interviewed depend exclusively on sex trade for their means of livelihood. For the latter category that
engages in other work, majority of them claimed to be traders, civil servant and health practitioners.
More than half of the respondents have attained secondary level of education. 18.1 percent have had
primary education about 18.1 have attained above secondary level of education while only 6.4 percent
have never attended any regular school. However, all the respondents could communicate effectively with
Pidgin English (a rudimentary English grammar and vocabulary widely used for communication in
Nigeria). This report is a reminiscence of women’s illiterate level in Nigerian that is estimated as 24.4
percent (National Population Commission, 2010). In terms of the income, estimated mean income from
the sex trade is between N10,000 and N15,000 per week, while the average weekly income from other
business is also in the same range (i.e. N10,000-15,000). This finding suggests existence of equal
opportunity for this group of women in both sex trade and conventional occupation and that the choice of
sex trade is contingent upon other reason apart from income.

21
Table 1: Socio-demographic profile of the respondents
Source: Field Survey 2010
Exposure to the risk of HIV
Cursory observations were into the operation of the sex trade among the target population and their
clientele. It was reported that a sex worker receives up to four clients per week. 57 percent of those
interviewed indicated that they get between three and four men within seven day and that Fridays and
Sundays are the peak period. Much could not be achieved in the investigation of their modality for
Socio-Demographic Variables Frequency Percent
Gender
Female 94 100.0
Age Group
10-19 years 4 4.3
20-29 years 38 40.4
30-39 years 44 46.8
40-49 years 8 8.5
Educational attainment
No Schooling 6 6.4
Up to Pry level 17 18.1
Up to 2ndary level 54 57.4
Other higher school 13 13.8
Up to university 4 4.3
Religion Affiliations
Christianity 49 52.1
Islam 36 38.3
Traditional 9 9.6
Marital Status
Never Married 34 36.2
Married but not with husband 32 34.0
Separated / Divorced 24 25.5
Widowed 4 4.3
Working status
Currently engaged in other jobs 37 39.4
Not currently engaged in any other jobs 57 60.6
Average Income (per month)
Less than N5,000 9 9.6
N5,000- N9,999 32 34.0
N10,000- N14,999 12 12.8
N15,000- N19,999 15 16.0
N20,000 & above 26 27.7
Total 94 100.0
Income from other jobs
Less than N5,000 5 13.5
N5,000 - N9,999 9 24.3
N10,000 - N14,999 13 35.1
N15,000 - N19,999 8 21.6
Above N29,999 2 5.4
Total 37 24.5

22
soliciting clients, however, the illustration from the few respondents pointed to ‘snowballing word-of-
mouth invitation technique’, where one client informs and describe the place to another and so on. The sex
workers are observed to be blunt in soliciting for clients in and around their vicinity and indirectly ignored
neighbours and passerby while transacting “business” with a prospective client. A sex worker believe that
several things are at stake such as bills to pay and you need to be engrossed with each client otherwise, you
lose the business”. Further inquiry shows that each service could be rounded up in a jiffy and the next
client turns in as the last client is ‘smuggled out’ through other exit where available. According to few of
them, “smarter lady doesn’t allow the guys to meet themselves in your house at the same time”. You need
to thoroughly plan you schedule and ensure it is one at a time. Each man believes you are exclusively
servicing his needs” and “that is why they could afford to pay even for your rent and feeding as long as
you keep them”.
It was also observed that home-based female sex workers dress in normal house clothing, normal business
dress and in most cases join in the uniform dresses where and when celebration (i.e. party) is going on.
This makes them to be unsuspected within the community. Few of them confirmed that at times when the
business is down, they are always tempted to go to public places and request if anyone (man) want to
“brush” (desire to have sexual intercourse). This practice, in most cases, succeeds more often especially
among those men that could pick the signal.
However, it is appalling that only 11.7 percent of the sex workers interviewed know their HIV status while
88.3 percent have never gone for HIV test. In addition, the result of the analysis shows that 83 percent of
respondents have never attended any program on HIV/AIDS while 31.9 percent have been treated for one
form of sexual transmitted diseases (STDs) or the other in the last 9 months as indicated in table 2. Further
analysis also shows that more than half of the respondents do not use condom while only 40.4 percent
does. The use of oral pills is higher at 42.6 percent coupled with 14.9 percent that uses local rings or
concoction. This revelation directly points to the level of exposure to sexually transmitted diseases
including the HIV. Again, considering the level of indiscriminate sexual relationships attested to by the
‘modul operandi’ observed among the subjects and the absence or low level of prevention, this behavior
seems like overt invitation to disasters which requires urgent attention notwithstanding the number of such
sex-workers identified in the society. The discussion with the respondents also shows that the respondent
yields or agrees with customer who refuses to use condom only if he’s ready to pay higher money.
Table 2: Sexual behaviour and the risk of HIV
Exposure to HIV/STDs Frequency Percent
How many clients do you received per week?
1-2 Clients 13 13.8
3-4 Clients 53 56.4
5 and above 23 24.5
No Response 5 5.3
Ever attended program on HIV/AIDS
Yes 13 13.8
No 81 86.2
Do you mandate your client to use condom
Yes 19 20.2
No 75 79.8
Do you use Condoms?
Yes 38 40.4
No 56 59.6
Total 94 100.0
Ever got pregnant since started this job
Yes 23 24.5
No 71 75.5
Was the pregnancy carried to term
Yes 12 12.8
No 14 14.9
No Response/Not applicable 68 72.3

23
Ever contacted health personnel in the last 3
months
Yes 43 45.7
No 51 54.3
Do you know your HIV status?
Yes 11 11.7
No 83 88.3
Ever treated for STDs in the last 9 months
Yes 30 31.9
No 35 38.3
No Response 28 29.8
Total 94 100.0
Source: Field survey 2010
Incidence of sicknesses among the respondents
While the paper is not to establish a causal relationship between the sex trade and sicknesses or HIV, the
findings highlight the preponderances of certain diseases among sex workers interviewed. The
experiences of certain diseases were rated on a linkert four-scale of (1) very often, (2) often, (3) not often
and (4) not at all. The result shows that higher proportion of respondents experiences the following
sicknesses often and very often: malaria (51.1%), severe pain (58.5%), cough (42.6%) and gonorrhea
(18.1%). Although, medical evidences were not available to confirm these claims, information supplied
was taking at face-value. Notwithstanding, the findings portend caution and urgent action might be
necessary for this category of respondents to avert epidemic and massive incidence of HIV should these
claims are real.
Table 3: Rate of sickness among the respondents
Rate of sickness Very
often
Often Not Often Not at all Total
How often do you experience
gonorrhea
Freq 7 10 17 60 94
% 7.4 10.6 18.1 63.8 100.0
Frequency of coughing Freq 4 36 16 38 94
% 4.3 38.3 17.0 40.4 100.0
Frequency of malaria Freq 19 29 31 15 94
% 25.5 30.9 33.0 10.6 100.0
Frequency of severe pain Freq 25 30 27 12 94
% 26.6 31.9 28.7 12.8 100.0
Source: Field survey 2010
Regression Analysis Results
Only one hypothesis was tested to confirm the significant relationship between selected socio-demographic
variables and ever attended any program on HIV/AIDS. The idea is to find out why vulnerable group
studied would not want to know their HIV status taking into consideration their plausible exposure to HIV
infection. The result shows that religious affiliation, marital status, re-marriage intention, and family size
are negatively related to attending program on HIV or checking status. Out of these predictors only family
size and re-marriage intention are significantly related. In addition, education attainment and income level
are positively associated with attending HIV program or confirming status. This is closer to real life
situation considering the fact that most centers for testing HIV status are located in urban areas. On the
other hand, the type of respondent’s physician, having future plan, the rate of sickness are significant
predictors of attendance in HIV/AIDS program at p-values of 0.000, 0.002, 0.000 respectively as indicated
in table 4.
It could be inferred from this analysis that religious affiliation, educational attainment and occupation are
not panacea to the menace of HIV though they could only assist perhaps in conjunction with other
variables to exert influence on the sex trading and HIV reduction in general. The result also shows that
age is significantly positively related to attending program on HIV/AIDS.

24
Table 4: Regression analysis result on the significant relationship between socio-demographic
variables and ever attended program on HIV/AIDS Coefficients(a)
Model
Unstandardized
Coefficients
Standardized
Coefficients
t Sig.
B Std. Error Beta B Std. Error
(Constant) 1.465 .152 9.638 .000
Marital Status -.015 .007 -.056 -2.074 .068
Any intention to marry / re-
marry again
-.298 .022 -.532 -13.520 .000
Other Occupation Engaged in -.001 .001 -.005 -.501 .628
Average income per week .001 .003 .007 .483 .641
Income (per month) from
other job(s)
.008 .003 .048 2.781 .021
Respondent Educational
Attainment
.000 .003 -.001 -.067 .948
Age Group of Respondent .054 .007 .142 7.370 .000
Religion Affiliations -.033 .015 -.098 -2.180 .057
Size of family -.025 .003 -.192 -7.667 .000
Sickness rate .280 .012 .629 23.035 .000
Who is your personal
physician
.026 .004 .281 7.514 .000
On the average, How many
clients do you receive per
week
.004 .000 .365 13.275 .000
What are your future plan .087 .021 .155 4.230 .002
R Square = 0.999 Adjusted R Square = 0.999
a Dependent Variable: Ever attended any program on HIV/AIDS
Conclusion and Recommendations
The study identified the female who are engaging in “disguised commercial sexual acts” without adequate
knowledge about the likely consequences of their behaviour. Indiscriminate sexual work is going under
cover with impunity as observed in the study locations. It is been established that the highest level of
infection of HIV recorded anywhere in the world have been found among the female prostitutes (Neil and
Marina, 1997; Lawrence, 2000). The continuation of this kind of transactional sex without policy
guidelines and massive Sexual Health Education (SHE) including sexual health security among the public
could be inimical to the achievement of millennium development goal for sub-Saharan Africa nation as
especially Nigeria. The continue attention on “public ordained prostitutes” with fragrant closure of
attention on those who operates within the neighbourhood but not in notable places should be reversed.
This paper thus constitutes an eyes opener to clandestine transactional sex within our neighbourhoods and
the need for urgent proactive applicable actions from the government and other stakeholders.
It is suggested that safe sexual practice could be possible if the weaker partner (women) are empowered.
Female home-based-sex-worker is real and the non-use of condom remains undeniable. The act of
exchanging sex for money or gifts appears to be the standard situation for most separated, divorced, young
widow or “old” single ladies. However, since there is widespread statistical evidence of a relationship
between unsafe sexual behaviors and increased in HIV infection, a new intervention is required to monitor
and officially document the rampancy of this new evolving system of home-based prostitution. Finally,
while condom use is the only widely acceptable palliative measure against the spread of STDs/HIV/AIDS
as at today, it is high time free distribution of condom is re-awakened in nooks and crannies, villages and
the suburbs of cities and town when people live. In addition, since the main motive of trading in sex is
money, occupation rehabilitation is considered necessary to enhance financial empowerment of this
vulnerable group.

IJSSHR - Vol.2 No.4 (4th edition 2011)

IJSSHR - Vol.2 No.4 (4th edition 2011)

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