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Week 3 - Western Expansion and Homestead Act
- 13. ALL food crops come from domesticated varieties 10,000 years ago – man first chose plants based on desirable characteristics Domestication = process of bringing wild species under human management (artificial selection) Creates a dependence on enhanced environments for continued existence Primitive plant breeding - Selection leads to “better” plants than wild ones Unknowingly and knowingly Human migration brought new cultivated plant species
- 16. Wild Bananas Domesticated Bananas Peppered with large, hard seeds Small and oval Thick, tough skin Need a knife to peel it Sweet Easy to chew Easy to hold (length) Easy to peel
- 17. Wild Mustard The Brassicas Family Grow as weeds Contains chemical phenylthiocarbamide - either tasteless or bitter Cauliflower – flower sterility Cabbage – terminal leaf bud Kale – enlarged leaves Kohlrabi – stem Broccoli – flower buds
- 20. Humans chose annuals for domestication Annuals – sprout from seed, produce new seed, and die every year Nature is mostly perennials Reliance on high yields and shallow roots! Leave ground bare – soil erosion and weeds! Why did humans cultivate annuals and not perennials? Perennial Advantages: Deep, dense root system fuel’s plants rebirth each spring Resilient and resource efficient Ground cover and soil stabilization
- 21. TODAY - closely related wild plants (crop-wild relatives) are still used to improve modern cultivars = reliance on nature Selective Breeding – deliberately changing the genetics of plants in order to produce desired traits simple selection complex molecular Gardeners, farmers, professionals, gov’t institutions, universities, research centers…
- 23. In US –7,000 kinds of apples; 2,500 kinds of pears grown in the last century (we had diversity) GE Crops & Monocultures threaten diversity Hybridization & Selective Breeding – increase diversity? What so special about seed variety? Storehouse of important genetic info History of coevolution with local ecology Enhances characteristics of pest and disease resistance, adaptability, and nutrition
- 24. Belief breeding new crops is essential for ensuring food security = new varieties, higher yields Is this diversity? What method – monoculture or polyculture? Breed Traits: Increased crop yields Increased tolerance to environmental pressures (drought, salinity, temp…) Resistance to pests, viruses, fungi, bacteria, diseases… Increased tolerance to herbicides The rise to GMOs (The Green Revolution)
- 25. Traditional Ag with Diversity Monoculture Hybrid seeds in WWII – reliance on fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides TODAY - All processed food made from – corn, wheat, rice, and potatoes Over 97% of varieties available in 1900 are now extinct American Consumer’s = Illusion of choice Wide variety of brand names & logos Complete loss of biological variety
- 30. Starlink Varieties lost from 1903 to 1983: Field corn 90.8% Sweet corn 96.1% Maize was historically selected for varying leaves, heights, colors, & kernels Now corn is grown for animal feed, ethanol, or sweeteners GE – withstand herbicides & own bio-pesticide Open air pollination = contamination
- 32. Golden Delicious & Red Delicious Varieties lost from 1903 to 1983: 86.2% At turn of last century, there were 7,000 different apply varieties grown in the US 21st Century – over 85% or 6,000 varieties have become extinct Big AG is interested in varieties that are: high yield uniform in appearance Able to survive cross-country & international transport
- 34. Iceberg Varieties lost from 1903 to 1983: 92.8% Most lettuce produces in US is head lettuce because: Easily harvested Easily transported Can remain on the shelf for weeks Look “presentable” Thousands of varieties used to exist with: Flavors -sweet, bitter, nutty, piquant, anise, grassy, citrus… Leaves –long, lacy, ribbed, sleek, frilly, fan-shaped…
- 36. Potato varieties world wide – 5,000 Major commercial varieties grown - 4 Devolution of the potato – Burbank potato in 1872 1953 – J.R. Simplot the Burbank’s length, high solids, and low sugar into the perfect frozen French fry 1965 – Ray Kroc, genius behind McDonald’s mass marketed the fry to the rest of the world Today – typical American eats 30 pounds a year Monsanto GE Burbank with pesticide gene – not labeled
- 38. Beefsteak Varieties lost from 1903 to 1983: 80.6% Listed among international seed orgs. as among the most genetically threatened of all earth’s crops Wild varieties have provided resistance for 19 disorders including leaf mold, tobacco mosaic virus & nematodes Extinction of the wild varieties could ultimately mean disappearance of the entire plant species
- 40. What is the DIFFERENCE between selective breeding techniques that farmers have been doing for centuries and genetic modification (i.e. GE and GMO)?
- 42. Homestead Act was a law developed in 1862 to promote settlement of the Great Plains. Allowed 160 acres of land if family “improved” it in five years Facilitated the migration of 500,000 settlers to the west to start new lives. Agriculture was largely expanded and revolutionized by Homestead Act Many homesteaders forced to give up - land was extremely difficult to farm
- 44. Population Changes in the West, 1850 to 1900
- 45. Black sod of the prairies (Kansas) developed with special plows – land extremely fruitful Railroads allowed for profitable marketing of crops Improved irrigation techniques – “deserts bloomed” Imported tough, cold-tolerant wheat from Russia Flour-milling – increased demand for grain Barbed-wire invented (1874)- Protection against cattle & wildlife
- 48. A Pioneer’s Sod House, SD
- 49. Negotiate treaties to sell land to US Americanization or assimilation Adopt Christianity White education Individual land ownership Adopt agriculture Take away food source to force to Reservations = tracks of land US Native Indian Policy
- 50. Americanization - Mainstreamed and absorbed into US society Abandon tribe, culture and become farmers Male claimed 160 acres of land Children would be sent to Indian schools Farm land for 25 years. 1924 gain citizenship and right to vote Failed policy - Indian resistance and corruption Dawes Act of 1887
- 52. A 1911 ad offering "allotted Indian land" for sale.
- 53. Act in 1889 split Great Sioux Reservation into 5 smaller reservations Reservations –family units on 320 acre plots Forced to farm, raise livestock, and send children to boarding school (traditional culture forbidden) Supplemented Lakota with food Euro American farmers hired to teach Lakota farming Unable to farm– cut food rations to Lakota Ghost Dance – new religion/movement Extinguish Euro Americans Return the buffalo Return to former way of life
- 54. Lakota at Pine Ridge 1891
- 56. 1871 to 1875, the US supported extermination of 11 million buffalo.
- 58. Take away the food source from the Native American and they will be forced to submit and go to the reservations.
- 59. Large-scale farm operations growing and harvesting wheat Made possible by: New farming machinery of the 1870s Cheap abundant land from the Homestead Act Growth of eastern markets in the US Transportation – completion of most major railroads Many owned by companies and run like factories Red River valley – Dakota and Minnesota mid 1870’s Pioneered development of farm technology & economics Steam engines, plows, combine harvesters
- 64. Migrant labor was necessary for bonanza farming Planting and harvesting – between 500 and 1000 extra workers needed on farm Weather and market conditions good – large profits Drought and low wheat prices – profits fell Mexican migrant labor distinguished farms from local family farmers Family farms – fewer workers and less equipment costs survived the “boom-and-bust cycles” By 1890’s – bonanza farms broken up into smaller farms
- 66. Large landowners / larger farms Crop rotation techniques New crops such as turnips and potatoes New drainage techniques – swamp and marshland use New breeding techniques – meatier animals, harvested earlier Manure from livestock used for soil fertilization Horses replace oxen for powering plows and farm equipment Chemical fertilizers -widespread use was immediate Mechanical seed drills used Wooden plows replaced with iron, then steel Steam powered threshing machines – the tractor
- 75. How come large-scale agriculture of the 1900’s were able to overcome the demise of the bonanza farms in the late 1800’s?
Hinweis der Redaktion
- BCE – Before Common Era
- Millet (MIL-LIT) – cereal crop
- Sorghum – SOR-GUM - grain
- Progeny testing used in breeding of plants
- How does artificial seed selection happen?
- Artificial Selection: The unnatural selection of plants with favorable traits to produce more disease-resistant plants with better quality and higher yield.The Rise Of The Banana: Not all bananas were the same. Some were thinner, some less seedy and some sweeter. Years ago, people collected seeds from sweeter, thinner bananas to breed better bananas suited for human consumption.
- Not because annuals were better, but because Neolithic farmers rapidly made them better, for example, enlarging their seeds, through selective breeding, by replanting the ones from thriving plants, year after year. As perennials did not benefit from that kind of selective breeding, because they don't need to be replanted, this natural advantage became a handicap to the perennials, causing humans to favor annuals instead. Perennials do not have a high yield. We pay a steep price for our reliance on high yields and shallow roots as annual root crops mostly tap into only the top foot or so of soil such that that layer gets depleted, forcing farmers to rely on large amounts of fertilizers to maintain high yields. Annuals also promote heavy use of pesticides or tillage because they leave the ground bare much of the year which allows weeds to invade. Above all, leaving the ground bare after harvest and plowing it in planting season erodes the soil. Perennial grains would help with all these problems. They would keep the ground covered, reducing erosion and the need for pesticides, and their deep roots would stabilize the soil and make the grains more suitable for marginal lands. Perennials capture water and nutrients 10 or 12 feet down in the soil, 11 months of the year, as the deep roots and ground cover would also hold on to fertilizer—reducing the cost to the farmer as well as to the environment.
- Hybridization - Classical plant breeding uses deliberate interbreeding (crossing) of closely or distantly related individuals to produce new crop varieties or lines with desirable properties. Plants are crossbred to introduce traits/genes from one variety or line into a new genetic background. For example, a mildew-resistant pea may be crossed with a high-yielding but susceptible pea, the goal of the cross being to introduce mildew resistance without losing the high-yield characteristics. Progeny from the cross would then be crossed with the high-yielding parent to ensure that the progeny were most like the high-yielding parent, (backcrossing). The progeny from that cross would then be tested for yield and mildew resistance and high-yielding resistant plants would be further developed. Plants may also be crossed with themselves to produce inbred varieties for breeding.
- Hybridization is the process of crossing two genetically different individuals to result in a third individual with a different, often preferred, set of traits (yellow watermelon). Cross pollination – pollen from one flower is transferred from another (by insect – bees; by wind; or by human). Graftinghorticultural technique whereby tissues from one plant are inserted into those of another so that the two sets of vascular tissues may join together. Plant an orange or apple seed and it might grow into a tree with tasty fruit. It also might grow into a tree with fruit whose taste is unacceptable. With grafting you can plant the same seed, and then, at the right time, cut the top off and attach a piece of a desirable orange or apple that grows into an exact copy of the desirable parent, complete with tasty fruit.
- Paradigm – we had wild diversity, we’ve lost 97% of that diversity through GE, monocultures, and some selective breeding, but they say that selective breeding for new crops will increase diversity and stabilize our food system? What do you think?Green Revolution refers to a series of research, development, and technology transfer initiatives, occurring between the 1940s and the late 1970s, that increased agriculture production around the world, beginning most markedly in the late 1960s. It forms a part of the 'neo-colonial' system of agriculture wherein agriculture was viewed as more of a commercial sector than a subsistence one. Began with high-yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of irrigation infrastructure, modernization of management techniques, distribution of hybridized seeds, synthetic fertilizers, and pesticides to farmers.
- Seeds were bred to specifically to respond to chemical use so that they would yield more highly – bigger, faster, better complex that Joel Salatin described. Locally adapted crops were replaced by genetically nondiverse hybrid varieties. Six types of corn now occupy 71 percent of the acreage in the US while two types of peas occupy 96 percent of the national acreage. Not only have destroyed natural diversity, have increase the requirements for chemical manipulation and energy expense. Nine crops account for over ¾ of the plants consumed by humans. As Wes Jackson said in “Farming in Nature’s Image,” “Diversity provides the system with built-in resilience to change and cycles in climate, water, insects, and pests, grazers and other natural disturbances. “
- BEFORE
- AFTER
- Blight disease damaged more than $1 billion dollars of corn in 1970 – monoculture vulnerability; Open pollinated crops lead to massive biological contamination of nonengineered seed by gene-altered varieties – bioengineered Starlink variety which was not approved for human use. Unapproved corn found its way into dozens of popular food products in supermarkets around the country, cuasing one of the largest food recalls in recent history.
- Industrial ag has transformed the potato, the ultimate symbol of the earth’s bounty into a human health and environmental nightmare known as the French fry.
- “Tomatoes could not be grown commercially at all without the resistance they have developed from wild species.”
- Mother Earth News: If traditional selective breeding is like two people with two different sets of genes being paired up by a matchmaker who thinks they’ll have pretty, healthy kids together, then modern high-tech GM breeding is like Victor Frankenstein slicing ‘superior’ body parts out of fifteen different corpses and using them to sew together his powerful, yet frighteningly unpredictable, monster. Director of The Nature Institute, Craig Holdrege - explains that the most critical difference between natural and GM breeding is that natural breeding crosses only organisms that are already closely related—two varieties of corn, for example—whereas, in contrast, GM breeding slaps together genes from up to 15 wildly different sources. OR Joe Mendelson, Director of Center for Food Safety - The difference is pretty large. In regular cross pollination, the species being crossed have to be related . . . basically respecting their common evolutionary origin. But with GMOs, you can take any gene from any species and splice it into a crop. So you get fish genes in tomatoes or the like.
- Within 5 years, homesteaders required to build a house and cultivate a percentage of the property for agriculture. Many homesteaders forced to give up in the face of inadequate 160 acre plots, drought, hail, and insects. Still families were determined to use the land and the Homestead Act was responsible for the settlement of nearly 10% of all the land in the United States and Alaska.
- The plow “shattered the myth of the Great American Desert.”
- Authorized the President of the United States to survey Indian tribal land and divide it into allotments for individual Indians. It was a form of removal whereby the US government would uproot the natives from their current locations to positions to areas in the region beyond the Mississippi River; this would enable settlement by European Americans in the Southeast in turn opening up new placement for the new white settlers and at the same time protecting them from the corrupt “evil” ways of the subordinate natives. A head of family would receive a grant of 160 acres. Every Indian who receives a land allotment "and has adopted the habits of civilized life.
- 1890, Fall: To help support the Sioux during the period of transition into the five smaller units, the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), was delegated the responsibility of supplementing the Lakota with food and hiring Euro American farmers as teachers for the people. The farming plan failed to take into account the difficulty Lakota farmers would have in trying to cultivate crops in the semiarid region of South Dakota. By the end of the 1890 growing season, a time of intense heat and low rainfall, it was clear that the land was unable to produce substantial agricultural yields. At this same time, the government, fed up with what they saw as Indian laziness, cut rations to the Lakota in half. The Lakota had no options available to escape starvation. Increased performances of the Ghost Dance ritual ensued…
- Agree or Disagree with Buffalo for the Broken Heart – “The Plains tribes had established a kind of balance between themselves, their enemies, and the buffalo, but that balance almost certainly was not a result of high environmental ethic, as is often suggested.” Did state the fact that ‘Indians use almost every part of the buffalo for something.” “There are many reports of Indians killing buffalo for their tongues. In fact, it was from the Indians of the northern plains that white men got that idea.”From Lakota site – “The buffalo is our source of food, it was asked to sacrifice its life for our survival. When it was taken, everything was used. The horns for utensils, the hides for robes and blankets, the sinew and bones for needles and thread, the hair was used in our pillows, and even the marrow from its bones was put into the meat to moisten it. Ceremonies were performed before the hunt to ask the buffalo for its sacrifice and processing the buffalo meat was again done in a ceremonial fashion out of respect for the animals sacrifice. Its meat became our meat, its spirit become ours upon eating it. In this, the oneness remained intact. In this, nature remained in perfect balance in its complexity and simplicity. Even nature’s horrors of storms were recognized as part of the necessary balance that sustained all life.”
- Some scholars argue that extermination of the buffalo was an official policy of the US government in order to achieve extermination of the Native Americans, particularly those living in the Western Plains.
- Late 1800s - The largest and best known of the "bonanza" farms was the Dalrymple Farm, located 20 miles west of Fargo, consisting of 11,000 acres. This was, at one time, the largest cultivated farm in the world.
- 45 HP Minneapolis double tandem compound steamer pulling 14 14 -inch breakers on virgin psod, John Deere plow, Jack Anderson owner operator. Notice there are 3 men operating this rig, one running the plow, one fireman and a driver. I've shown this picture to several farmers I know and they say few if any modern tractors could pull a plow that size in virgin praire, although with smaller plows they could plow a lot more acres in less time.The steam traction engines started coming into more common use in the 1880's. Wheat farming on a large scale scale on the great plains came about after the Civil War for several reasons, one of course was there was a market for cheap flour. The second was with the coming of the railroads which allowed the cheap flour to be shipped to where the market was. Another reason was the industrial revaluation was going full throttle, along with inventors having ideas for labor saving devices of all kinds, including but not limited to agriculture. Another recent invention coming in from Central Europe was the roller mill method of grinding flour. This had a lot of advantages over the older stone grinding methods, to most significant being as long as everything was working right, wheat could go in one end and flour could come out the other end, 24 hours a day, 7 days a week if one desired. Stone grinding required stops to move the product along the line.The availability of cheap land also made this possible, we've seen how a person could get 480 acres from the government, but the railroads also had large amounts of land for sale cheap. The railroads sent land agents all over Europe for buyers of their land, they brought in a lot of folks who were looking for farm land and had a hard time finding it in their home countries.
- A total of ninety-one farms, ranging from 3,000 to 100,000 acres, qualified as bonanzas. Nearly all of them were located within forty miles of the Red River. To achieve maximum efficiency, they specialized in the continuous cropping of wheat, which was well suited to the area. By concentrating on one crop, a limited number of implements were needed–plows, harrows, seeders, binders, and threshing machines. Over time the land was exhausted and the great farms were no longer profitable. The investors sold or rented the land to smaller farmers until, by the 1920s, the last remnants of the bonanza period faded away. Changing world conditions and a surplus of wheat, which caused a decline in prices, made the bonanzas less profitable. New tax laws discriminated against them. Migrant seasonal labor became less plentiful and more costly.
- Large farms of the 1800's led the way to modern agriculture.
- New plows - — to turn rough soil easily without breaking
- Increase in technology; continuous cheaper labor; continuation of monocultures; government policies to support commodities and paybacks; synthetic fertilizers…