The document discusses various mycotoxins produced by fungi, including their history, effects on plants and animals, and detection methods. It describes several important mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, and ergot alkaloids. For each mycotoxin, it provides details on the producing fungi, toxic effects, mechanisms of action, and historical outbreaks in humans or livestock. Detection methods like HPLC, ELISA, and lateral flow tests are also summarized. The document contains several figures and tables to illustrate fungal colonies, mycotoxin structures, and contamination levels found in studies.

1. Jai shree ram

2. 12/11/2013
2

3. University of Horticultural Sciences, Bagalkot
Kittur Rani Channamma College of Horticulture, Arabhavi
MYCOTOXINS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON PLANTS AND ANIMALS
By: Archana A. Madalgi
UHS12PGM223
12/11/2013
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4. 12/11/2013
4

5. What are Mycotoxins?
Mycus = Fungus / Mold
Toxicum = Poision
Mycotoxins are toxic substances / secondary
metabolites produced by fungi (molds)
growing on crops in the field and in storage.
(Phreusa, 2009)
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6. Mycotoxicosis is used to describe the action
.
characterized as:
Acute mycotoxicosis- high dose and rapid
Chronic mycotoxicosis- slow development of infection
(Harvey et al., 1991)
Toxicoses – injection of toxic secondary metabolites
(Osborne et al., 1982)
Mycosis - generalized invasion of living tissue
(McKinney et al., 1973)
Mycetism - poisoning of organisms
(Phillips et al., 2007)
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7. History
Turkey X Disease
Death of about 100,000 turkey poultry birds ---- United Kingdom in
1960 ----ingestion of a poultry feed containing Brazilian groundnut
cake---- AFLATOXIN
Chemical and microbiological investigations ---- toxic effects
produced by the Brazilian groundnut cake ---- presence of quantities of
four secondary metabolites ---- Aspergillus flavus in the diet
(Agrios, 2000)
7
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8. 1093 in France - holy fire – - St. Anthony’s fire Ergot of rye - Claviceps purpurea - Ergot alkaloids Russia in 1926, Ireland in 1929, France in
1953, India in 1958, and Ethiopia in 1973
8

9. Cont…
• Alimentary Toxic Aleukia in Russia during World War 2 (T-2)
death of > 50000 soldiers
• 1930 ---- Moldy rice in Japan - > 15000 people suffered
• 1972 in China – 800 persons affected due to consumption of
moldy sugar cane
• Gibberella ear rot – contaminated beer– vomitoxin and
zearalenone – cattle's, swine, chickens, horses, dog , fishes and
humans in Canada
•
Fusarium toxins - in Virginia – Crazy horse disease- swelling
of respiratory system in - human cancers
• Dog Food- burning and death - Aflatoxin Poisoning 2006 in
Kenya
(Agrios, 2000)
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10. Why are they important?
• Destroy crops and causes economic loss
• Ingested through contaminated food
• Cancer, birth defects, liver damage, and nervous
tissue damage, etc.
• Not destroyed in normal cooking procedures.
• Played an important role in some historical events
• Annual losses - $5 billion
(Paterson et al., 2011)
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11. Where do they come from ?
 Moisture in crops
 Contamination during



Handling
Storage
Processing of foods
 Fungi present in air, water, food and dust
(Lima et al., 2009)
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12. Mycotoxin and climate change
Extreme precipitation, storms and
floods
Cause moist conditions
Drought
Weakens seed kernels of
plants, allowing greater fungal
contamination
Increased temperatures
Promote fungal growth
(WHO, 2009)
12

13. Determination of mycotoxins
Presumptive tests
Biological assays
Chemical analysis

14. HPLC- MS Test
(Miraglia et al., 2009)

15. Fig 1:- ELISA kit for the determination of mycotoxins. Hexagon-triangles
enzyme- mycotoxin conjugate, triangles free mycotoxin, Y- anti mycotoxin
(Varma et al., 2010)
antibody.
15

16. Examination of Fungal Colonies under UV
Light
Fig 2 :- Two non-aflatoxigenic (top colonies) and one aflatoxigenic (bottom colony) strains
of parasiticus visualized (a) under visible light; (b) 365 nm UV light. The ring around
the aflatoxigenic strain displays blue fluorescence; (c) room temperature
phosphorescence was photographed with a digital camera with a 2.5mp exposure after
switching-off the UV lamp.
(Rojas et al., 2007)

17. Lateral Flow Immunochromatography
(Vishay et al., 2009)
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18. Groups of mycotoxins
Aflatoxins
Ergot alkoloids
Ochratoxins
Patulin
Fusarium toxins
Zearalenone
(Abid et al., 2003)
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19. Mycotoxin distribution
Mycotoxin
Fruits,
vegetables
Cereals
Milk and
milk
products
Coffee,
wine
Nuts,
spices
Baby
food
Aflatoxins
B1B2G1G2
Aflatoxin M1
Trichothecenes
(DON, T2 toxins)
Zearalenone
OTA
Patulin
(Kofi, 2009)
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20. 20
(Miraglia et al., 2009)

21. Producing:
Aspergillus flavus and A parasiticus
Important metabolite is Aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, G2, M1
Warm temperature conditions favours the development
Potential sources tomato, chilli, cocoa, coffee, groundnut, soybean, corn, milk
and milk products, meat etc....
Effects:
Inhibit protein synthesis
Tumour cell development
cancer
cause mutation
cell toxicity
liver damage
(Williams et al., 2004)

22. Conditions favorable for Aspergillus
— High moisture
— Drought stress
— Insect damage
Aspergillus Growth on Corn
Aspergillus parasiticus
Aflatoxin B1
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(Williams et al., 2004)

23. A. fumigatus
A. nidulus
A. niger
A. oryzae
A. clavatus
A. flavus

24. Chemical structure of aflatoxins
B
A
(A) The B-type aflatoxins are characterized
by a cyclopentane E-ring. These
compounds have a blue fluorescence
under long-wavelength ultraviolet
light.
R3
R1
R4
(B) The G-type aflatoxins, with a green
fluorescence, have a xanthone ring in
place of the cyclopentane.
(C) Aflatoxins of the B2 and G2 type have
a saturated bis-furanyl ring. Only the
bis-furan is shown.
R1
R2
C
D
R1
R1
(D) Aflatoxin of the B1a and G1a type
have a hydrated bis-furanyl structure.
(Abid et al., 2003)
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25. AF binds to DNA
Aflatoxin B1 binds to
DNA at the guanine
base in liver cells,
corrupting the genetic
code that regulates cell
growth. Out- of- control
cells grow into tumors
that eventually become
cancerous.
25
(Hsieh, 2009, Lowa)

26. Table 1:-Acceptable levels of Aflatoxins in Food & Feeds
(Source: www.fda.gov)
Action Level
Commodity
Species
0.5 ppb Afla M1
Milk
Humans
20 ppb
Any food
Humans
20 ppb
Feed
All species of animals
Exceptions:
300 ppb
300 ppb
Cotton seed Meal used in Feed
All species of animals
Corn
Beef Cattles
200 ppb
Corn
Swine
100 ppb
Corn
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Breeding Cattle, breeding
swine, and mature poultry
26

27. Aflatoxins contamination in chilli samples from Pakistan
R. Russell and M. Paterson
April 2006, Pakistan
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28. Table 2: Description of the chilli samples used in this study
(Russell and Paterson, 2007, Pakistan)
Sample
number
Location
Aspergillus
flavus (cfu)
Total aflatoxin
(µg/kg)
1
G
Karachi
0
96.2
2
G
Islamabad
0
66.1
3
G
Islamabad
103
61.3
4
G
Islamabad
103
48.9
5
G
Faislabad
102
46.8
6
G
Islamabad
104
40.1
7
G
Lahore
103
34.3
8
G
Lahore
2 102
25.5
9
G
Faislabad
9 102
6.8
10
P
Peshwar
2 102
6.6
11
P
Karachi
6 102
1.7
12
P
Lahore
2 101
0.2
13
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Sample
P
Lahore
2 100
0.1
G- Ground chilli
P- chilli pods
28

29. Aflatoxin Contamination of Red Chili Pepper From Bolivia and
Peru, Countries with High Gallbladder Cancer Incidence Rates
Takao Asai, Yasuo Tsuchiya, Kiyoshi Okan, Alejandro Piscoya, Carlos Yoshito
Nishi, Toshikazu Ikoma, Tomizo Oyama, Kikuo Ikegami, Masaharu Yamamoto
Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, Vol.13, Peru, 2012
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30. Table 3: Concentrations and Recovery Rates of Aflaoxins B1, B2, G1,
and G2
(Takao et al., 2012 , Peru)
Red chili peppers
Aflatoxins (μg/Kg)
B1
B2
G1
G2
Bolivia (1)
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
(2)
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
(3)
11.3
0.6
N.D.
N.D.
Peru (1)
0.9
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
(2)
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
(3)
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
0.7
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
(2)
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
(3)
2.3
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
Japan (1)
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
N.D.
Recovery rate (%)
102.1
101.6
103.6
109.1
China (1)
N.D.:- Not detected
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31. Fig 4 : HPLC Chromatograms of Each 10 μg/Kg Portion of
Aflatoxin Standard (A) Bolivian Red Chili Pepper (B).Aflatoxins B1 and
B2 were detected at concentrations of 11.3 and 0.6 μg/Kg, respectively.
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(Takao et al., 2012 , Peru)

32. Effects of Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) on Liver of chickens
(Severe periportal cytoplasmic vacuolation of hepatocytes)
Control
12/11/2013
AFB1
(Hsieh, 2009, Lowa)

33. Aflatoxin
12/11/2013
Control
(Hsieh, 2009, Lowa)

34. Tumor induction in fishes
(Santis, 2008)
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35. Effects of aflatoxin on pigmentation
(Doerr et al., 1993)
12/11/2013
(Aflatoxin +)
(Aflatoxin -)
35

36. Produced by –Penicillium and Aspergillus
Growing in different climates and on different plants - contamination of food crops
Outbreaks of Balkan nephropathy, a fatal chronic renal disease
(Petkova and Castegnarom, 1985)
Found in a wide range of human foods such as cereals, beer, wine, cocoa, coffee,
dried vine fruit, spices and in meat products.
(Abdel et al., 1999)
Mode of action :- deformation of cells by producing phenyl - alanine
In food is widespread and shown nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, and carcinogenic
(Aish et al., 2000, U.K.)
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37. Structure of ochratoxin
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37
(Aish et al., 2000, U.K.)

38. Effects of OA on Pigmentation
OA +
OA -
12/11/2013
(Turner et al., 2007)

39. 12/11/2013
39
(Phillips et al., 2007, U.S.A.)

40. The fuminosins ---- due to outbreak of equine leukoencephalomalacia in South Africa in
1970
Produced by > 11 species of the fungus Fusarium ( F. roseum, F. oxysporum, F. ricinctum
F. graminearum etc..)
Divided into structurally distinct groups, four of which have been designated A, B, C and P
fuminosins
Disrupt sphingo lipid metabolism
FB1 implicated in neural tube defects in Texas population consuming corn (1989 – 1991)
Moisture >23%; Temp – 28ºC
Water soluble
Esophageal cancer
(Marasas, 2001)
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41. SPHINGOLIPIDS

Found in membranes, brain, nerves

Functions include:
• Internalization of lipids & proteins
• Cell-cell communication
• Regulation of cell surface receptors
• Regulation of ion pumps
(Rheeder et al., 2002)
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42. Mechanism of Toxic Action of FB1 - disruption of sphingolipid
biosynthesis
(Broomhead et al., 2002, USA)
Palmitoyl-CoA + Serine
Sphinganine
FB1
acyltransferase
Ceramide
Sphingosine
12/11/2013
Sphingolipids
turnover
42

43. Effect of FB1 on ducklings
Control
(3.5 kg wt.)
12/11/2013
400 µg/kg
FB- 1 toxin injected
(900mg wt.)
(Musser and Plattener, 1997)

44. Fig 6:- Fuminosin Induced Equine Leucoencephalomalacia
(Diaz et al., 2000)
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45. (Leeson et al., 1995)
Produced by Trichothicium, Fusarium
tricinctum (T-2 toxins),
Fusarium
graminearum (vomitoxin or DON)
Cellular level – Primary inhibition of
protein synthesis
Disruption of DNA and RNA synthesis
Oral lesions, poor growth, abnormal
feathering, decreased egg production, poor
egg shell quality, regression of bursa of
Fabricius
Vomitoxin (DON)

46. Control (5.6 kg )
T-2 toxin 550µg/kg affected (1.9kg)
Fig 7 :- Effects of T-2 on Growth of the chickens
(Leeson et al., 1995)
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46

47. Fig 8 :- Oral Lesions on chickens caused by T-2
toxin
(Leeson et al., 1995)
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47

48. The 40 ergot alkaloids -Claviceps purpurea can be divided into three groups:
Lysergic acid (e.g. ergotamine and ergocristine)
Isolysergic acid (e.g. ergotaminine)
Dimethylergoline (clavines, e.g. agroclavine)
Medicinally important indole alkaloids
Derived from amino acid tryptophan
48
12/11/2013
(Swamy and Devegowda, 1998)

49.  Indole
NH
 Tryptamine
NH2
CH2
CH2
NH
NH2
 Tryptophan
CH2
NH
CH
COOH
(Swamy and Devegowda, 1998)

50. Zearalenone
• First described in US 1920s
• F-2 toxin
• Fusarium roseum,
F. tricinctum, F. gibbosum,
F. oxysporum, F. moniliforme
• Source - corn, wheat, barley, oats, sorghum, tomato, beans ,
cucurbits, okra, spinach etc...
(Huff and Ruff, 1982)

51. Phenolic compound
Zearanol (zearalenol)
Moisture - > 23%
Temp – 12 - 25 C,
Affects on reproductory system – hormonal imbalance in mammals
(Huff and Ruff, 1982)

52. Effects of ZEN on humans
(Sundlof and
Dose
1 µg/day
6 µg/day
12.6 µg/day
Strickland, 1986)
Clinical Lesions
Vulva swelling
Smaller litter size
Prevention of early featal development

53. Co- occurrence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in
Capsicum powder samples available in the Spanish market
L. Santos, S. Marin, V. Sanchis and A. J. Ramos
Spain 2010
12/11/2013
53

54. Fig 9 : Aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone distribution in Capsicum
powder samples
(Santos et al., 2010, Spain)
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55. Patulin
Patulin is produced by Penicillium clariform, P. expansum, P.
patulum and by Aspergillus spp
Sources :- Bread, sausage, fruits (apricots, grapes, peaches, pears,
and apples), and apple juice
Carcinogenic toxin and responsible for subcutaneous sarcoma
Affects on nervous system
The allowable daily intake limit is 0.4 g/kg body weight
(Smith et al., 1994)
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56. Table 6: Effect of chronic oral administration of apple juice contaminated with
patulin (152.5 µg/kg) on dopamine (DA) content in the different
brain areas of albino mice.
(Hazmi et al., 2009, Cairo)
(Hazmi et al., 2009, Cairo)
384
1.5
Pons &
Medulla
508 3.5
341
2.9
630
Cerebellum
2
weeks
Control
Mean
S.E
change
-11.20%
24.02%
815 4.7
1119
6.3
37.30%
*
**
***
significant
4
weeks
Control
Mean
S.E
change
significant
6
weeks
Control
Mean
S.E
change
significant
Striatum
2.9
433
1.9
532
3.1
-4.95%
24.06%
824 3.1
924
503
12.14
412
3.3
660
5.0
n.s
**
Cortex
Hypothalamus
Midbrain
Hippocampus
216
1.3
655
3.7
557
402
981
7.1
296
2.5
961
4.9
575
6.3
1107
9.4
37.04%
46.72%
3.23%
12.84%
***
***
n.s
*
238
2.0
612
4.0
500
3.1
838
6.3
267
1.9
834
906
526
4.7
987
6.6
*
12.18%
36.27%
5.2
17.78%
*
***
n.s
*
314
3.2
565
2.7
634
2.7
187
1.2
608
5.1
403
2.7
667
4.5
320
5.6
664
3.2
822
3.5
237
1.5
846
7.0
397
2.1
863
5.6
+1.88%
17.52
29.65
26.74%
39.14%
-1.49%
29.39%
n.s
*
***
***
***
n.s
***
n.s. non-significant change according to Student,s T-test.
* significant change ( P< 0.05 ) according to Student,s T-test.
** highly significant change ( p< 0.01 ) according to Student,s T-test.
*** more highly significant change ( p<0.001 ) according to Student,s T-test.
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57. SCREENING OF MYCOTOXINS IN FRUITS AND
VEGETABLES GROWN IN SINDH, PAKISTAN
Najmus Sahar, Mubarik Ahmed, Zahida Parveen, Amber Ilyas and Abbas Bhutto
Pak. J. Bot., 41(1): 337-341, 2009, Karachi
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57

58. Table 7: Qualitative analysis of Aflatoxin in fruits and vegetables samples by TLC method
(Najmus 2009, karachi)
S. No.
No. of samples
analyzed
Observation
Type of aflatoxins
1
Tomato
3
Aflatoxin
B1
2
Potato
2
ND
ND
3
Peas
4
ND
ND
4
Beet Root
3
ND
ND
5
Pumpkin
4
Aflatoxin
G1
6
Garlic
3
ND
ND
7
Ginger
3
ND
ND
8
Onion
3
ND
ND
9
Chillies (powder)
4
Aflatoxin
B1
10
Carrot
2
ND
ND
11
Coriander(dry)
3
Aflatoxin
B1
12
Cucumber
3
Aflatoxin
B1
13
Grapes
3
ND
ND
14
Pomegranate
3
ND
ND
15
Persimmon
3
Aflatoxin
G1
16
Peanuts(dry)
4
Aflatoxin
B1
17
12/11/2013
Name of sample
Dates
3
ND
ND
18
Peach(dry)
3
Aflatoxin
B1
ND:
Not Detected
58

59. Table 8:- Aflatoxin contamination in medicinally important dried
rhizomes samples
(Anju and Geeta, 2008, Jammu)
Plants
Samples
analyzed
Positive sample
(%)
AF B1
AF B2
Range of contamination (µg/g)
AF B1
AF B2
Acorus calamus
26
26.9
34.6
15.55-5.11
0.14-2.01
Bergenia ciliata
24
8.3
----
0.10-0.61
--------
Curcuma longa
27
37
22.2
0.30-8.31
0.13-0.70
Zinziber officinale
27
11.1
14.8
0.23-0.38
0.07-0.19
AFB- Aflatoxin B
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59

60. Ecological aspects of distribution of potential
toxin-producing micromycetes on stored apple fruit
(Alma and Elena, 2006, Lithuania)
•
Objective :- To investigate the ecological aspects of contamination of stored apples
and to elucidate the potential toxin producing micromycetes
•
Materials and methods
•
There were inspected 300 fruits (100 from each of three replicate trees) of the same
maturity, size and free of physical damage and fungal infection in each control plot.
The yield was kept in a storehouse with controlled storage conditions: the
temperature was adjusted to 0–2 C and relative air humidity to 90%
The orchard management activities and fungicide spray program were carried out
according to recommendations accepted at the Lithuanian Institute of Horticulture
Microbial contamination was tested immediately after apple harvesting and after
three months of storage in a storehouse
To isolate micromycetes, 1 cm2 pieces of apples were plated onto Malt, Czapek Dox
and Potatoes Dextrose agars. Plates were incubated at 26 2 C for seven days in
the dark.
Grown fungi were isolated .
The identification was performed according to particular manuals .
The distribution frequency (%) was calculated
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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60

61. Table 9: Distribution of fungi on healthy and rotten apple fruits
(Alma and Elena, 2006, Lithuania)
Fungal species
Distribution frequency, %
Healthy fruits
Acremonium roseum
4
0
Alternaria alternata
0
22
Aspergillus niger
3
17
Cladosporium cladosporioides
0
5
Cladosporium herbarum
2
10
Fusarium lateritium
0
13
Fusarium oxysporum
0
10
Penicillium biforme
4
20
Penicillium brevicompactum
10
17
Penicillium cyclopium
12/11/2013
Rotten fruits
0
28
61

62. Cont…
Penicillium corylophilum
0
25
Penicillium clavigerum
0
8
Penicillium corymbiferum
0
10
Penicillium expansum
50
83
Penicillium italicum
17
67
Penicillium janthinellum
0
9
Penicillium lanosum
0
5
Penicillium roqueforti
13
28
Rhizopus oryzae
0
33
Trichoderma viride
0
38
(Alma and Elena, 2006, Lithuania)
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62

63. Table 10: Potentially toxin-producing micromycete species isolated from store house
environment.
(Alma and Elena, 2006, Lithuania)
Micromycetes
Air
Dust
Acremonium roseum
-
+
Alternaria alternata
-
+
Aspergillus amstelodam
+
-
Aspergillus clavatus
+
-
Aspergillus repens
-
+
Aspergillus ustus
+
+
Cladosporium cladosporioides
+
-
Cladosporium herbarum
+
-
Penicillium cyclopium
+
+
Penicillium corylophilum
-
+
Penicillium clavigerum
+
-
Penicillium corymbiferum
+
-
Penicillium expansum
_
+
Penicillium janthinellum
-
+
Penicillium lanosum
-
+
Penicillium oxalicum
-
-
Penicillium roqueforti
+
-
10
9
12/11/2013 Total species
63

64. Mycotoxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in fast food of Bihar
H. K. Chourasia, Sanjay Kumar Suman and Pramila Prasad
Journal of mycology and plant pathology
38:3 2008
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64

65. Table 11:-Incidence of fungi (%) in raw materials of fast foods of Bihar
(Chourasia et al., 2008, Bhagalpur)
Raw
materials of
fast foods
Aspergillus
spp
Mucor
Pencillium
Noodles
45.565 10.0
(5/7)
4.5 1.5
(4/7)
-
Cabbage
31.3 7.3
(7/10)
2.5 0.6
(3/10)
Carrot
27.4 6.5
(13/20)
Pizza bread
Rhizopus
Fusarium spp
Trichoderma
Others
6.5 1.2
(3/7)
-
-
8.5 3.5
(5/7)
15.5 4.7
(6/10)
10.4 3.0
(4/10)
4.0 0.7
(4/10)
7.5 1.5
(5/10)
4.7 1.2
(3/10)
11.5 3.5
(10/2)
10.0 2.5
(14/10)
8.9 2.5
(8/20)
-
5.5 1.0
(3/20)
6.5 2.0
(6/20)
20.5 4.0
(4/8)
2.7 0.3
(3/8)
7.1 2.0
(5/8)
-
10.4 2.0
4/8
Chilli sauce
15.0 3.3
(12/20)
-
-
-
7.7 2.5
(10/20)
-
14.0 4.5
(8/20)
Tomato sauce
23.3 5.7
(9/15)
3.0 0.5
(6/15)
-
-
-
6.5 1.5
(5/15)
15.5 5.7
(8/15)
Maida bread
12.2 2.5
(4/7)
5.7 1.2
(3/7)
-
4.5 2.1
(4/7)
12.4 2.5
(5/7)
-
-
Burger bread
10.6 3.2
(3/7)
4.4 1.5
(4/7)
-
-
-
-
7.5 2.6
(5/7)
Shimla mirch
10.0 2.7
(7/10)
4.5 1.5
(3/10)
-
7.5 2.0
(6/10)
-
-
5.7 1.2
(2/10)
Beet
5.9 1.2
(6/10)
7.8 2.5
(5/10)
-
8.0 2.7
(6/10)
5.5 1.2
(4/10)
11.5 3.2
(5/10)
-
Egg
12/11/2013
6.5 1.5
(4/8)
-
20 5.5
(5/8)
6.5 1.2
(3/8)
-
-
7.5 2.5
65
(4/8)

66. Fig 11 : Associaion of microbes with raw materials of fast foods
a: Cabbage, b: carrot, c: Beet, d: egg, e: noodles, f:pizza
bread,g: chilli sauce, h: tomato sauce, i: maida bread, j: burger
bread, k: Capsicum ( Shimla mirch)
12/11/2013
66

67. 12/11/2013
67

68. 12/11/2013
68

69. Effects of Mycotoxins
ZON
• Irregular heats
• Low conception rates
• Ovarian cysts
• Embryonic Loss
T2-Toxin, DON, AFB1
• Gastroenteritis
• Intestinal hemorrhages
• Impaired rumen function
• Diarrhea
• Ketosis
AFB1, T2-Toxin, DON
• Milk contamination
• Decreased milk
production
• Mastitis
12/11/2013
DON - Deoxynivalenol
ZON – Zearalenone
AFB1 – Aflatoxin B1
T2-Toxin
T2-Toxin, DON
• Decreased feed intake
• Lower milk production
• Decreased feed efficiency
DON
• Laminitis
69

70. Mycotoxicoses in dairy
T2-Toxin: dermal lesions
Zearalenone
Trichothecenes: Ketosis
Swollen vulva, Uterus prolapse
Deoxynivalenol: Metritis
affected ovaries
12/11/2013
Deoxynivalenol:
inhomogeneous growth
Trichothecenes: Diarrhea
70
Hypertrophy of the uterus

71. Review of genetic studies of susceptibility to facial eczema
in sheep and dairy cattle
C. A. Morrisa, S. H. Phuab, N. G. Cullena and N. R. Towersc
AgResearch, Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, New Zealand; AgResearch, Invermay
Agricultural Centre, Mosgiel, New Zealand Towers Consulting, Hamilton.
New Zealand, 2013
12/11/2013
71

72. Fig12 :- Mean loge[GGT] of sheep groups, after dosing with the FE toxin sporidesmin and classified
By the progeny-test status for FE susceptibility of their five ‘High’ (susceptible)
Jersey sires or five ‘Low’ GGT (resistant) Jersey sires: results are summarized for the
calves in loge i.u./l units (with bars shown for the standard error of the difference) against
days since the toxin challenge (NB: Factor of 1.75 between the
mean loge[GGT] values of High vs Low sire groups (74 calves)).
12/11/2013
72
(Morrisa et al., 2013, New Zealand)

73. Fig 13 :- Mean loge[GGT] of calf groups, sired by Holstein Friesian bulls that had been
scored (performance tested) as weaned calves for response to FE susceptibility, or
response to sporidesmin. Five such ‘High’ GGT and five ‘Low’ GGT bulls were
selected for progeny testing for response to sporidesmin, alongside the progeny of
eight untested/‘unselected’ Holstein Friesian bulls. Results for progeny a re shown
in loge i.u./l units (with bars for standard errors of means, shown in one direction)
against days since the toxin challenge)
73
(Morrisa et al., 2013, New Zealand)

74. Carry-over
metabolites
Poor
performance
Uterine
infections
Economic
Impact
Higher
Incidence
Diseases
Cystic ovaries
Immunesupression
Reproductive
Failure
Decreased Fertility
Impact Milk
Displaced
Abomasum,
Ketosis,
Retained
Placenta,
Metrites,
Mastites, Fatty
Liver,
Lameness
Non-response
veterinary treatments
↓ Microbial
growth
↓ Digestion
Nutrients
12/11/2013
↓ Rumen
Motility
Impaired
Rumen Function
74

75. Impact of
mycotoxins in milk quality
12/11/2013
75

76. Carry-over of aflatoxins in dairy
Aflatoxin B1 is carried over into the milk as
Aflatoxin M1
From cow…
Human health concern
• AfM1 is considered as “possible carcinogen” by
International Agency For Research On Cancer
(IARC);
• Legislation limits amount of this metabolite
in milk:
EU: 50 ppt = 0.05 μg/kg
USA: 500ppt = 0.5 μg/kg
Economic concern
• Milk is discarded or downgraded.
12/11/2013
…to milk!
76

77. Fig 14:- Effect of mycotoxin binder on Daily Milk production at
the Jersey Farm in Bhopal.
(Whitlow, 1986, Bhopal)
12/11/2013
77

78.  Neural tube birth defects
 Esophageal cancer
 Hepatocellular carcinoma
 Carcinogenesis
(Amer, 2009)
12/11/2013

79. Indigenous population that consumes high amounts of maize
as their staple food
Incidence of neural tube defects
(NTD per 10,000 live births)
General U.S. population : <3
Guatemala : 106
US
Fig 15 :- Survey conducted for neural tube defects in Guatemala, South Africa
and U.S.A.
(Marasas et al., 2004, Guatemala)
12/11/2013
79

80. Fabio Galvano, Amedeo Pietri, Terenzio Bertuzzi, Luigi
Gagliardi, Sabina Ciotti, Stefano Luisi, Matteo Bognanno, Luca La
Fauci, Anna Maria Iacopino, Francesco Nigro, Giovanni Li
Volti, Luca Vanella, Giuseppe Giammanco, Gabriella Lucia Tina and
Diego Res. 52,
Mol. Nutr. FoodGazzolo 496 – 501
2008, Italy
12/11/2013
80

81. Fig 16 : Chromatogram (HPLC; fluorescence detection) of: a) an OTA standard
solution (479 ng/L), equivalent to 47.9 pg of OTA injected;
b) a naturally-contaminated human milk sample containing 280 ng/L
(equivalent to 56 pg of OTA injected).
(Fabio et al.,2008, Italy)
12/11/2013
81

82. Fig 17 : Chromatogram (HPLC; fluorescence detection) of: a) an AFM1
standard solution (62 ng/L), equivalent to 6.2 pg of AFM1 injected;
b) a naturally-contaminated human milk sample containing 72 ng/L
(equivalent to 7.2 pg of AFM1 injected).
12/11/2013
(Fabio et al.,2008, Italy)
82

83. Anencephaly
Spina Bifida
Encephalocele
Fig 18 :- Examples of suspected fumonisin-associated birth defects: anencephaly,
spina bifida and encephalocele. All are from one summer in one hospital in
Guatemala. Photos courtesy of Dr. Julio Cabrera (from Parrott, 2010).
Parrott W (2010) Genetically modified myths and realities.
New Biotechnol. 27:545-51.
12/11/2013
83

84. Spina bifida (a common form of NTD)
Spina bifida (Latin: "split spine") is a developmental birth defect caused by the
incomplete closure of the embryonic neural tube. Some vertebrae overlying the spinal cord
are not fully formed and remain unfused and open.
If the opening is large enough, this allows a portion of the spinal cord to protrude
through the opening in the bones. There may or may not be a fluid-filled sac surrounding the
spinal cord.
Spina bifida
12/11/2013
84
(Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spina_bifida)

85. Encephalocele: which results when
other parts of the brain remain
unfused.
Anencephaly : a condition in which the
portion of the neural tube which will become
the cerebrum does not close,
12/11/2013
85
(Source: http://neuropathology.neoucom.edu/chapter11/images11/11-2al.jpg)

86. LUNG TUMORS
Adenocarcinoma
Large Cell
Aflatoxin Positive
Mesothelioma
Ochratoxin found in
chest wall, diaphragm.
No ochratoxin found
in pleura
12/11/2013
Bronchial Alveolar CA (BAC)
Aflatoxin Positive
Ochratoxin Positive
86

87. Removal or Elimination of
Mycotoxins
• Pre harvest control
• Resistant varieties
• Crop rotation
Inactivation of Mycotoxins
• Adequate irrigation
Removal of Mycotoxins During
• Control of insect pests.
Food Processing.
• Postharvest Control
• 10–13% moisture
Avoiding Human Exposure
• Avoid insect and rodent infestation
• Methods of harvesting and storage
Detection and Screening of
Mycotoxins
Dietary Modifications
12/11/2013
87

88. Conclusion............!!!!!
• Mycotoxins are highly stable compounds and ubiquitous
• Causes severe crop loss because contamination can occur both
before and after harvest
• Severe health hazards to Animals and humans
•
Good farm management practices and storage
• Regulatory commissions should develop
• The development of sophisticated kits for the detection of
minute amounts of mycotoxins is the most important
• Create awareness and education
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88