Water Demand Management in Context

Chapter 8
Water demand Management
Prof. Dr. Ali El-Naqa
Hashemite University
June 2013

Course map
U nit 1: W DM in context
U nit 2: M unicipal W DM
U nit 3: W D M options and benefits
Unit 4: W DM plan

Outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to
 give a brief overview of IWRM and contextualise it
within global efficiency, sustainability and equity
 outline foundational IWRM and WDM concepts in
the Southern African context
 examine various definitions and misconceptions of
WDM and outline the motivation behind the
approach

Outcomes
 give an overview of available WDM measures
 detail the constraints and incentives affecting WDM
 outline the WDM status in each SADC country
 discuss the opportunities and goals concerning
WDM within SADC

Outcomes
 formulate ideas for exploiting incentives and
overcoming constraints to WDM implementation
 understand the successes and challenges of some
municipal case studies
 begin to develop your own MWSA’s WDM
implementation plan

Water Demand Management in context
What are the links?
 Sustainable development
 Integrated Water Resources
Management
 Water resources (stress and
scarcity)
 Water demand
 Millennium Development Goals

1.1 Sustainable development
There are over 60 definitions of sustainable
development, including this landmark:
Development that meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs - both for
water supplies and for a healthy aquatic
environment

1.1 Sustainable development – triple
bottom line

1.1 Sustainable development – role of water

1.2 Water and water resources – hydrological
cycle

1.2 Water and water resources –
a rainbow of water
 Green water
 Blue water
 White water
 Grey water
 Brown water
 Yellow water
 Black water

1.2 Water and water resources – partitioning of
rainfall

1.2 Water and water resources – the diversion
cycle

1.2 Water and water resources – dams and
development
 WCD Report on Dams
 The hydraulic mission (SADC)
 Inter-basin transfer schemes

1.2 Water and water resources – dam purpose in
Southern Africa

1.2 Water and water resources – shared rivers
 Fifteen shared rivers
 Downstream-upstream
concerns
 Hydro-politics

1.2 Water and water resources – conflict
prevention and resolution
 SADC Protocol on shared
rivers
 Helsinki Rules on shared
watercourses
 Transparency (equity?)

1.3 Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM)
IWRM is a process which promotes the co-
ordinated development and management of
water, land and related resources in order to
maximise the resultant economic and social
welfare in an equitable manner without
compromising the sustainability of vital
ecosystems

1.3 IWRM: The Dublin Principles (1992)
Freshwater is a finite, vulnerable and essential
resource
Its development and management should be based on
a participatory approach, involving all relevant
stakeholders
Women play a central role in the provision,
management and safeguarding of water
Water is an economic good

1.3 IWRM: Cross-cutting issues

1.3 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
 Millennium Declaration 2000
(189 countries)
 Goal 7: Environmental
Sustainability
 Target 10: Halve, by 2015, the
population without
sustainable access to safe
drinking water and basic
sanitation

1.4 Water stress and scarcity – Southern Africa
 Definitions
 Deception of numbers
 Physical scarcity:
< 1 700 m3 per person per year
 Economic and social scarcity
 No universal scale yet

1.4 Water stress and scarcity – Southern Africa
Scarcity versus stress
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
100 1,000 10,000 100,000
Scarcity (w ater availability per capita, m
3
pa)
Waterstress
(extractionas%available)
Angola, DRC,
M ozam bique
Zam bia
Swaziland
Botswana, Nam ibia
RSA, Tanzania

1.4 Water use versus GDP – Southern Africa
W ater use per capita
versus GD P per capita
DRC
M oz
Tan z
Za mb ia
A n go la
Le so tho
Zim ba bwe
S wa zilan d
Na mibia
B o tsw ana
S o uth A frica
M alawi
-
50
1 00
1 50
2 00
2 50
3 00
3 50
- 2,0 00 4 ,00 0 6, 000 8 ,00 0 10, 00 0
G DP pe r ca pi ta a t P P P (20 00 )
Waterusepercapita
(excludingirrigation)

1.5 Water demands on MWSAs
 Categories
 Domestic
 Non-domestic
 Losses
 Variability due to
 Average and peak flows
 Dry and wet season
 Diurnal flow
 Drought and non-drought periods

1.5 Water demands on MWSAs – factors affecting
demand
 Weather
 Population
 Service level
 Health and
epidemiology
 Political developments
 Economic growth and decline

1.6 Water Demand Management
1.6.1 Myths and misconceptions
1.6.2.1 Definitions
1.6.2.2 Interpretations
 Narrow
 Broader
1.6.2.3 Components
1.6.3 Motivating factors

1.6 Water Demand Management
1.6.4 Measures and interventions
1.6.5 Constraints and incentives
1.6.6 SADC status
1.6.7 The pursuit of WDM
 Regional
 National
 Local

WDM is NOT
 A luxury that poor countries can ill afford
 A fashion that will pass
 A hobby of environmentalists
 A government conspiracy to make people’s lives
more difficult

WDM is NOT
 A goal in its own right
 Too vague to implement
 An approach which does not show tangible
benefits
 Nothing more than tariff increases

1.6.2.1 Definitions
Water Demand Management:
 Aims to increase water efficiency, reducing or
postponing the need for more dams and
boreholes (Macy, 1999; Arntzen, 2003)
 Seeks to maximise the usage of water by
curbing inessential use through price and
non-price measures (SADC-WSCU)

1.6.2.1 Definitions
Water Demand Management:
 Seeks to influence water demand in order to
achieve consumption levels that are equitable,
efficient and sustainable
 Is a management approach that aims to
conserve water by controlling demand

 Narrow: curbing water demand and consumption
 Examples:
 Efficient irrigation
 Increased water allocation efficiency

 Broader: influencing water demand and using non-
traditional water sources to delay or put off new dams
and well fields
 Examples:
 Rainwater harvesting and desalination
 Re-use of wastewater

1.6.2.3 Components
 Enabling policy environment
 Right institutional set-up
 Right measures and implementation

 Environment:
 Drought and water scarcity
 Adverse environmental impacts of dams and well
fields
 Economic:
 Lower costs, incl. O & M costs
 Water savings
 Enhanced competitiveness of industries

 Equity:
 Provide water to more people
 Better affordability
 Empowerment and growth:
 Innovation and technology development
 Greater competitiveness
 Use of indigenous knowledge

Figure 6: WDM target groups and
measures

 Measures target four different stages of the water
supply chain:
 Water resource management
 Water distribution methods
 Consumer demand management
 Return flow management

 Technical measures
 Planning processes
 Regulatory measures
 Economic incentives and restraints
 Consultative processes

Water cycle
stages
Technical
WDM
measures
WDM in
planning
WDM in
regula-tions
WDM in eco-
nomics
WDM in
consul-tative
processes
Resource
management
functions
Removal of invading
alien species
Wetland
rehabilitation
Dam storage
optimisation (e.g.
less evaporation)
Optimisation of
dam operation rules
Artificial recharge
and below surface
water storage
Water catchment
management
Protection from
over-utilisation
Managing land use
Water quality
management
Drought
contingencies
Allocative
efficiency Efficient
green water
management
Best Available
Technology (BAT)
water practices as
compulsory
alternative in
Environmental
Impact Analysis
(EIA)/Social
Economic Analysis
(SEA) procedure in
water stressed
areas
Awareness and
education, social
marketing
Table 6: Examples of the range
of WDM measures

Water cycle
stages
Technical
WDM
measures
WDM in
planning
WDM in
regula-tions
WDM in eco-
nomics
WDM in
consul-tative
processes
Distribution and
supply functions
Infrastructure
optimisation
Parallel
infrastructure for
different water
classes
Loss minimisation
Metering
Pressure
management
Prepaid metres
Common-property
management of
standpipes
Town planning
services
Re-use and
reclamation
WDM in building
standards
Regulations,
norms and
guidelines
Incentives
Higher energy
prices make
pumping
expensive.
Volume-based
effluent charges
Education,
awareness,
training
Covenants for
monopolies of
WSPs
of WDM measures

Water cycle
stages
Technical
WDM
measures
WDM in
planning
WDM in
regula-tions
WDM in eco-
nomics
WDM in
consul-tative
processes
End users Metering
Different service
levels
Loss minimisation
Retro-fitting
existing systems
Irrigation
scheduling
Crop choice
Agricultural
extension Auditing
Minimising
institutional use
Domestic use
guidelines and
restrictions
Guidelines for
private and public
sector Drought
restrictions Proper
level and structure
of tariffs
Amendment of
water irrigation
fees (too low and
linked to area, not
m3)
Effective billing
and pricing
Product standards
Differential tax
rates (e.g. VAT)
Higher energy
tariffs make
pumping
expensive
Volume-based
effluent charges
Tradable water
rights
Education,
awareness,
training
of WDM measures

Water cycle
stages
Technical
WDM
measures
WDM in
planning
WDM in
regula-tions
WDM in eco-
nomics
WDM in
consul-tative
processes
Return flow
management
Minimising
infrastructure
Minimising
pollution
Minimising losses
Minimising
infiltration
Reclamation
Infrastructure
optimisation
Minimising
pollution
Effluent standards Effluent charges Education,
awareness,
training
Covenants for
irrigation sector
and public sector
of WDM measures

Constraints:
 Practical (funds, skills, capacity)
 WDM benefits not understood
 Supply bias among stakeholders
 Inappropriate training of professionals
 Uninformed or dissatisfied customers

Constraints:
 Lack of understanding of the need for WDM
 Lack of planning and implementation skills
 Lack of appropriate institutions and funding
 Weak policy and legal instruments
 Negative views towards WDM

Activity
 What does WDM mean in your country and
organisation?
 What are the principal WDM constraints in your
country and organisation?

Incentives
 Resource protection
 Increased production
 A sound basis for planning
 Water loss reduction

Country Policy/legislation National
strategy or
programme
Applied in
urban sector
Applied in
agricultural
sector
Angola No/no No No Extremely limited
Botswana Developing policy/ legislation to follow Reviewing draft
strategy
Escalating tariffs,
leak detection
Extremely limited
Lesotho Yes/ in progress Adopted in 1999 Escalating tariffs
only
Extremely limited
Malawi Revising policy/ legislation to follow National
programme to
follow new act
Escalating tariffs
only
Extremely limited
Namibia Yes/ in progress In development Comprehensive in
Windhoek
Limited
Table 7: Status of WDM planning and implementation in
SADC countries

Country Policy/legislation National strategy
or programme
Applied in
urban sector
Applied in
agricultural sector
Mozambique Yes/no No Escalating tariffs
only
Extremely limited
Swaziland No/no Water Bill 1998 not yet
enacted
Water Authority to
develop Master Plan
Escalating tariffs
only
Extremely limited
South Africa Yes/yes Nat. strategy in
development
Urban providers
developing programme
Full programme
in Hermanus,
limited in
Durban,
Johannesburg
and Cape Town
Limited application
Zimbabwe Yes/no Strategy Policy developed Escalating tariffs
only in Harare;
new programme
in Bulawayo
Extremely limited
Table 7: Status of WDM planning and
implementation in SADC countries

Activity
Look at the analysis of your country.
 Do you agree with the synopsis made?
 Can you provide some examples of the issues
mentioned?
 Would you like to add to or amend it?
Use your comments and examples during the
development of your WDM implementation plan.

1.6.6 SADC WDM status
SADC countries:
 Are at different stages of WDM preparation and
adoption
 Have seldom integrated WDM into policies and
legislation
 Seldom have institutions charged with IWRM,
WDM and shared watercourses
 Have seldom started with systematic WDM
implementation

Regionally
 Shared or common sustainability commitments
 Regional Strategy and Action Plan
 Shared Water Source Protocol
 Regional challenges and opportunities
 International donors and non-governmental
organisations

Activity
 What do you think about these constraints and
benefits?
 Can you see opportunities for yourself or your
organisation to support the regional development
of WDM to meet these challenges?

Nationally
General approaches that countries may need to
adopt:
 Identifying their own national WDM priority
areas
 Integrating the WDM approach and methods
into policies and legislation
 Hastening the preparation for and adoption of
WDM measures

Nationally
General approaches that countries may need to
adopt:
 Converting or extending the goals of existing
institutions
 Developing new bodies to act as watchdogs and
promoters of IWRM and WDM

Nationally
Countries can promote or legislate WDM
measures aimed at user groups:
 Water planners
 Water providers
 Productive end-users
 Domestic users

Activity
Discussion questions
 What factors determine the progress made with
WDM in countries?
 Why is WDM not yet integrated in the policies
and legislation of most countries?

Activity
Discussion questions
 Why are few or no institutions charged with
IWRM and WDM, and what are the
implications of this?
 What opportunities for enhanced WDM do you
consider possible and necessary?

Local level and municipal initiatives that
showcase WDM in Southern Africa
 Water conservation in Hermanus, South
Africa
 Water conservation in Windhoek, Namibia
 WDM and irrigation in Southern Africa
Can you think of other examples of WDM in
practice in your country?

Activity
 Think of examples of WDM in practice in your
country
 Collate the information you already know about
your local examples
 List of the information you need to source from
colleagues or documents
 Prepare your own case study example
 Present it to your co-learners

Summary
 WDM is an integral part of IWRM
 WDM is not commonly applied in Southern
Africa
 WDM is in the interest of countries and their
people

Summary
 WDM is about efficiency, equity and
sustainability
 WDM needs to target at least four groups: water
planners, water, suppliers, end-users and
managers of return flows

Water Demand Management
UNIT 2
Municipal WDM

Outcomes
 contextualise your MWSA within your
country’s water supply chain
 assess the WDM potential for your MWSA
and relate this to IWRM and sustainable
development

Outcomes
 map or list the nature of water resources,
consumers, users and demand in your
own context
 list constraints and incentives affecting
WDM implementation for MWSAs
 relate these to your own country and
situation

Outcomes
 formulate ideas for exploiting incentives
and overcoming constraints to WDM
implementation
 understand the successes and challenges
of some municipal case studies
 begin to develop your own MWSA’s WDM
implementation plan

2.1 What is an MWSA?
Typical MWSAs
 Vary across Southern Africa
 Are responsible for supply to domestic,
industrial and commercial users
 Face rapidly growing demand
 Are under pressure to provide cheap
reliable water to more users
 Have a limited policy-making role

Typical MWSAs
 Operate within a fixed enabling
environment
 Have limited control over water tariffs
 Implement direct and indirect WDM actions
 Cover one part of the water management
cycle
 Have significant impact on water
management practices in their areas
2.1 What is an MWSA?

2.2.1 WDM in the MWSA
The main components of a WDM plan
 An enabling policy environment for end-
users and the MWSA
 Appropriate institutional setup within
the MWSA
 Appropriate measures and
implementation taken by the MWSA

MWSAs can make an impact on the enabling
environment by
 altering by-laws
 introducing water conservation standards
and norms
 showcasing their own implementation of
WDM as large water users

A WDM plan for an MWSA should
 implement WDM measures for the MWSA
 promote the implementation of WDM
measures by end-users and bulk water
suppliers
 promote economic, environmental and
social benefits
 be developed within IWRM and ILCP
contexts

2.2.2 Sustainability in an
MWSA context
Economic sustainability: the
efficiency of water service provision
and the ability to continue to
provide services in the future

Social sustainability: the ability to
provide affordable water and to
make sufficient water available for all
residents and productive activities
MWSA context

Environmental sustainability: the
maintenance of economic growth
and development within the limits
set by ecology
Environmental protection and
economic development are
complementary, not antagonistic
MWSA context

Sustainable service provision:
when water continues to be
available for the design period of a
scheme, programme or initiative, in
the quantity and quality that was
originally planned
MWSA context

 Elements required for sustainability
 proper design and planning
 money for recurring expenses and repairs
 consumer acceptance of the service
 adequate supply from the source
 sound construction
 Sustainability is a key objective of WDM
MWSA context

2.2.3 Municipal water
sources
 Fresh surface water
 Fresh groundwater
 Re-use of return flows
Quantity, quality, and reliability are
all extremely important

2.3.1 The municipal
water supply chain
 Water resource management
 Water distribution management
 End-user efficiency and demand
management
 Return flow management
WDM measures need to be targeted at
specific stages in the water supply and
management chain

 The South African DWAF has
illustrated possible WDM measures at
each management level (Figure 1)
 The line between Water Conservation
(WC) and WDM becomes thin
 Best results are achieved when both
are pursued simultaneously.
 WDM is broader than WC: all WC
measures fall within WDM
2.3.1 The municipal
water supply chain

2.3.2 MWSA clients
 Bulk suppliers of raw or treated
water
 government
 parastatals
 autonomous suppliers
 Water management institutions

MWSA clients (Cont.)
 Regulators
 End-users
 domestic users
 industries
 private and public service sectors

Activity
 What institutions and organisations does
your MWSA deal with?
 From whom do you source water?
 To whom do you supply water?
 Which Acts and regulations affect you?
 Which departments affect or control your
MWSA?
 Which sectors of the economy rely on your
MWSA for water supply and/or management?
 Use this information for your WDM plan

2.3.3 Accountability of
MWSAs
 WDM in municipal areas is a shared
responsibility of all stakeholders
 In most countries,
 MWSA officials are accountable to their
councillors
 Councillors are accountable to the
electorate
 This may become obscured with
privatised and commercialised utilities

 SA DWAF WDM principles
 Water institutions should supply water
efficiently and effectively, minimising
water losses and promoting WDM/WC
among end-users
 Consumers should not waste water and
should use it efficiently
 WDM and WC are integral parts of the
water resources and water service
planning process
2.3.3 Accountability of
MWSAs

Activity
 SA WDM objectives
 Water resource management
 Water distribution management
 End-user efficiency and demand
 Return flow management
 Are they relevant to your municipal
water supply and management chain?
 Are there others you could add?

2.4 Integrated Least
Cost Planning
ILCP is
 a methodology that determines the
effectiveness of infrastructure
augmentation decisions
 a measure of whether or not the right
decision is being made

 The aim: to keep water supply costs to
end-users as low as possible by
considering the effectiveness of the
entire water chain
 The challenge: to minimise the cost to
the end-user as though each party in
the water chain were integrated into
one body
Cost Planning

Case study: Rand water’s
ILCP model
Rand Water supplies water to
 13 municipalities
 3 metropolitan areas
 10 million people
 an area of 18 000 km2

Figure 2: Rand Water area of supply within South Africa
ILCP model

ILCP model

 Causes of premature augmentation of
infrastructure
 Demand projections
 Difference in the start point and
growth rates of projections
ILCP model

Figure 4: Costs due to difference in start point and growth
rate projections
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Relativecost
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0
T im e ( y e a r s )
E s c a la t io nI n t e r e s t
W a s t e d c o s t
D e c i s i o n t o a u g m e n t
m a d e h e r e
E a r l i e r t h a n n e c e s s a r y
a u g m e n t a t i o n
ILCP model

 Excessive water loss
 Inefficient use of water
 Loss
 Conclusions
ILCP model

Institution Water
supply
costs
ILCP issues
Bulk water
supplier
$ 0.75/m3 Cheapest source of
supply?
MWSA $ 0.50/m3 LC treatment and
distribution mechanism
Total water
costs
$ 1.25/m3 Is it possible to reduce
the total water costs by
improving on any stage
in the water chain?
Cost Planning

 Ensures that social and environmental
concerns are adequately taken care of
 Requires cross-institutional planning
and co-operation
Cost Planning

2.5 WDM reasons
 WDM is a tool, not a goal
 Social, financial and environmental
reasons
 Specific reasons vary from case to case

2.5 WDM reasons: direct
incentives
 Escalating costs of water augmentation
schemes
 Reliance on non-renewable water
resources
 Reliance on shared water sources
 High water leakages
 Inefficiencies in end-use

2.5.1 Social reasons
 Saved water serves those without
previous access
 Improved service delivery
 Lead by example
 Good customer service leads to rise in
payment levels

 Raised awareness among end-users
 Keeps rates affordable
 Safeguards water resources for current
growth and future generations
2.5.1 Social reasons

2.5.2 Financial reasons
 Flexible and incremental implementation
spreads costs over time
 Lower customer charges
 Benefit/cost ratio may exceed 10:1
 Reduces need for water purification and
treatment

 Reduces expenditure on capital-
intensive augmentation schemes
 Improved affordability increases
customer base
 Reduces UAL and loss of revenues

 Ring-fenced revenue retained within
departments for
 Maintenance
 Service delivery
 Expansion
 Better water resource management
 Increases productive water use
 Consumers benefit from reduced bills

2.5.3 Environmental
reasons
 Water for ecological requirements
 Promotes sustainable use through water
efficient practice
 Reduces pollution through effluent-
quality tariffs
 Increased resource use efficiency

Summary
 WDM serves not only environmental
purposes
 WDM has sound economic and social
reasons

2.6 WDM constraints
Constraints
 defer or prevent the adoption or
implementation of WDM measures
 are well documented
 are powerful
 vary between authors and studies

2.6.1 Understanding
constraints
Organise your thinking about constraints
 Identify
 Structure
 Analyse spatially
 international
 national
 district
 local

 Analyse by stakeholder
 Water planners/managers
 Bulk suppliers
 MWSAs
 End-users
 Resolve or mitigate
2.6.1 Understanding
constraints

2.6.1.1 Structuring
constraints
 Information and awareness
 WDM capacity and infrastructure
 Habits and attitudes
 Policy and regulation

 Costs and benefits
 Uncertainties
 Macroeconomic conditions
 Water scarcity: extent and nature
2.6.1.1 Structuring
constraints

Information and
awareness
Lack of awareness about
 water scarcity
 WDM contents
 institutional roles and responsibilities

Information and
awareness
Trends
 There is confusion and uncertainty about
information
 There is a lack of awareness about water
scarcity
 Awareness about WDM is gradually
increasing

Human and financial
resources
Lack of
 human resources and skills
 WDM champions
 financial resources
 specific WDM funding
 co-ordination through the water
supply and management chain
 technical know-how

Human and financial
resources
Trends
 HR and skills are most problematic at local
level
 WDM champions are emerging
 Funding of WDM remains a problem
 Co-ordination amongst stakeholders in
water supply chain is improving slowly

Infrastructure
Constraints
 Lack of metering
 Old infrastructure
 Poor maintenance
Trends
 Vary between countries

Habits and attitudes
Constraints
 Resistance to change
 Traditional supply bias and economic
interest in supply interventions
 Lack of political will
 WDM only for droughts?
Trends
 Most constraints are gradually easing

Policy and legislation
Constraints
 WDM only recently incorporated into
policies and legislation
 Low priority for WDM
Trends
 Large differences between countries
 Gradual improvement in policy
adoption and legislation

Costs and benefits
Constraints
 Subsidies discourage WDM
 Costs precede benefits
 O & M costs are often neglected in
water planning
 No cost-benefit assessment of water
management options

Costs and benefits
Trends
 Water tariff subsidies are being
reduced as a function of applying WDM

Uncertainties
Constraints
 WDM results less tangible than water
augmentation
 Full implications of WDM uncertain due
to limited experience

Uncertainties
Trends
 The availability of case studies is
 reducing uncertainty over WDM results
 improving the predictability of WDM
implications

Macroeconomic
conditions
Constraints
 Shortage of WDM funding
 Style of governance
 Degree of stability
Trends
 Vary greatly across the region

Water scarcity
Constraints
 Degree and nature of water scarcity
Trends
 Varies greatly across the region and may
not require WDM intervention

Overview
 Wide range of constraints
 Substantial differences among countries
 Most constraints are easing
 Water-scarce countries with relatively
good governance have the most
comprehensive WDM approach
 Constraints change over time
 WDM strategies must work under different
macroeconomic conditions

Activity
In groups, examine the list of constraints
in Table 10
 Discuss what trends have taken place
over the last ten years in your country
 Review the solutions given for
overcoming the constraints
 Discuss the greater participation of end-
users, particularly women, in
overcoming the constraints

Activity
 How could traditional knowledge and
water management practices be used to
overcome constraints?
 For each constraint, formulate a specific
appropriate strategy for your situation
 Add any new constraints your group
has identified and rank them for your
country

2.7.3 Case study: City of
Bulawayo
 Examine the drivers
 WDM plan
 WDM approach
 Constraints
 Achievements
 Lessons learnt

 Average rainfall
500 mm/a
 Pop. = 1 Million
 Volume of water
supplied = 120 000
m3/day
 Level of service = 99%
full reticulation
 106 000 connections
 90% are metered
 Distribution network =
2 100 km
2.7.3 Case study: City of
Bulawayo

City of Bulawayo -
drivers for WDM
 Water supply
constraints
 Recurrent
droughts
 Water scarcity
 Water sector
reforms

City of Bulawayo -
alternatives
Project Yield
(106 m3/a)
NPV
(US$/m3)
Gwayi-Shangani dam 141 0.55
Lower Tuli dam 65 1.24
Zambezi pipeline 57 2.23
Glass Block dam 28 0.77
Mtshabezi pipeline 8 1.17
Umguza well-field 4 0.22

City of Bulawayo - WDM
alternative
 In the short term (< 5 years)
 WDM at various levels
 Reducing losses from 23% to 15%
 Cost US$0.04/m3
 Cheaper than any new alternative sources

City of Bulawayo - water
loss reduction plan
 Establishing
economic levels for
loss reduction
 Pilot studies
 Utility mapping
 Network modelling
 Analysis of cost
data

City of Bulawayo -
reduction of UAL

City of Bulawayo - other
WDM activities
 Water conservation campaign
and public education
 Reuse and recycling of
wastewater
 Pricing of water to reflect
scarcity (highest block
US$0.25/m3)
 Setting up a management
information system
 Metering
 Review of the implications of
sector reforms

City of Bulawayo -
lessons
 WDM implementation is usually triggered
by severe water shortages
 WDM should be evaluated and appraised
along with other alternative sources
 WDM is about 50% social engineering
 Wastewater recycling and reuse is an
important WDM option
 Water pricing to reflect scarcity with
subsidies for the poor

City of Bulawayo -
lessons
 Computerised management information
system is essential
 Metering is indispensable (bulk, zones,
district, consumer)
 A holistic approach is important (WDM
Plans, Strategies: Unit 4)
 External expertise and financing may be
required

UNIT 3
WDM Options and benefits

Outcomes
 explain the costs and benefits of WDM, in
financial and social contexts
 understand various demand projection
methods, and the advantages and
disadvantages of each
 analyse to what extent WDM measures
have been incorporated into demand
scenarios

Outcomes
 give a broad overview of various WDM
measures
 discuss each measure in detail and be able
to select the most appropriate WDM
measures for your MWSA
 understand the need for measures to
reduce UAL

Options and benefits
 How does an MWSA decide on a way
forward?
 What means are available for
evaluating WDM interventions against
other strategies?
 An MWSA’s decision to opt for a
particular WDM strategy or measure
won’t be a clear-cut choice

Options and benefits
Our focus:
 The costs and benefits of WDM
 Ways of evaluating the future
demand for water
 Ways of deciding between the
range of WDM options that are
available

3.1 Costs and benefits
Consider the options for your MWSA
 What are the costs and benefits?
 What time horizon should be adopted?
 Do organisations know about the WDM
opportunities?
 Which constraints need to be addressed
before WDM is implemented?
WDM should be implemented when the
benefits exceed the costs

3.1.1 Financial costs and
benefits
Your MWSA’s financial costs and
revenues
 determine economic performance
 determine its degree of cost
recovery
 are key concerns

benefits
 Categorise financial costs by
 source of supply
 type of demand intervention (e.g. WDM)
 Determine net financial benefits or costs
of WDM interventions compared to
others
 Financial cost-benefit analysis is
required as part of a broader multi-
criteria analysis

benefits
FINANCIAL COSTS FINANCIAL BENEFITS
Investment WDM costs Savings from postponement of
large-scale investment schemes
WDM operation and
maintenance (O&M) costs
Lower energy and wastewater
treatment costs
Lower revenues due to lower
demand
Decrease in non-revenue-
generating UAL
Lower revenues due to lower
water price

3.1.2 Social & environmental
costs and benefits
 Government must consider social
and environmental costs
 Government and MWSA costs
may differ, e.g.
 UAL may not be a MWSA cost but
is always a social cost
 Water subsidies provide MWSA
revenue but are a transfer cost in
society

costs and benefits
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
COSTS
SOCIAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL
BENEFITS
Investments of end-users and
water service providers
More affordable water
WDM O&M costs Fairer distribution of water access
Energy savings
Decrease in waste flows and
treatment costs
Protection of the environment
Budgetary savings
Better resource use understanding
and ethics
More future options for water use

costs and benefits
Comparing financial, social and environmental
costs and benefits may show
 Financial and social benefits. The WDM measure
should be implemented immediately without
government support.
 Social benefit only. The WDM measure needs to be
implemented with government support or
regulation.
 No social or financial benefit. Such a measure
would normally not be implemented.

Example: Standpipes and
private connections
 compares communal standpipes
dispensing free water with the provision
of private paid connections
 examines social cost-benefit issues of
equity, sustainability and water use
efficiency
 attempts to provide objective solutions
that provide optimal social benefits at
least cost

3.2 Demand projections
and analysis
Projecting future water demand is part
of regular planning activities
 THEN: demand projections were to
ensure that a given quantity and
quality of water was available over
a specified period
 NOW:demand projections become
integral components of the
decision-making cycle

3.2 Demand projections
and analysis
Analyse
 past/present water consumption
 how this consumption might develop
in future
 when existing sources of supply may
be exhausted
 potential of WDM to reduce future
demand

3.2.1.1 Urban users
Urban water users are
 the largest sector of
the customer base of
many MWSAs
 a mixture of domestic
and productive users
 described in Table 3

3.2.1.1 Urban users
Domestic users
 Households using
standpipes
 Low-income households
with own water
connection
 Medium-income
households with own
water connection
 High-income households
with own water
connection

3.2.2 Demand monitoring
and projections
Key determinants of domestic water
consumption
 Household income and size
 Living conditions
 Household plot size

3.2.2 Demand monitoring
and projections
Key determinants of productive uses
 Type of product and production
process
 Expected output
 Employment/manpower levels
 Technology employed

3.2.2 Demand monitoring and
projections - forecasting
Different methods
 Different levels of accuracy
 Require differing logistical inputs
These include
 Judgemental analysis
 Trend analysis
 Component analysis
 Regression analysis

Suggested criteria for selection of method
include:
 Consistency and transparency
 Quality of the method
 Incorporation and explanation of
historical trends
 Inclusion of historically neglected factors
 Empirical validation
 Acceptance of method

Trend analysis results: Figure 1 example
y = 0.0731x
2
- 288.72x + 285329
R
2
= 0.995
y = 2.0249x - 3961.3
R
2
= 0.959
y = 3x10
-24
e
0.0293x
R
2
= 0.984
0
50
100
150
200
250
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Year
Wateruse(millionm
3
)
Second degree polynom ial fit
Exponential fit
Linear regression
Historical water use data

projections - uncertainties
Any forecasting method is prone to
uncertainty e.g.
 Droughts/floods
 Changes in macroeconomic conditions
 Changes in health conditions (HIV/AIDS)
 Changes in settlement patterns and
migration
 Projected impacts of new policies and
programmes

projections - uncertainties
Steps to be taken
 Identify and incorporate into the forecasting
process
 Develop scenarios based on major
uncertainties
 Perform sensitivity analysis (e.g. Low,
Medium and High population growth)
 Validate forecasts or adjust them over time
 Remember: ignorance of uncertainties can
lead to major inaccuracies

projections - scenarios
2000 2010 2020 2030
Wateruse
Year
Low population
growth scenario
M edium population
growth scenario
High growth population
growth scenario

3.2.3 Demand monitoring & projections
- forecasting in Masvingo
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1977 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001
Year
Totalwaterproduced(millionm
3
/year)
Recorded water produced pre-1991
Exponential forecast based on fitting to pre-1991 data
Recorded water produced post-1991
y = 2.475x10
-48
e
0.055932x
r = 0.939

projections - impacts on timing
FACTOR TIMING IMPACT
Demand projections
uncertain and sometimes
wrong
Variable depending on demand projections
Ignoring HIV/AIDS in
water planning and
management
With a projected population growth of only 2.8 %
p.a., ignoring HIV/AIDS may lead to infrastructure
being available (and therefore underutilised) up to
nine years before it is needed.
Excessive water losses If the actual loss rate (27 %) could be reduced to a
standard of 19 %, augmentation could be delayed by
five years
Inefficient water use Improving efficiency, through retrofitting and
education, by around 25 % would defer augmentation
schemes by eight years and save R1.1 billion

-8 -4 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Watersupply/demand(volume)
Tim e (years)
Four year delay
in construction of
infrastructure owing
to water conservation
m easures
Original water supply
Increased supply
Norm al dem and
W ater dem and with
water conservation
m easures im plem ented

Important message
 Use of demand forecasting and monitoring
is of paramount importance to MWSAs
 WDM measures have the potential to
significantly defer augmentation schemes
 Deferred schemes have other benefits like
 Less wastewater is produced and
therefore less treatment is needed
 Less energy is used
 Reduced alteration of natural water flow
patterns

Activity
 Can you think of any examples
where dams or well fields have
been prematurely built?
 Which ones?
 Why were they built, and what
have the implications been?

3.3 Selecting the right
WDM intervention
 Broad spectrum of WDM
interventions
 Careful and consistent application
 Maximise benefits
 Phased approach to WDM
 WDM plan and strategy

3.3.1 In selecting the right WDM
intervention - remember
 Complementary and integrated
measures are preferable
 Awareness raising, training and
campaigns are vital
 Evaluation of WDM interventions
 Choice of intervention must be
informed by sustainability indicators
and criteria

3.3.2 Selecting the right WDM
intervention - selection tools,
methods, rules
Tools
 Benefit-Cost Analysis (BCA)
 Economic efficiency evaluation
 Common indicators are the NPV,
B/C ratio
 Decision-making is based on WDM
measures with positive NPVs

Tools
 Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA)
 Broader
 Identification of positive and negative
impacts
 Quantification and ranking of impacts
 Identification of selection criteria
 Allocation of weights to criteria
 Ranking of performance or scoring
 Decision-making based on best
performing measure
3.3.2 Selecting the right WDM
intervention - selection tools,
methods, rules

3.3.2.2 Selecting the right WDM
intervention - US EPA method
Recommended criteria
 Economic
 Social
 Environmental
 Contextual

intervention - DWAF RSA method
Integrated Least Cost Planning criteria:
 Social impacts
 Economic impacts
 Institutional impacts
 Technical impacts
 Environmental impacts
 Risks

intervention - pragmatism
The 80:20 Rule
 Picking the low hanging fruit
 WDM interventions that yield 80 % of
the desired results e.g. water savings,
with 20 % of the investment
 Largest results with lowest effort,
capacity, burden
 Tangible immediate results (Watch
out!)

3.4 WDM measures/options
 3.4.1 Technical options
 3.4.2 Financial options
 3.4.3 Policies, legislation and
regulations
 3.4.4 Consumer service and
public awareness

3.4.1 WDM measures/options -
technical measures
 Among the most tangible efforts
to reduce inefficiencies
 Easily appreciated by engineers
and planners and understood by
consumers
 Results generally measurable and
quantifiable (water and money
saved)

Aim to reduce UAL or UAW
 Water losses due to leaks
 Wastage among end-users
 Illegal abstractions
 UAL represents loss of revenue
 Technical measures are not all about
fixing leaking taps (Watch out!)
technical measures

technical measures: levels of UAL
City % metered connections UAL (%)
Luanda, Angola 40 60
Gaborone, Botswana 100 20
Kinshasa, DRC 76 47
Maseru, Lesotho 97 32
Port Louis, Mauritius 100 45
Maputo, Mozambique 100 34
Windhoek, Namibia 100 11
Victoria, Seychelles 100 26
Mbabane, Swaziland 100 32
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 10 60

Leak detection and repair
 Passive and active leakage
management
 Pressure management
 Metering all uses
 Demarcation of supply area into zones
and districts
 Supply through one point?
 Measuring Minimum Night Flows (MNF)
technical measures

Water audits
 Water balances at zone boundaries
 Water reaching end user
 For inexplicable high losses, conduct
MNF exercise
 Supply through one point?
 Measuring MNF
technical measures

Installation and maintenance of water
meters
 To promote effective billing
 An essential requirement for water
resources management
 Provides an idea of the potential for
WDM
 Benefit-Cost analysis of metering is
essential
technical measures

Water supply system maintenance
 Anticipating failures
 Predicting failures
 Preventing failures
 Detecting and correcting failures
 Requires excellent record keeping,
preferably an Engineering
Infrastructure Management System
(EIMS)
technical measures

Features of most EIMSs:
 Water loss and meter management
 Customer service requests
 Notification of pipe leaks
 Hydraulic pressure and hydrant database
 Work scheduling and maintenance
 Asset register and stock inventor
 Time keeping and cost accounting
 NOT All EIMSs contribute to WDM (Watch
out!)
technical measures

Types of maintenance:
 Routine preventative
maintenance
 Corrective preventative
maintenance
 Breakdown
maintenance
 Project maintenance
technical measures

Pressure management
 Reduces water loss
 Prolongs life span of
pipe work
 Recommended in areas
with high losses
 Recommendation: 300
to 600 kPa, 150 kPa in
low-cost areas
 Consider fire fighting
and peak demands
technical measures

Objective
 Reduction of excessive
pressure
Situation
 70 000 stands
 Pressure 600 to 800
kPa
 Very high losses
 80 % sewage return
flow
technical measures: Khayelitsha

Action
 Installation of two
pressure control points
Result
 Flow reduction from
2 500 to 1 800 m3/hour
 42 % water savings
 27 Million Rands per
year at a cost of 2.5
Million Rands
technical measures: Khayelitsha

Activity
 Do you know the water pressure
used by your MWSA?
 What would be the water-saving
potential of pressure reduction?
 Record you answers for later use
in your WDM implementation plan
(Unit 4).

3.4.1.6 End user appliances, faucets
and retrofitting devices
Water saving devices
 Low volume urinals
 Waterless urinals and toilets
 Low volume shower heads
 Self-closing public taps
 Size of toilet cisterns
 Size of bath tubs
Water and energy efficient appliances
 Washing machines
 Dish washers
 Water boilers

Efficient garden irrigation systems
 Micro sprinklers
Wise gardening (Xeriscape)
 Indigenous versus exotic plants
 Timing of garden irrigation

Meter appliances
 Prepayment meters
Use of sub-potable water
 Reuse of grey water
 Rain water harvesting

Summary
 Technical options reduce inefficiencies
 Increase best possible use of water
 Have measurable and quantifiable
results
 BUT
 MWSAs need to inform end users
 Standards Associations need to regulate
fittings and fixtures
 Manufacturers and designers of fittings
and fixtures must be aware of WDM

3.4.2 Financial options
for WDM
 Water as a public and economic
good
 Market forces in water supply
 Types of financial incentives
 Water subsidies
 Water pricing or tariffs

for WDM
 Water historically treated as a public good
 No exclusion: use of one does not
adversely affect others
 Paid from general tax revenues
 Economic good
 Proper pricing based on true costs (e.g.
MOC)
 What about social aspects?
 Problems: affordability and access to all
 Solutions: cross subsidisation, free
lifeline entitlement

for WDM
Four issues in market forces and water:
 Competition among suppliers
(including self providers)
 Demand allocation
 Price determination
 Privatisation of suppliers
Water markets?

for WDM
Types of financial incentives:
 Water subsidies
 Water tariffs
 Others
 Tax incentives
 Property rights
 Effluent charges
 Special surcharges

3.4.2.1 Financial options for
WDM - water subsidies
 Subsidies are common, but decreasing
adoption
 MWSA perspective
 Subsidies are revenues and permit
lower water tariffs
 Decrease in subsidies forces MWSA
to decrease revenues from end
users

 National perspective
 Rising water costs require rising
subsidies
 Subsidies are justified on social
grounds (affordability and access)
 Growing opportunity costs of water
subsidies (e.g. health care)

 Environmental perspective
 Encourage water wastage
 Examples
 A leakage in the yard of 20
m3/month would cost the end-user
nothing if the water is free, $20 if
the water costs $1/m3 but $100 if
the water costs $5/m3

 Examples:
 Botswana (Selebi-Phikwe): A
household with an income of P3
000/month that does not receive a
water subsidy will consume 22
m3/month. However, water
consumption for a household with
the same income and access to a
water subsidy will increase by 41
m3 to 63 m3/month.

 Common foundations for tariffs
 Average historical supply costs
 Replacement costs
 Marginal supply costs
 Marginal opportunity costs
 Water tariff systems
 Flat rate for certain period
 Constant unit charge (e.g. 1000 Kwacha/m3)
 Block or band unit system
WDM - water tariffs

3.4.2.2 Financial options for WDM -
banded water tariff example
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
M onthly w ater consum ption per connection (m
3
/m onth)
Tariff(US$/m
3
)
Herm anus (South Africa) W indhoek (Nam ibia) G aborone (Botswana)

variations in water tariffs
 Tariff variations are found among
 User groups
 Areas
 User bands
 Issues
 User groups: productive compared to
consumptive use
 Areas: how effective are water tariffs as
a locational factor?
 User bands: free water? Cross-
subsidisation

impacts of water tariffs as a WDM tool
 MWSA
 Direct: water consumption and
total revenues
 Future: delayed capital
investments
 Key variable: price elasticity of
demand for water or the slope of the
demand curve

impact of 10 % tariff increase
Original consumption: 100 m3; Price $1/m3
Water
consumption
Revenues/
costs
Pr. El = -0.5
Price: $1.1/m3
Cons: 95 m3 Revenues: $
104.5
Pr. El.= 1
Price: $1.1/m3
Cons. 110 m3 Revenues: $ 121
Pr. El. = -2.0
Price: $1.1/m3
Cons. 80 m3 Revenues $ 88

Activity
Update and correct pricing
details for your country and
MWSA
Discuss and determine
required changes in pricing
mechanisms for your MWSA

effect of rising tariffs on consumption
Consum ption
Tariff
level
Q 1 Q 2 Q 3
T
Increasing level
of service
H
ouse
connection
Y
ard
connection
Com
m
unalstandpipes

3.4.2 Financial options for WDM -
price elasticity of demand
According to HR Wallingford Handbook (2003)
 The elasticity of water consumption is
generally low.
 The price elasticity is greater when the price
is higher.
 In the household sector, the price elasticity
varies between -0.15 and -0.70.
 With respect to drinking water the demand-
price relation will never be elastic (E <-1).
 In the industrial sector, the majority of
estimates are in the range of -0.45 to -1.37.

3.4.2 Remarks
 The effectiveness of tariffs for
WDM depend on price elasticity
 Subsidies lower tariffs and may
discourage WDM
 Other economic instruments need
to be used (e.g. tax relief,
property rights)

3.4.3 Policies, legislation and
regulations
IWRM and WDM policies
Local plans and bylaws
Regional/town planning
Municipal economic
development

regulations - policy reforms and WDM
Issues Implications for WDM
Formal policies do not exist in several
Southern African countries (e.g.
Angola, Botswana, DRC, Mauritius,
Swaziland)
· No enabling environment to stimulate WDM
interventions
· Flexibility and opportunities for champions to
implement relevant local WDM interventions
Legislation without policy can suffice
to promote IWRM (e.g. Angola and
Botswana)
· WDM requires champions to take off
· Seize opportunities for local IWRM/WDM plans
Decentralisation of water
management to catchment area level
(Namibia, South Africa, Mozambique,
Zimbabwe)
· Opportunities to demonstrate finite water
resources, and competition among end-users
(allocative efficiency)
· Seize opportunities for sub-national
IWRM/WDM plans

regulations - local plans, bylaws and
development
 Bylaws for e.g. gardening, swimming
pools, alien species
 Regulation against wastage
 Drought measures
 Plot size regulations
 Regulations for industrial development in
line with water conditions

3.4.4 Consumer service and public
awareness
 3.4.4.1 WDM and participation of
end users
 3.4.4.2 Service related measures

awareness - participation of end users
 WDM is 50 % social engineering?
 It is about behavior change
 Involvement of users from planning
through to implementation stage
 Effective communication with users is
essential

awareness - participation of end users
Example
 Recent work on price elasticity in Gaborone
showed that most domestic users have a
general perception that water is expensive,
but:
 they do not know that the MWSAs have annually
increased the tariffs by an average of 17 % over the
last five years, and
 they do not know how much they pay per month.
 It is not surprising therefore that such users do
not respond to price changes!

awareness - innovative and informative
water billing
 Water bills are the most important
communication tool between an MWSA
and the end-user
 They need to be:
 Accurate
 Sent out timely and regularly
 Need for innovation and sophistication
 Presentation of information
 Management Information System

3.4.4 Consumer service and public awareness
- innovative and informative water billing,
EDAMs and Hermanus example

awareness - campaigns
 Target specific audiences
 Boost public support
 Continuous
 Require a sizable budget
 These may include:
 International/National Water Weeks
 Competitions on water use efficiency
 Articles or advertisements in newspapers
or popular magazines
 Water-wise posters

awareness - campaigns
 These may include
 Pamphlets
 Stickers, T-shirts, caps
 Sponsorship of appropriate events
 More examples and guidelines are
provided in two GWP publications

awareness – campaigns: examples of
material

3.4.5 Education and
training in WDM
 Target specific audiences
 Might not necessarily be on WDM but
containing relevant aspects
 This may include:
 Incorporation of WDM in schools curricula
(primary and secondary education)
 Tailor-made tertiary training courses (e.g.
IUCN’s Guideline Training Module for
MWSAs and IUCN-WaterNet Module)
 Education at home
 Education in the workplace

3.4.5 Education and
training in WDM
 Some remarks
 Training and education can be costly
 Public and private funding
 Partnerships and co-operation
between training institutes, donors,
employers and employees is
essential
 It must be continuous, provide
feedback and be easily replicated

UNIT 4
WDM plan

Outcomes
 complete a WDM plan for your own MWSA
by developing IWRM and WDM objectives
and targets
 review your course notes and improve on
your plan where necessary
 make a list of further information you
need to acquire to add to your plan

WDM plan for the MWSA
Topics
 Developing a WDM plan
 Implementation
 Monitoring and evaluation

4.1 Developing the plan
Past experiences
 Best WDM successes are obtained
when MWSAs work with local
authorities, BUT
 Highly successful local WDM plans
can be developed without a
supportive national environment
 Need for local champions
 Need for local reasons and motives

Steps in plan preparation
Undertake IWRM analysis of water
resources and MWSA
Identify critical water issues,
constraints and opportunities
Identify IWRM options
Formulate IWRM and WDM
objectives and targets

Develop WDM options
Evaluate benefits and costs
Select and prioritise options
Identify funding needs and
sources
Develop the WDM plan
Steps in plan preparation

Step 1: IWRM analysis
Review critical supply and demand
factors
Undertake dynamic analysis (past-
present-future) including
Type and nature of resources
Main user groups and relevant
determinants of use

Preparing an
implementation plan

Key issues
Stakeholder institutions in water chain
Changes in and sustainability of fresh
water sources and return flows
Dependence on shared/international
water resources
Cost of supply augmentation schemes
(any prematurely built?)

Future perspectives
Participation of end-users in water
planning
Water as an economic good
Gender aspects of water planning and
management
Review critical supply and demand
factors

Step 2: Issues, opportunities
and constraints
Review
 National, regional and local policies
 Programmes, regulations and by-
laws
 Past supply measures

Establish
 Demand trends
 Water management options
 Costs and benefits of options
 Regional aspects
and constraints

Identify
 WDM reasons
 Economic
 Social
 Environmental
 WDM niche in IWRM
 WDM constraints and possible
solutions
and constraints

Step 3: IWRM options
 Identify supply augmentation
options and costs/benefits
 Identify options to increase non-
traditional supplies
 Identify options for WDM
including re-use of wastewater

Activity
 Review the Johannesburg Water,
Water Conservation and Demand
Management Strategy compiled by
WRP (2001) under the Managing
Water for African Cities
programme

Step 4: IWRM and WDM
Example of an overall WDM objective
 to increase the efficiency of water
consumption to serve a larger part
of the population and to boost
sustainable economic production

Examples of WDM targets
 Reduce UAL by 50 % in a five-year
period
 Reduce water consumption of high-
income groups by 30 % in three
years
 Create a WDM unit within one year
to ensure sufficient WDM capacity
 Create WDM training opportunities
Step 4: IWRM and WDM

Step 5: Develop WDM
options
 Select an evaluation method (EIA,
CBA or MCA)
 Identify promising WDM
interventions
 Evaluate the merits of WDM
measures vis-à-vis supply
augmentation schemes
 Recommend IWRM and WDM
measures

Options include
 Technical measures
 Financial and economic
measures
 Legislative/policy measures
 Education, public awareness and
consultation
Step 5: Develop WDM
options

Step 6: Select and
prioritise options
 Discuss results of Step 5 with all
stakeholders
 Formulate broadly supported plan
for WDM interventions

Step 7: Identify funding
 Estimate WDM implementation costs
 Identify possible sources of funding,
including
 WDM surcharge
 ‘Profit’ of marginal pricing
 Donors, national governments etc.

Step 8: Develop WDM
plan
Include
 Problems to be addressed
 Objectives and targets
 Interventions
 Institutional requirements and set-up
 Financial requirements and funding
 Mechanisms for monitoring and
evaluation

Cover
 water resource planning
 water distribution systems
 end-users
 return flows
Step 8: Develop WDM
plan

Outline
 progressive service delivery
arrangements
 specified standards
 a tariff model
 all current water-care works and
bulk reticulation
Step 8: Develop WDM
plan

Propose
 real UAL and set revised WDM
targets
 response measures if targets are
not met
 funding mechanisms
 standard practices and policies on
service payments
Step 8: Develop WDM
plan

4.2 Implementing the
WDM plan
The implementation of the plan is
facilitated by
 an enabling instrument environment
 an efficient institutional support
structure
 sufficient funding and manpower

 Success depends on the presence
of a credible WDM champion
 Begin with a pilot scheme or
demonstration area that shows
visible short-term benefits
4.2 Implementing the
WDM plan

4.3 Assessing the results
of the plan
Assessing success or failure requires
monitoring and evaluation
 Monitoring is continuous
 Evaluation is carried out periodically
 Perceptions of success may vary
 Progress/outcomes must be assessed
quantitatively

Examples of performance indicators
within MWSAs
 Trends in leakage reduction
 Response times to leak reports
 Trend in unit cost of water supply
 Percentage of population served
 Water production
of the plan

Examples of performance indicators
within MWSAs
 Total water consumption
 Metered water consumption
 Unaccounted For Water (UAW)
 Level of metering
 Unit operational costs
 Staff per '000’ connections
of the plan

Examples of performance indicators within
MWSAs
 Staff per '000’ population served
 Continuity of and complaints about
service
 Average tariff
 Investments in WDM
 Average system pressure
 Percentage of re-used treated effluent
of the plan

Examples of performance indicators for
end users
 Value added per productive water unit
 Per capita domestic water use
 Water consumption per civil servant
 Cost recovery percentage
 Sales of WDM appliances and
technologies
of the plan

 Develop performance indicators
taking local conditions into account
 Collect data and information before
and during implementation
 Pinpoint constraints or benefits
 Evaluate the achievement of WDM
targets
 Assess the level of performance
of the plan

KPIs: Figure 2: UAW for Mogale City
of the plan

Figure 3: Water purchases and sales
of the plan

 More than one KPI can be
developed from the same data
 Producing both is beneficial to
providing a better understanding
of what is happening
of the plan

Progress can be difficult to assess
 Figures may vary due to
 pipe bursts or valve failures
 changes in actual consumption
 months having different numbers of
days
 meters being read early or late
 variable quantity of water stored in
distribution reservoirs
of the plan

 Short term targets may not be
attained due to fluctuating
variables
 Medium to long term commitment
will result in measurable success
of the plan

WDM M&E programmes help
institutions to
 Become more innovative, flexible,
adaptive and responsive
 Be accountable to beneficiaries
 Learn from experience
 Facilitate change
 Solve problems
of the plan

WDM M&E programmes help institutions to
 Communicate problems and solutions
 Improve planning
 Take corrective action
 Improve effectiveness and sustainability
 Provide continuity of information and
knowledge
 Empower communities by linking project
results to needs and demand
of the plan

 Each MWSA will benefit from an
information management system
to integrate monitoring, evaluation
and maintenance of programmes
 MWSA and national systems should
be aligned to ensure local
achievement of national IWRM and
sustainable development goals
of the plan

Water Demand Management in Context

Water Demand Management in Context

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