3rd slideshare ethics

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HLTEN514B
Apply Research Skills Within a
Contemporary Health Environment
www.tastafe.tas.edu.au

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The Research Process
• Any research, regardless of size needs to
go through an organised process

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The Research Process: an
eight-step model(Taken and Adapted from:Kumar, 1996)
“Although the basic logic of scientific
methodology is the same in all fields, its
specific techniques and approaches will
vary, depending upon the subject
matter” (Kumar, 1996, p.15).

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Step 1: Formulating a research
problem
• Should identify what you intend to research.
• Should be as clear and concise as possible.
• Extremely important to evaluate your problem in
light of the financial resources at you disposal,
time available, your own expertise and
knowledge.
• Think about how a problem may arise… e.g. a
recurring patient outcome, a quizzical event…

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Step II: Conceptualising a
research design
• The validity of what you find largely depends on
how you found it.
• Main function of a research design is to explain
how you will find answers to your research
question.
• Should include the study design, logistical
arrangements that you propose to undertake,
measurement procedures, sampling strategy, how
will analyse your data and time-frame.

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Step III: Constructing an
instrument for data collection
• Includes anything that you use as a means for
collecting information.
• For example; observation forms, interview schedules,
questionnaires, interview guides.
• You may need to construct your own, or use an
existing one in order to extract primary data.
• If you are using information that has already been
collected for another purpose (secondary data), you
will need to develop a form to extract the data
required.
• Must address issues of validity and reliability.

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Step IV: Selecting a sample
• The accuracy of your estimates largely depends
upon the way you select your sample.
• Basic objective is to minimise the gap between what
you obtain from your data and what is prevalent in
the population.
• The characteristics of the sample need to closely
match the population as possible, so the results are
generalisable to the larger population
• Important to try and avoid bias.
• Extremely dependent on resources available.
• Important to look at sampling design to know if the
research is applicable to your population

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Sampling ctd
Three categories of sampling design:
1. Random = sample selected at random e.g. All
population given a number and “lottery” is conducted
chosing the numbers.
• Most basic form of random sampling.
• Each subject in the population has an equal chance of
being in the research
2. Non-random = Not chosen at random, can be chosen
by set characteristics e.g. gender, age etc. Can be
hand picked by the researcher
• cannot assess whether they are representative of the
population, therefore results can only be applied to the
sample and not generalised to the whole population.
3. Mixed = mixture of both

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Step V: Writing a research
proposal• An overall plan that tells a reader about
your research problem and how you are
planning to investigate.
• Main function is to detail the operational
plan for obtaining answers to your research
questions.
• Institutions will have varying requirements
regarding style and content.

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Step VI: Collecting data
• Procedure you wish to adopt is determined by
your research design.
• At this stage you actually collect the data.
• May involve consideration of some ethical
issues.
• Need to ensure confidentiality etc

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Step VII: Processing data
• The way you analyse the information you
collect largely depends upon the type of
information (descriptive, quantitative,
qualitative) and the way you want to write you
dissertation/report.
• Some studies will involve a combination of
both quantitative and qualitative methodology
and data collection.

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Step VIII: Writing a research
report
• The last and often most difficult step.
• Usually written as an academic paper
divided into chapters based on the
main themes of the study.

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Literature Reviews
• Part of the research process includes a
literature review
• The researcher searches the existing
literature (previous research papers) to
see what has already been found about a
topic and where the gaps are

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Literature Reviews
“A literature review is traditionally considered a
systematic and critical review of the most important
published scholarly literature on a particular topic”
(Beanland & Schneider, 1999, p.84)

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Review of
Literature
Research
Education
Theory
Practice
Relationship of the review of literature to
theory, research, education and practice

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Reasons for Reviewing the
Literature
Bring Clarity to Research Problem
• Helps understand the subject area better
• Helps to conceptualise your research problem
• Helps you understands the relationship between
your research problem and the body of knowledge in
the area.
• Identify known gaps – don‟t reinvent the wheel!

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Reasons for Reviewing the
Literature
Improve your methodology
• Acquaints you with the methodologies that have
been used by others
• Informs you of procedures that have worked well,
and problems faced

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Reasons for Reviewing the
Literature
Broaden you knowledge base
• Ensure you read widely
• Important to know other researchers findings,
questions, theories, gaps
• Understand how your research fits into the
existing body of knowledge

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Procedure for Reviewing
Literature
If you do not have a specific research problem, you
should review the literature in a broad area of
interest with the aim of narrowing down to what
you want to find out about
Can be thought of in four steps:

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Searching Existing Literature
• Must have some idea of a broad subject area in
order to set parameters.
• Compile a bibliography for your area from books and
journals.
• Books: Can be valuable as they usually present a
coherent body of knowledge. Can be outdated so
beware.
• When you find a book of value, look at its
bibliography and reference list to find other valuable
references on the same topic.

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Searching Existing
Literature
• Journals: Provide the most up-to-date
information. Can be located in hard copy, via
electronic databases and via the internet.
• Read journal abstracts to ascertain relevance.
• Review articles reference list for other articles of
value.

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Reviewing Selected
Literature
• Read your literature critically in order to identify
themes and issues that belong together.
• Critical reading requires you to: note theories put
forward, criticisms, methodologies adopted,
examining to what extent findings can be
generalised, are the significant differences of
opinion, ascertain gaps in knowledge

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Develop a Theoretical
Framework
• Involves „sorting out‟ the information you have read
into some kind of logical, methodical framework.
• This will describe the theories or issues in which
your study is embedded.

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Develop a Conceptual
Framework
• Describes the aspects you selected from the
theoretical framework to become the basis of
your study.
• This conceptual framework forms the basis of
your research problem.

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Writing up the Literature
Review
• Should be written around the themes that have
emerged from reading the literature.
• Can be written under headings that are precise
and follow logical progression.

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Formulating a Research
Problem
“Generally speaking, can be any
question that you want
answered and any assumption
or assertion that you want to
challenge or investigate can
become a research problem or
a research topic for study” (Kumar,
1996, p.35)

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Considerations when selecting
a research problem
• Interest: select a topic that interests you.
Research can be time-consuming and hard work.
• Magnitude: Narrow the topic down to something
manageable, specific and clear that you can
manage within the time and resources at your
disposal.
• Level of Expertise: Allow for the fact that you will
learn during the study, but make sure you have
adequate knowledge for the task.

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Considerations when
selecting a research problem
• Measurement of Concepts: Be careful to not use
concepts that you don‟t know how to measure.
• Relevance: Select a topic that is of relevance to you
professionally. Remember that research should add
to the body of knowledge, bridge current gaps and be
useful.

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Considerations when selecting
a research problem
• Availability of data: If your topic involves collection
of information from secondary sources, ensure this is
possible.
• Ethical Issues: How ethical issues can affect the
study population and how these can be overcome
must be examined early.

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„Zeroing in on the problem‟
1. Identify a broad area of interest in your
academic/professional field.
2. Dissect the broad area into sub-areas (brain-
storm)
3. Select a sub-area or areas in which you would
like to conduct your research (process of
elimination).
4. Raise research questions that you would like
answered.
5. Formulate objectives main and sub

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„Zeroing in on the
problem‟
6. Assess these objectives to ascertain
feasibility of attaining them in light of you
time, resources and expertise.
7. Double check by asking yourself: am I
really enthusiastic about this study? Do I
have enough resources?

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Formulating Objectives
• Are the goals you set out to attain in your study.
• Should be listed under the headings of main
objectives and sub-objectives.
• Main objective is an overall statement of the main
associations and relationships you seek to discover or
establish.
• Use action-orientated words or verbs such as „to
determine‟, „to find out‟, „to ascertain‟, „to measure‟, „to
explore‟.

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Hypotheses
Often a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an
idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation, the
reality or truth of which you do not know.
• Therefore:
1. It is a tentative proposition
2. Its validity is unknown
3. In most cases, it specifies a relationship between
two or more variables.

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Characteristics of a
Hypothesis
• Simple, specific and clear – it should only
test one relationship at a time
• Capable of verification – methods and
techniques must be available for data
collection and analysis.
• Should be related to a body of knowledge
• Should be operationalisable – that is, it can
be expressed in terms that can be
measured.

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References
Beanland, C., Schneider, Z., LoBiondo-
Wood, G., Haber, J. (1999). Nursing
Research: Methods, Critical Appraisal and
Utilisation. Artamon: Mosby.
Borbasi, S., Jackson, D., Langford, R.
(2004). Navigating the Maze of Nursing
Research. Marrickville: Mosby.
Burns, N., & Grove, S. (1995).
Understanding Nursing Research.
Pennsylvania: W.B. Saunders Company.

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References
Crotty, M. (1998). The Foundations of
Social Research: Meaning and
Perspective in the Research Process. St
Leonards: Allen & Unwin.
Daly, J., Kellehear, A., Gliksman, M. (1997).
The Public Health Researcher: A
Methodological Guide. South Melbourne:
Oxford University Press.
Elliott, D., & Burr, G. (2000). Study Guide
to Accompany Nursing Research:
Methods, Critical Appraisal and Utilisation.
Marrickville: Mosby.

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References
Kumar, R. (1996). Research Methodology:
A step-by-step guide for beginners.
South Melbourne: Addison Wesley
Longman.
Peace, S. (1990). Researching Social
Gerontology: Concepts, Methods and
Issues. SAGE Publications: London.
Punch, K. (1998). Introduction to Social
Research: Quantitative & Qualitative
Approaches. SAGE Publications:
London.