- City finance officers report that the fiscal condition of most cities has improved in 2013 compared to 2012 as the economic recovery continues. However, challenges remain such as high unemployment, pension obligations, and uncertainty about federal spending. - While city revenues declined for most of the past decade, a small increase is projected for 2013 as property, sales, and income tax revenues experience slow growth. Expenditures are also expected to rise slightly. - Factors placing pressure on city budgets include increasing costs for healthcare, pensions, and infrastructure, while federal and state aid levels have decreased for many cities. To address these issues, cities have increased fees and made cuts to personnel costs.

1. Research Brief on America’s Cities
By Michael A. Pagano & Christiana McFarland1
OCTOBER 2013
City Fiscal Conditions in 2013
By Michael A. Pagano and Christiana McFarland1
The nation’s city finance officers report that the fiscal condition of cities in 2013 is improving, although they are
continuing to confront the prolonged effects of the economic downturn. 2 Recovering local and regional economies
experiencing slowly improving housing markets and increased consumer spending are strengthening local tax bases and
economic outlooks. However, high levels of unemployment, uncertainty about federal and state actions, and long-term
pension and health benefit obligations continue to constrain the fiscal outlook for many cities. Cities operate under an
annual balanced-budget requirement, which requires that they actively consider adjustments to their fiscal powers - both
revenues and expenditures - over the course of the fiscal year.
The National League of Cities’ (NLC) latest annual survey of city finance officers finds that:
• verall, a majority of city finance officers (72%) report that their cities are better able to meet financial needs
O
in 2013 than in 2012;
• s finance officers look to the close of 2013, they project a small year-over-year increase in general fund
A
revenues measured in inflation-adjusted dollars – the first increase since 2006:
– roperty tax revenues continued to decline in 2012 and are projected to decline in in 2013, reflecting
P
the lagged impact of real estate market declines;
– ales tax revenues and local income tax revenues experienced marked increases in 2012, with
S
projections for further growth in 2013;
– nding balances increased in 2012 as cities began to rebuild reserves that were used to help weather
E
the aftermath of the Great Recession.
• actors pressuring city budgets include infrastructure costs, public safety costs, employee-related costs for
F
health care, pensions, wages, and cuts in state and federal aid; and
• onfronted with these pressures and conditions, cities are maintaining local services while continuing to
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reduce personnel costs for pensions, health care benefits, and employee wages.
1 ichael A. Pagano is Dean of the College of Urban Planning and Public Affairs at the University of Illinois at Chicago (UIC). Christiana McFarland is Interim Director of the City Solutions and Applied Research at the National League of Cities. Special thanks to Christopher
M
Hoene, former Director of the Center for Research and Innovation at NLC, who served as a key advisor to the project. The authors would like to acknowledge the respondents to this year’s fiscal survey. The commitment of these cities’ finance officers to the project is
greatly appreciated. The authors are also grateful to Shu Wang, doctoral student in the Department of Public Administration at UIC, for her assistance in collecting general fund data on the nation’s largest 100 cities.
A
2 ll references to specific years are for fiscal years as defined by the individual cities. The use of “cities” or “city” in this report refers to municipal corporations.
The financial support of the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation, which helped make this year’s survey and report possible,
is greatly appreciated.
ISSUE 2013-1
The City Fiscal Conditions Survey is a national mail and online survey of finance officers in U.S. cities conducted in the
spring-summer of each year. This is the 28th annual edition of the NLC survey, which began in 1986.

2. RESEARCH BRIEF ON AMERICA’S CITIES
MEETING FISCAL NEEDS
Overall, the nation’s city finance officers report that their cities are better able to meet financial needs in 2013 than in
2012. In 2013, 72 percent of city finance officers report that their cities are better able to meet fiscal needs than in 2012
Figure 1: % of Cities Better Able/Less Able of their cities’
(See Figure 1). City finance officers’ comparative assessmentto Meet Financialfiscal conditions from year to year in 2013
improved significantly from their assessments in both 2012 Needs
and 2011, when 57 percent and 43 percent, respectively,
said their cities were better able to meet financial needs than in the previous year. The 2013 findings reflect gradually
improving economic conditions in many cities after several years of shortfalls and service cuts.
68%
65%
54%
69%
75%
73%
63%
58%
72%
70%
57%
56%
45%
33%
65%
37%
34%
21% 22%
43%
36%
19%
13%
% of Cities
12%
-35% -32%
-46%
-66%
-67%
-79%
-31%
-42%
-25% -27%
-44%
Less able
-28%
-3%
-37% -35%
Better able
-78%
-55%
-63%
-43%
-57%
-64%
-81%
-88%
-87%
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
Figure 1: % of Cities “Better Able/Less Able” to Meet Financial Needs
REVENUE AND SPENDING TRENDS
Revenue and spending shifts in 2012 and 2013 paint a mixed fiscal picture for America’s cities. General fund revenues declined
in 2012, the sixth straight year-over-year decline going back to 2007. 3 However, a very small increase in general fund revenues is
projected for 2013, suggesting that city finance officers are expecting little change in revenues from 2012 to 2013. Similarly, general
fund expenditures declined in 2012 and are projected to increase marginally in 2013.
3 The general fund is the largest and most common fund of all cities, accounting for more than half of city revenues across the municipal sector.
2

3. CITY FISCAL CONDITIONS IN 2013
In constant dollars (adjusted to account for inflationary factors in the state-local sector), general fund revenues in 2012 declined -0.9
percent from 2011 revenues, while expenditures declined by -0.2 percent.4 Looking to the close of 2013, city finance officers project
that general fund revenues will increase slightly by 0.1 percent and expenditures will grow by 1.5 percent (See Figure 2).
In comparison to previous periods, the past twelve years have been marked primarily by challenging city fiscal conditions. Recessions
in 2001 and 2008-09 were followed by lackluster economic recoveries. City revenue collections typically lag economic transitions.
The revenue and expenditure projections of city finance officers for 2013 point to continuing slow recovery. While conditions are
no longer deteriorating, the capacity of city budgets remains weakened coming out of the Great Recession. (For more on the lag
2013
(Budg
et)
between economic changes and city revenues, see page 11)
6.0%
4.2%
4.0%
3.8%
3.9%
3.6%
3.3%
2.9%
1.5%
1.2%
0.3%
2.6%
2.1%
2.0%
2.0%
2.0%
1.4%1.4%
1.3%
0.9%
0.8%
0.6%
0.5%
1.9%
2.0%
1.6%
1.1%
0.5%
1.9%
1.5%
1.0%
0.8%
0.4%
0.2%
0.1%
0.5%
0.1%
0.0%
0.0%
-0.1%
-0.5%
-0.2%
-0.2%
-0.5%
-0.2%
-0.7%
-0.8%
-0.6%
-1.0%
-1.5%
-2.0%
-0.2%
-1.0%
-0.9%
-1.2%
-1.6%
-1.7%
-2.7%
-4.0%
Recession trough 3/91
-3.4%
Recession trough 11/01
-4.5%
Recession trough 06/09
-5.1%
-6.0%
Change in Constant Dollar Revenue (General Fund)
Change in Constant Dollar Expenditures (General Fund)
Figure 2: Year-to-Year Change in General Fund Revenues and Expenditures (Constant Dollars)
TAX REVENUES
The fiscal condition of individual cities varies greatly depending on differences in local tax structure and revenue reliance. While
nearly all cities have access to a local property tax, more than half are also reliant upon local sales taxes, and some cities (fewer than
10% nationally) are reliant upon local income or wage taxes. Understanding the differing performance of these tax sources and the
connections to broader economic conditions helps explain the forces behind declining city revenues.5
Property Taxes. Local property tax revenues are driven primarily by the value of residential and commercial property, with property
tax bills determined by local governments’ assessment of the value of property. Property tax collections lag the real estate market
because local assessment practices take time to catch up with changes. As a result, current property tax bills and property tax
collections typically reflect values of property anywhere from 18 months to several years prior to their collection.
The effects of the downturn in the real estate market in recent years continue to be evident in city property tax revenues in 2012-13.
Property tax revenues in 2012 dropped by -0.4 percent compared with 2011 levels in constant dollars – the third straight year-over4 Constant dollars” refers to inflation-adjusted dollars. “Current dollars” refers to non-inflation-adjusted dollars. Constant dollars are a more accurate source of comparison over time because the dollars are adjusted to account for
“
differences in the costs of state and local government. To calculate constant dollars, we adjust current dollars using the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) National Income and Product Account (NIPA) estimate for inflation in the
state and local government sector.
5 For more information on variation in local and state tax structures, see “Cities and State Fiscal Structure,” (NLC, 2008) at http://www.nlc.org/File Library/Find City Solutions/Research Innovation/Finance/cities-state-fiscal-structure-2008-rpt.pdf.
3

4. RESEARCH BRIEF ON AMERICA’S CITIES
year decline in property tax revenues. Property tax collections for 2013 are projected to decline, albeit only slightly, by -0.2 percent.
However, improving housing markets in many parts of the country suggest an improving outlook beyond 2013 (See Figure 3).
Sales Taxes. Changes in economic conditions are also reflected in city sales tax collections. When consumer confidence is high,
people spend more on taxable goods and services, and city governments with sales-tax authority reap the benefits through increases
in sales tax collections. For much of the past decade, consumer spending was also fueled by a strong real estate market that provided
additional wealth to homeowners. The struggling economy and the declining real estate market reduced consumer confidence,
resulting in less consumer spending and declining sales tax revenues. However, in 2012 as the national economy started to recover
and consumer confidence returned, city sales tax receipts increased over previous year receipts by a robust 6.2 percent, similar to
growth levels seen prior to the recession. Sales tax receipts are projected to increase again in 2013, although at a slower rate than in
2012, reflecting ongoing caution about the pace of economic recovery and consumer confidence.
8%
6%
4%
2%
0%
6.3%
6.0%
3.6%
1.2%
2.4%
1.5%
1.4%
0.9%
-0.1%
3.3%
2.8%
2.2%
2.0%
1.0%
-0.1%
0.6%
-0.2%
1.0%
3.0%
2.3%
-3.4%
-5.3%
-6%
Sales Tax Collections
-5.1%
Income Tax Collections
1.6%
1.3%
1.0%
-0.4%
-1.0%
-0.3%
-2.3%
-4%
2.3%
2.3%
2.2%
0.5%
-1.1%
-2%
4.4%
4.2%
4.0%
3.4%
2.0%
1.3%
4.4%
4.2%
6.2%
6.2%
-2.0%
-2.5%
-0.2%
-2.5%
-3.2%
-3.9%
-4.7%
Property Taxes Collections
-6.6%
-8%
-8.4%
-10%
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013 (Budget)
Figure 3: Year-to-Year Change in General Fund Tax Receipts (Constant Dollars)
Income Taxes. City income tax receipts have either been fairly flat or declined for most of the past decade in constant
dollars. Local income tax revenues are driven primarily by income and wages (not by capital gains). The lack of growth
in these revenues suggests that economic recovery following the 2001 recession was, as many economists have noted,
characterized by a lack of growth in jobs, salaries and wages. However, with economic conditions improving again in
2012-13, city finance officers reported year-over-year growth of 4.4 percent for 2012 and are projecting growth of 2.3
percent for 2013.
4

5. CITY FISCAL CONDITIONS IN 2013
Looking to 2014 and beyond, all indications point to improving conditions for city budgets, with national economic
indicators pointing to continued slow growth. External factors, however, could easily undermine cautiously optimistic
projections, including most notably the possibility of federal budget cuts.
FACTORS INFLUENCING CITY BUDGETS
A number of factors combine to determine the revenue performance, spending levels and overall fiscal condition of cities. Each
year, the survey presents city finance directors with a list of factors that affect city budgets.6 Respondents are asked whether each
of the factors increased or decreased from the previous year and whether the change is having a positive or negative influence on
the city’s overall fiscal picture. Leading the
list of factors that finance officers say have
increased over the previous year are health
benefit costs (84%) and pension costs
(80%). Infrastructure (79%) and public
safety (69%) demands were most often
noted as having increased among specific
service arenas. Increases in prices, or costs
of services, were also noted by the majority
of city finance officers (81%). Leading
factors that city finance officers report
as having decreased are levels of federal
aid (49%) and state aid (48%). In a shift
from prior years, more city finance officers
report increases in the local tax base (51%)
Figure 4: Change in Selected Factors From FY 2012 to FY 2013
and the overall health of the local economy
(66%) (See Figure 4).
When asked about the positive or negative
impact of each factor on city finances in
2013, at least seven in ten city finance
officers cited health benefit costs (80%),
pension costs (75%), and infrastructure
demands (73%) as negatively effecting city
budgets. Positive impacts cited include the
health of the local economy (65%) and the
local tax base (47%). (See Figure 5)
Figure 5: Impact of Selected Factors on FY 2013 Budgets and Ability to Meet Cities’ Overall Needs
6 he factors include: infrastructure needs/costs, public safety needs/costs, human service needs/costs, wages, pension costs, health benefit costs, prices and service costs, federal aid, state aid, federal mandates, state mandates, city
T
population, city tax base and the health of the local economy.
5

6. RESEARCH BRIEF ON AMERICA’S CITIES
REVENUE ACTIONS AND SPENDING CUTS
City finance officers were also asked about specific revenue and spending actions taken in 2013. As has been the case for
much of the past two decades, regardless of the state of national, regional, or local economies, the most common action
taken to boost city revenues has been to increase the amount of fees charged for services. Two in five (39%) city finance
officers report that their city has raised fee levels. Approximately one in four cities increased the number of fees that are
applied to city services (22%), and one in five (19%) cities increased the local property tax in 2013. Since the mid-1990’s,
irrespective of economic conditions, the percentage of city finance officers reporting increases in property taxes in any
given year has been reported at about this same level, reflecting state- and voter-imposed restrictions on local property
tax authority as well as the political
challenges of raising property tax
rates. Increases in sales, income or
35%
other taxes are even less common, as
30%
continued to be the case in 2013 (See
Figure 6).
tions taken in 2013, the most com-
Decreased
25%
% of Cities
When asked about expenditure ac-
39%
40%
Increased
22%
19%
20%
19%
15%
mon response was reducing the size
10%
of the municipal workforce (32%).
7%
6%
Three of five (62%) cities report in-
5%
3%
2%
1%
creases in public safety expenditures
6%
5%
3% 3%
3%
0
Property
Tax Rate
Fee Levels
Number
of Fees
Level of
Impact
Fees
Other Tax
Rate
Tax Base
Sales Tax
Rate
The 2010-2013 surveys also asked
related cuts enacted (See Figure 8).
In 2013, the most common cut so far
benefits (24%) or pension benefits
50%
(22%). However, the percentage of
% of Cities
40%
30%
in 2012 in all categories except pen-
20%
sion benefits.
10%
Many cities used some combination
of these types of actions in an effort
has resulted in a significant reduction
6
Income
Tax Rate
60%
one in five cities reduced health care
nation of these personnel-related cuts
Number
of Other
Taxes
70%
was a hiring freeze (38%). At least
to reduce personnel costs. The combi-
1%
Figure 6: City Revenue Actions in 2013
about specific types of personnel-
nel-related cuts in 2013 is lower than
0%
0
(See Figure 7).
city finance officers reporting person-
1%
0
Pub. Safety
Capital/Infra
Workforce
Human Serv.
Contracting
Decreased
4%
19%
32%
9%
4%
12%
2%
8%
Increased
62%
37%
20%
21%
21%
27%
21%
11%
Other City Services
Interlocal
Education
Figure 7: City Expenditure Actions in 2013

7. CITY FISCAL CONDITIONS IN 2013
in the size of local government workforces. The U.S. Bureau of Labor
38%
Statistics’ latest national unemploy-
Hiring freeze
ment numbers, as of August 2013,
Salary/wage reduction or freeze
revealed that total local government
is more than 500,000 jobs below the
have
also
9%
Furloughs
August 2008 level7 (See Figure 9).
budgets
10%
Early retirements
municipal government employment,
14%
19%
Reduce pension benefits
shortfalls and constraints. In many
0
cases, states have been reducing aid
15%
7%
0.1
18%
0.2
74%
54%
35%
2013
2012
22%
24%
17%
17%
16%
18%
15%
Revise union contracts
confronted with several years of
31%
68%
50%
25%
23%
11%
Reduce health care benefits
been
32%
17%
18%
Layoffs
employment in the U.S., including
State
15%
45%
2011
27%
2010
30%
22%
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
and transfers to city governments. Figure 8: City Personnel-Related Cuts 2010 - 2013
NLC’s 2013 survey asked city
finance officers about the types of state actions they’ve encountered since 2010, including cuts in general aid (39%),
cuts in state-shared and/or state-collected revenues (37%), revocation or reduction of reimbursement programs or other
transfers (26%), cuts in funding for services that cities and other local governments deliver on behalf of state governments
(21%) and transfer of state program responsibility (18%). Amid the politics of state budget-balancing, sometimes state
actions have also been taken that serve to reduce or limit local authority (21%).
This mix of state actions to balance state
39%
Cut state aid
37%
Cut state-shared revenues
26%
$Cut reimbursement or other transfers
Reduce/limit local authority
21%
– during economic downturns the decisions
that state and local leaders make to balance
8%
Other
0
Figure 9: State Actions Since 2010
5%
10%
15%
20%
confronting. Looking across state and local
pro-cyclical nature of state-local fiscal actions
18%
Transfer programs
that cities and other local governments are
actions in response to fiscal stress reveals the
21%
%Cut funds for state-required services
budgets adds to the cyclical economic pressures
25%
30%
35%
40%
budgets often exacerbate the effects of the
downturn for other levels of government, for
employment, and for the quality of life and
well-being of individuals and communities.
ENDING BALANCES
One way that cities prepare for economic downturns is to maintain adequate levels of general fund ending balances.
Ending balances are similar to reserves, or what might be thought of as cities’ equivalents to “rainy day funds,” in that
they provide a financial cushion for cities in the event of a fiscal downturn or the need for an unforeseen outlay. Unlike
7 ureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) seasonally adjusted data released for August 2013 show 14,084,000 local government employees, compared to 14,587,000 employees for August 2008, a difference of 503,000 positions. http://data.bls.gov/pdq/
B
SurveyOutputServlet
7

8. RESEARCH BRIEF ON AMERICA’S CITIES
states’ reserves, or “rainy day funds,” there is no trigger mechanism—such as an increase in unemployment – to force
release of the funds; instead, reserves are available for spending at any time or for saving for a specific purpose.
City ending balances, which are transferred forward to the next fiscal year in most cases, are maintained for many
reasons. For example, cities build up healthy balances in anticipation of unpredictable events such as natural disasters
and economic downturns. But ending balances are also built up deliberately, much like a personal savings account, to
set aside funds for planned events such as construction of capital projects. Bond underwriters also look at reserves as an
indicator of fiscal responsibility, which can increase credit ratings and decrease the costs of city debt, thereby saving the
city money in annual debt service costs. Finally, as federal and state aid to cities has become a smaller proportion of city
revenues over time, cities have become more self-reliant and are much more likely to set aside funds for emergencies or
other purposes.
Prior to the recession, as city finances experienced sustained growth, city ending balances as a percentage of general
fund expenditures reached an historical high - since the NLC survey was first administered-- of 25 percent. However,
as economic conditions made balancing city budgets more difficult, ending balances were increasingly utilized to fill the
gap (See Figure 10). In 2012, city finance officers projected ending balances to decline to 12.7 percent of expenditures.
Actual ending balances often register at higher levels than projected ending balances. For 2012, final ending balances
were reported at 21.5 percent of expenditures, suggesting that cities were once again turning to rebuilding these balances
as they emerge from the downturn. Looking to 2013, city finance officers project ending balances at 20.1 percent of
expenditures.
30%
25.2%
24.0%
25%
23.7%
24.4%
21.6%
20%
18.0%
15.0%
15.7%
16.2%
18.5%
19.6%
18.3%
19.%1
19.1%
17.1%
16.9%
17.2%
19.9% 19.7%
18.2%
19.0%
21.5%
20.8%
22.4%
16.1%
15%
24.3%
16.5%
20.1%
16.9%
10%
5%
0%
Actual Ending Balance
Budgeted Ending Balance
Figure 10: Ending Balances as a Percentage of Expenditures (General Fund)
8

9. CITY FISCAL CONDITIONS IN 2013
BEYOND 2013
The reports and projections from the nation’s city finance officers reveal a picture of a gradually improving economy
and parallel improving city fiscal conditions. However, the pace and scope of the economic recovery to date is not
sufficient to help cities recover from a deep and sustained economic downturn. While projections for final 2013 revenues
and expenditures show that city fiscal conditions are no longer declining, those projections also suggest that cities are
confronting little growth in the near future. Positive indicators, including growth in local sales tax and income tax
revenues, are offset by stagnant receipts from real estate taxes as cities continue to register the lagged effects of depressed
housing markets. Beyond 2013, a number of factors will be key to the fiscal conditions of cities:
• trengthening real estate markets (although regional markets will vary considerably) will help cities
S
turn the corner from property tax revenue decline to growth, but the effects will be spread out over
several years;
• ther economic conditions – improving consumer confidence, employment, and wages – will weigh
O
heavily on future city sales tax receipts and income tax revenues;
• Two of the factors that city finance officers report as having the largest negative impact on their ability
to meet needs are employee- and retiree-related costs for health care coverage and pensions. Pension and
health care costs will persist as a challenge to city budgets for years to come;
• onfronting a gradual economic recovery following a deep recession, cities are likely to continue to
C
operate with reduced workforces and service levels, and city leaders will likely continue to be cautious
about making significant infrastructure investments;
• ities’ fiscal conditions remain vulnerable to external policy shifts in the face of a gradual and
C
tenuous economic recovery, including cuts in federal spending and threats to global, national, and
regional-local economic conditions from political stasis on issues including the federal budget and
U.S. debt ceiling; and
• ecause cities are required to balance their budgets on an annual basis, cities will continue to assess
B
and adjust the appropriate package of fiscal policy actions for the purpose of providing services,
investing in infrastructure, and meeting the health, safety and welfare requirements of their
residents, taxpayers, workers and visitors.
ABOUT THE SURVEY
The City Fiscal Conditions Survey is a national mail and email survey of finance officers in U.S. cities conducted annually
from April to June. Surveys were mailed and emailed to city finance officers for a sample of 1,140 cities, asking for their
assessments of fiscal status, actions taken, and factors affecting their fiscal conditions. Budget and finance data were also
requested in the survey from all cities with the exception of the 100 largest cities by population. Budget and finance data
from those cities were collected directly from on-line city budget documents. In total, the 2013 data are drawn from 350
cities, for a response rate of 31 percent. The data allow for generalizations about the fiscal condition of cities.
9

10. RESEARCH BRIEF ON AMERICA’S CITIES
Throughout the report, the data are occasionally compared for cities with different tax structures and population sizes.
The response rates for these categories are provided in the table below.
Categories
Survey Responses
%
350
100.0%
300,000
60
17.2%
100,000-299,999
139
39.7%
50,000-99,999
84
24.0%
10,000-49,999
67
19.1%
Property
94
26.9%
Sales Property
227
64.8%
Income Property
29
8.3%
TOTAL
Population
Tax Authority
The number and scope of governmental functions influence both revenues and expenditures. For example, many
Northeastern cities are responsible not only for general government functions but also for public education. Some cities
are required by their states to assume more social welfare responsibilities than other cities. Some assume traditional
county functions.
Cities also vary according to their revenue-generating authority. Some states, notably Kentucky, Michigan, Ohio and
Pennsylvania, allow their cities to tax earnings and income. Other cities, notably those in Colorado, Louisiana, New
Mexico and Oklahoma, depend heavily on sales tax revenues. Moreover, state laws may require cities to account for
funds in a manner that varies from state to state. Therefore, much of the statistical data presented here must also be
understood within the context of cross-state variation in tax authority, functional responsibility and state laws. City
taxing authority, functional responsibility and accounting systems vary across the states.8
When we report on fiscal data such as general fund revenues and expenditures, we are referring to all responding cities’
aggregated fiscal data included in the survey. As a consequence, the data are influenced by the relatively larger cities that
have larger budgets and that deliver services to a preponderance of the nation’s cities’ residents. When asking for fiscal
data, we ask city finance officers to provide information about the fiscal year for which they have most recently closed the
books (and therefore have verified the final numbers), which we generally refer to as FY 2012, the year prior (FY 2011)
and the budgeted (estimated) amounts for the current fiscal year (FY 2013).
When we report on non-fiscal data (such as finance officers’ assessment of their ability to meet fiscal needs, fiscal actions
taken or factors affecting their budgets), we are referring to percentages of responses to a particular question on a oneresponse-per-city basis. Thus, the contribution of each city’s response to these questions is weighted equally.
8 For more information on differences in state and local fiscal structure see “Cities and State Fiscal Structure,” (NLC, 2008) at http://www.nlc.org/File Library/Find City Solutions/Research Innovation/Finance/cities-state-fiscal-structure-2008-rpt.pdf.
10

11. CITY FISCAL CONDITIONS IN 2013
ABOUT THE NATIONAL LEAGUE OF CITIES
The National League of Cities is the nation’s oldest and largest organization devoted to strengthening and promoting cities as
centers of opportunity, leadership and governance. NLC is a resource and advocate for more than 1,700 member cities and the 49
state municipal leagues, representing 19,000 cities and towns and more than 218 million Americans. Through its City Solutions
and Applied Research, NLC provides research and analysis on key topics and trends important to cities, creative solutions to
improve the quality of life in communities, inspiration and ideas for local officials to use in tackling tough issues and opportunities
for city leaders to connect with peers, share experiences and learn about innovative approaches in cities.
THE LAG BETWEEN ECONOMIC CITY FISCAL CONDITIONS
We often refer to the lag between changes in the economic cycle and the impact on city fiscal conditions.
What does this mean? The lag refers to the gap between when economic conditions change and when those
conditions have an impact on reported city revenue collections. In fact, cities likely feel the impacts of changing
economic conditions sooner. However, because reporting
of city fiscal conditions occurs, in most cases, on an annual basis, whether through annual budget reporting or
NLC’s annual survey, those impacts tend to not become
evident until some point after the changes have started
to occur.
How long is the lag? The lag is typically anywhere
from 18 months to several years, and it is related in large
part to the timing of property tax collections. Property tax
bills represent the value of the property in some previous
year, when the last assessment of the value of the property
was conducted. A downturn in real estate prices may not
be noticed for one to several years after the downturn began, because property tax assessment cycles vary across
jurisdictions: some reassess property annually, while others reassess every few years. Consequently, property tax
collections, as reflected in property tax assessments, lag
economic changes (both positive and negative) by some
period of time. Sales and income tax collections also exhibit lags due to collection and administration issues, but
typically no more than a few months.
Figure 2 shows year-to-year change in city general fund
revenues and expenditures and includes markers for the
official U.S. recessions from 1991, 2001 and 2008-2010,
with low points, or “troughs,” occurring in March 1991,
November 2001 and June 2009, respectively, according
to the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER).
Comparing the dates of the recessions to the low point of
city revenue and expenditures as reported in NLC’s annual
survey (typically conducted between April and June of every year), the low point for city revenues and expenditures
after the 1991 recession occurred in 1993, approximately
two years after the trough of the U.S. economic recession
(March 1991 to March 1993). After the 2001 recession,
the low point for city revenues and expenditures occurred
in 2003, approximately 18 months after the trough of the
U.S. economic recession (November 2001-April 2003).
Our reporting on this lag is dependent upon when the annual NLC survey is conducted, meaning that there is some
degree of error in the length of the lag – for instance, had
the survey been conducted in November of 1992, rather
than April of 1993, we might have seen the effects of
changing economic conditions earlier. Nevertheless, the
evidence suggests that the effects of changing economic
conditions tend to take 18-24 months to be reflected in
city budgets.
11

12. RESEARCH BRIEF ON AMERICA’S CITIES
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