Breves apuntes sobre las unificaciones alemana e italiana

1. UNIT 6 – NATION STATES AND EMPIRES IN EUROPE
UNIT 6
NATION­STATES ANDNATION­STATES AND
EMPIRES IN EUROPEEMPIRES IN EUROPE
1. THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
Even before Napoleon's final defeat, representatives of the European powers gathered in Vienna to
negotiate a full and definitive settlement of the peace of Europe. The Congress of Vienna, as the peace
conference became known, met from September 1814 to June 1815. Leaders were convened by emperor
Francis I and his foreign minister Prince Metternich. They had a clear idea: they wanted to restore the Old
Regime. Metternich opposed the ideals of French Revolution. Under his influence, three principles emerged
to guide the decisions of the Congress:
1. Compensation for the victors.
2. Restauration of the balance power in order to ensure peace.
3. Legitimacy: restoring the governments that had ruled Europe before Napoleon and French
Revolution.
Other leaders at the Congress agreed with Metternich's goals, specially Czar Alexander I of Russia.
Other representatives were: King Frederick William III of Prussia and Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand, a French
representative. All these representatives supported a return to the Old Regime, all of them excluding Great
Britain's representative.
Ilustración 1: Europe during Napoleon's empire

2. UNIT 6 – NATION STATES AND EMPIRES IN EUROPE
They started restoring Europe. In May 1814 the victors had stripped France of its conquest and
restored its 1792 boundaries. Now they added territory to nations bordering France.
- The Netherlands received Belgium.
- Prussia gained territory along the
Rhine River to prevent a French
expansion there.
- German states were organized in a
German Confederation and Switzerlanad
became an independent confederation
and declared itself forever neutral.
- Portugal, Spain, Sardinia and Two
Sicilies' kings were restored to their
thrones.
- Austria received the Italian provinces
of Lombardy, Venetia, Illyria and the
Tirol.
However, they had many problems
over Polish territory, specially between Czar Alexander and the Prussia's king. Finally, they agreed with
Talleyrand, who proposed that Russia received part of Poland and the rest of it went to Prussia.
The Congress of Vienna was a success because the great powers established arragements to enforce
the terms of the Congress on a continuing basis. In September 1815, Csar Alexander invited the rulers of
Austria and Prussia to join him in the Holly Alliance, because they were the “Crhistian princes”. Most
European countries joining the Holy Alliance which meant the alliance could commit European rulers to help
another put down internal rebellion and revolution. They also decided to meet regularly to mantain peace
and discuss common interests: to combat the spread of revolutionary ideas and mantain peace through
European cooperation.
2. THE OUTBREAK REVOLUTION
While Metternich and the other continental rulers tried to return to the days before the French
Revolution, liberals began to react. Liberals had been inspired by the ideals of the Revolution and the
Declaration of the Rights of Man. Liberals demanded reforms and many movements swept across other parts
of Europe such as a revolt in Spain in 1820.
- 1820 REVOLUTIONARY WAVES
Metternich saw the European revolts as an emergency: he clamped down on the universities, accusing
them of creating revolutionaries. He also called the German Confederation to adopt the Carlsbard Decrees,
which prohibited any political reforms, stablished censorship and formed a secret police. European leaders
created the Congress Troppau in 1820. Despite British objections, Austria, Prussia and Russia agreed to send
military intervention to support governments against internal revolutions. This army was sent to Naples and
later entered to Spain, in 1823.
Ilustración 2: Europe after The Congress of Vienna

3. UNIT 6 – NATION STATES AND EMPIRES IN EUROPE
Nevertheless, the first real failure of Metternich's system ocurred in 1821, when liberals, inspired by
French Revolution' ideals and liberlism, revolted against of Ottoman sultan. First the Holy Alliance refused
help Greeks because Turkish sultan was a legitimate ruler, but finally, by 1830 Europeans (Great Britain,
France and Russia) helped the Greeks to become an independent state.
- 1830 REVOLUTIONARY WAVES.
Greek independence sparked another series of revolutions in Europe: in 1830 revolution broke out
once again in Paris where liberals overthrew the reactionary Bourbon monarch, king Charles X, and replaced
him with the more moderate Louis Philippe, duke of Orléans.
Soon, revolution started in Brussels: revolutionaries demanded independence from the Dutch in
December in 1830. After brief fighting, and considerable diplomacy, the European powers recognized
Belgium's independence.
In Germany the Paris revolt caused great excitement among many intellectuals and students. In
southern Europe, both Spain and Portugal, emerged as constitutional monarchies. In Italy, liberal and
nationalist revolutionaries in Italy, who had already organized in secret societies, also rose in rebellion. They
were once again put down by Austrian troops, however.
Perhaps the bloodiest uprising took place in Poland, where Polish nationalist and liberals had also
organized secret societies to fight Russian domination.
- 1848 REVOLUTIONARY WAVES
In 1848, revolution once again broke out across Europe. In central and eastern Europe nationalism was
the primary cause, and in western Europe, the industrialization and its problems still continued and middle
and working class called for political participation. Socialists joined liberals in calling for change.
Once again, the spark for revolution came from France, when radical reformers called for overthrow
of the monarchy and the establishment of a new republic. When the king Louis Philippe called out the army to
keep order, violence soon followed. Louis Philippe abdicated and France established a republic; the revolution
spread to the rest of Europe and even Metternich himself was forced to resign.
Like the revolutions of 1830, those of 1848 also failed in the end. Liberals had little sympathy por
socialist demands and often preferred to support the conservatives rather than accept more radical change.
3. UNIFICATION IN ITALY AND GERMANY
3.1. THE GROWTH OF ITALIAN NATIONALISM: THE ITALIAN UNIFICATION
Since the fall of the Roman Empire, the Italian Peninsula had been divided into a number of competing
states, each with its own government, dialect, economy and customs. Napoleon and his invading army had
united many of the Italian states into the kingdom of Italy. The Congress of Vienna, however, left Italy divided
once again. After Austria took over Lombardy and Venetia, Italian nationalism grew in opposition to Austrian
rule.
Along 19th
century, many thinkers and writers revived interest in their rich cultural traditions and they
started to call for Italians to join together and liberate Italy from foreign rule. This nationalistic movement
became known as the resurgimento, or “resurgence”. Nationalist formed secret societies to promote their

4. UNIT 6 – NATION STATES AND EMPIRES IN EUROPE
cause, such as the Carbonari or “charcoal-burners”, for example, plotted to overthrow the Austrians. For
example, the Young Italy movement, launched in 1831 by Giussepe Mazzini could be sentenced to death if
caught.
Many Italian states opposed unification because they did not want to give up their power to one
central government. As liberal revolution spread throughout Europe in 1848, Italian nationalists led rebellions
of their own: first in Lombardy, later in Sardinia, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and Tuscany to grant
constitutions. Revolutionary movements soon failed because Austrian troops stopped it; revolution only
succeeded only in Sardinia.
Despite the failure of the revolts of 1848, Italian patriots continued to work for a unified nation. They
could not agree on how to achieve unity, however. Many Italians wanted a federation of states headed by the
pope. Most liberals wanted a republic and others wanted a constitutional monarchy under king Victor
Emmanuel II of Sardinia.
CAVOUR AND SARDINIA. One of the main architecs of Italian
unification was Count Camillo Benso di Cavour, the prime minister of Sardinia.
Initially he did not support the unification, but he was resented for the Austrian
occupation of Italy. Cavour believed in a political resurrection of a nation, and
also he believed in a economic resurrection. Cavour worked to improve the
economy by funding railroad construction, encouraging industrialization and
negotiating free-trade agreements.
Cavour also reorganized and strengthened the Sardinian army. By 1859
he had won a powerful ally against Austria. In return, Sardinia transferred
control of the provinces of Savory and Nice to France in 1860.
GARIBALDI AND THE RED SHIRTS. Italians consider Cavour the “brain”
of Italian unification, Mazzini its “heart” and Giuseppe Garibaldi, has been dubbed the “sword” of Italy.
Garibaldi had joined Mazzini's Young Italy movement in 1833. Cavour asked him, in 1859, to lead part of
Sardinian army in the war with Austria. Garibaldi accepted and finally, the Austrians agreed to give up
Lombardy, while keeping Venetia.
Garibaldi and his followers, known as the Red Shirts because of their coloful
uniforms, aided rebels fighting against Bourbon rule in Kingdom Two Sicilies,
practising “guerrilla” warfare against the Bourbon troops. By July 1860 the Red
Shirts controlled the island of Sicily. Then he marched over south with Sardinian
troops and conquer Naples, meanwhile Cavour had annexed the small kingdoms of
central Italy.
Garibaldi, finally offered the territories to King Victor Emmanuel II of
Sardinia. The new kingdom of Italy held elections in 1861. By those days the only
holdouts were Venetia, still belonged to Austria, and the Papal States. When war
broke out between Austria and Prussia in 1866, the Italians sided with the Prussians.
Austria was defeated, and Italy won Venetia. In 1870 Italian troops entered Rome, which completed the
unification.
Ilustración 3: Camillo Benso
di Cavour
Ilustración 4: Garibaldi

5. UNIT 6 – NATION STATES AND EMPIRES IN EUROPE
3.2. THE GERMAN UNIFICATION
In the early 1800s, Germany was a patchwork of independent states, but after the Congress of Vienna
the German states were united into the German Confederation.
The first major step toward German unity after the Congress involved the economy. The Junkers
(aristocratic land-owners) asked the King of Prussia to abolish all tariffs within his territory. This economic
decision was known as the Zollverein. By 1844 the Zollverein included almost all of the German states.
The strongest calls for political unification came from liberalism. In 1848, when the Revolution swept
through Europe, German liberals also seized the opportunity to revolt against Metternich. Berliners set up
barricades, forcing the retreat of royal soldiers. King Frederick William gave into nationalist demands and
proclaimed the German unification. German unification was not accomplished by a revolution, but by the
policies of a king and his powerful chancellor, Bismarck.
Bismarck was the leader of conservatives. In 1862 William I, the new Prussian
king, appointed Bismarck as head of the Prussian cabinet. He started the
Realpolitik or “realiscti politics”, some policies based on Prussian interests
rather than on liberal ideals. He built the Prussian army into a great war
machine than would soon work for the unification. Bismarck wanted a unified
Germany around Prussia so he thought it was essential to drive Austria out of
its leadership position within the German Confederation. He planned two wars
to get these objectives: the Seven Weeks' War and the Franco-Prussian War.
Bismarck looked for Italy and France help in these wars against Austria. When
Prussia won against Austria, several northern states united with Prussia, and
only three southern states remained outside Prussian control. Bismarck
decided to annex those three southern states by provoking war with his recent
ally France in 1870. After Franco-Prussian War, France lost Alsace and part of

6. UNIT 6 – NATION STATES AND EMPIRES IN EUROPE
Lorraine and had to pay a huge indemnity. On January 18, 1871, representatives of the allied German states
met and they proclaimed King William I of Prussia kaiser, or emperor, of German Empire.