Web 2.0: a real marketing opportunity for startups ?

(André, 2014)
MEMOIRE
Présent é
en
vue
de
l 'obtent ion
du
Mast e r
en
Ingénieur
de
gestion,
à
f i n a l i t é
Advanced
Management
Web
2.0:
a
real
marketing
opportunity
for
startups?
Marie-‐Laure
Cruyt
Directeur:
Professeur
Jean-‐Pierre
Baeyens
Commissaire:
Professeur
Philippe
Biltiau
Année
académique
2013-‐
2014

2
Special
Thanks
I
would
first
like
to
address
my
special
thanks
to
the
various
experts
and
entrepreneurs
that
have
taken
on
their
time
to
address
my
questions.
Without
their
help
I
would
not
have
had
a
sufficient
understanding
of
the
various
dimensions
that
this
work
encompasses.
Thank
you
to
Sébastien
François
for
briefing
me
on
the
art
of
Search
Engine
Marketing,
to
Baudouin
de
Troostemberg
for
highlighting
the
role
of
social
media
communication
for
small
businesses,
to
Olivier
Verdin
for
his
very
helpful
insights
on
the
challenges
startups
face,
to
Damien
Van
Achter
for
his
interesting
thoughts
on
the
impact
of
digital
communication,
to
Laurie
Galazzo
for
patiently
describing
the
day-‐to-‐day
activities
of
a
community
manager,
and
to
Professor
Philippe
Biltiau
for
his
valuable
opinion
on
the
Internet’s
role
in
marketing.
I
further
thank
the
entrepreneurs
for
sharing
their
experience
with
me.
I
very
much
appreciated
the
friendly
exchange
I
had
with
each
of
them.
Thank
you
to
Nicolas
Finet
for
sharing
his
growth
hacking
techniques
within
Sortlist,
to
Marine
André
for
explaining
her
journey
with
Bee
Nature,
to
Nicolas
Debray
for
detailing
the
importance
of
Web
analytics
through
Semetis,
to
Margaux
Seghin
and
Nausicaa
Theodotos
for
their
heartening
comments
on
Ginger’s
everyday
challenges,
to
Adrien
Roose
for
his
truthful
emphasis
on
the
necessity
of
multi-‐channel
communication
with
Take
Eat
Easy,
and
to
Tanguy
Goretti
for
describing
the
art
of
community
building
with
Djump.
Their
feedback
greatly
inspired
me
for
both
my
work
and
personal
projects.
I
would
also
like
to
thank
all
those
that
have
supported
me
during
the
elaboration
of
this
work.
Most
particularly,
I
thank
Christophe
Castan,
for
his
very
useful
advice
and
helpful
comments;
my
father,
Michel
Cruyt,
for
patiently
proofreading
my
work;
and
especially
Thomas
Helleputte
who
kept
encouraging
me
while
patiently
reviewing
my
work
and
sharing
his
constructive
remarks.
Finally,
I
would
like
to
thank
Professor
Jean-‐Pierre
Baeyens,
my
thesis
director,
for
the
meetings
he
arranged
and
the
guidance
he
gave
me
throughout
my
work.

3
Table
of
Content
INTRODUCTION
AND
METHODOLOGY
9
PART
I:
WEB
2.0,
A
NEW
PARADIGM
FOR
MARKETING
A.
THE
NEW
WEB
GENERATION
13
A.1
DEFINING
WEB
2.0
AS
AN
UNDERLYING
MOVEMENT
13
A.2
THE
THREE
DIMENSIONS
OF
WEB
2.0
14
A.2.1
DATA
–
THE
SMART
WEB
15
A.2.2
TECHNOLOGY
–
THE
PARTICIPATIVE
WEB
17
A.2.3
SOCIALIZATION
–
THE
SOCIAL
WEB
20
A.3
IN
A
WORD
22
B.
THE
EMPOWERED
CONSUMER
24
B.1
EXACTING
CONSUMERS
24
B.2
RESOUNDING
CONSUMERS
24
B.3
PROSUMERS
25
B.4
IMPACT
ON
MARKETING
27
B.5
IN
A
WORD
27
C.
THE
NEW
MARKETING
APPROACHES
28
C.1
SEARCH
ENGINE
MARKETING
29
C.1.1
DEFINITIONS
29
C.1.2
THE
IMPORTANCE
OF
SEARCH
ENGINES
29
C.1.3
SEARCH
ENGINE
OPTIMISATION
30
C.1.4
SEARCH
ENGINE
ADVERTISING
31
C.1.5
THE
LIMITS
OF
SEARCH
ENGINE
MARKETING
33
C.2
SOCIAL
MEDIA
MARKETING
33
C.2.1
BRAND
COMMUNITIES
:
A
CROWDSOURCING
VEHICLE
34
C.2.2
BLOGS:
AN
AUTHENTIC
COMMUNICATION
VEHICLE
35
C.2.3
SOCIAL
NETWORKS:
AN
ENGAGEMENT
VEHICLE
36
C.2.4
MICROBLOGS:
A
MOOD-‐MONITORING
VEHICLE
38
C.2.5
SOCIAL
MEDIA
:
AN
INBOUND
MARKETING
VEHICLE
40
C.3
WEB
ANALYTICS
40
C.4
IN
A
WORD
41

D.
THE
NEW
2.0
COMPETENCES
42
D.1
SEARCH
ENGINE
MARKETING
SPECIALIST
42
D.2
CONTENT
STRATEGIST
43
D.3
COMMUNITY
MANAGER
43
D.4
WEB-‐EDITOR
4
IN
CHIEF
44
D.5
IN
A
WORD
44
PART
II:
WEB
2.0
AS
A
MARKETING
OPPORTUNITY
FOR
STARTUPS
A.
“STARTUP”:
A
TERM
OF
MANY
INTERPRETATIONS
45
A.1
DEFINING
STARTUP
AS
A
SCALABLE
BUSINESS
45
A.2
A
STARTUP
IS
NOT
ALWAYS
A
TECH-‐BUSINESS
46
A.3
THE
TEMPORARY
ASPECT
OF
A
STARTUP
46
A.4
IN
A
WORD
47
B.
THE
LEAN
STARTUP:
A
WEB
2.0
CONCEPT
47
B.1
SUMMARISING
UNTESTED
HYPOTHESES
48
B.2
THE
CUSTOMER
DEVELOPMENT
PROCESS
48
B.2.1
CUSTOMER
DISCOVERY
49
B.2.2
CUSTOMER
VALIDATION
49
B.2.3
COMPANY
CREATION
50
B.2.4
COMPANY
BUILDING
50
B.3
PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
WITH
MVPS
51
B.4
IN
A
WORD
51
C.
THE
STARTUP
LIFECYCLE:
A
PATH
STREWN
WITH
MARKETING
CHALLENGES
52
C.1
CONCEPT
53
C.1.1
GETTING
OUT
OF
THE
BUILDING:
THE
PARTICIPATIVE
WEB
HELPS
BREAK
THE
ICE
53
C.1.2
REACHING
CUSTOMERS:
THE
SOCIAL
WEB
FACILITATES
EFFECTIVE
TARGETING
54
C.1.3
ACHIEVING
PROBLEM-‐SOLUTION
FIT:
WEB
2.0
MITIGATES
SUNK
COSTS
THROUGH
COST-‐EFFICIENT
TESTING
TECHNIQUES
55
C.2
SEED
57
C.2.1
RELEASING
QUALITY
MVPS
FREQUENTLY:
WEB
2.0
INTRODUCES
THE
PERPETUAL
BETA
57
C.2.2
TESTING
PRODUCT-‐MARKET
FIT:
THE
PARTICIPATIVE
WEB
FACILITATES
CO-‐DEVELOPMENT
58
C.2.3
GATHERING
CONSUMER
FEEDBACK:
THE
SOCIAL
WEB
CAPTURES
HONEST
FEEDBACK
59
C.3
EARLY
60

5
C.3.1
GENERATING
FIRST
SALES:
WEB
2.0
HELPS
BUILD
A
COMMUNITY
OF
EARLY-‐ADOPTERS
61
C.3.2
MONETISATION:
WEB
2.0
TECHNOLOGIES
OPTIMISE
CONVERSION
AND
RETENTION
61
C.4
GROWTH
65
C.4.1
THE
CHASM
BETWEEN
EARLY
AND
MAINSTREAM
MARKET
66
C.4.2
CROSSING
THE
CHASM:
SEARCH
ENGINES
HELP
REACH
MASS
VISIBILITY
67
C.4.3
CROSSING
THE
CHASM:
GROWTH
HACKING
INEXPENSIVELY
BROADENS
CUSTOMER
ACQUISITION
68
C.4.4
CROSSING
THE
CHASM:
SOCIAL
MEDIA
BOOSTS
VIRALITY
68
C.4.5
CROSSING
THE
CHASM:
INFLUENCERS
CONSTITUTE
POWERFUL
REFERRALS
71
C.4.6
ENSURING
COMPANY
BUILDING:
INTERNAL
SOCIAL
NETWORKS
SERVE
AS
EFFECTIVE
KNOWLEDGE
MANAGEMENT
SYSTEMS
72
C.5
IN
A
WORD
73
D.
THE
WEB
DEMOCRATISATION:
AN
OPEN
DOOR
FOR
STARTUPS
74
D.1
IN
A
WORD
77
PART
III:
THE
LIMITS
OF
WEB
2.0
AS
A
MARKETING
OPPORTUNITY
FOR
STARTUPS
A.
THE
LIMITS
OF
WEB
DEMOCRATISATION
78
A.1
THE
PLUTOCRACY
OF
SEARCH
ENGINES
79
A.1.1
THE
PERFECT
COMPETITION
79
A.1.2
THE
GOOGLEARCHY
79
A.2
THE
REDUCED
REACH
OF
SOCIAL
MEDIA
MARKETING
81
A.2.1
THE
MONETISATION
OF
FACEBOOK
82
A.3
THE
COMPLEXITY
OF
WEB
ANALYTICS
84
A.4
IN
A
WORD
85
B.
THE
IMPORTANCE
OF
MULTI-‐CHANNEL
COMMUNICATION
86
B.1
IN
A
WORD
89
C.
THE
PREREQUISITE
OF
PEOPLE
89
C.1
IN
A
WORD
92
D.
BEYOND
GENERALITIES
92
D.1
WEB
2.0
MARKETING
OPPORTUNITIES
AND
B2C
STARTUPS
92
D.2
WEB
2.0
MARKETING
OPPORTUNITIES
AND
B2B
STARTUPS
94

6
D.3
IN
A
WORD
96
CONCLUSION
98
APPENDIX
101
A.
APPENDIX
1:
THE
ABUSES
OF
SEARCH
ENGINE
MARKETING
101
A.1
GOOGLE
BOMBING
101
A.2
BLACK
HAT
TECHNIQUES
101
B.
APPENDIX
2:
FURTHER
DETAILS
ON
THE
NEW
2.0
COMPETENCES
103
B.1
CONTENT
STRATEGIST
103
B.1.1
IDENTIFYING
THE
APPROPRIATE
MEDIA
103
B.1.2
SETTING
OBJECTIVES
AND
CONTENT
PLAN
103
B.1.3
MEASURING
RETURN
104
B.2
COMMUNITY
MANAGER
104
B.2.1
ANIMATING
THE
COMMUNITY
105
B.2.2
RESPONDING
TO
USERS
106
B.2.3
THE
COMMUNITY
MANAGER
PROFILE
107
C.
APPENDIX
3:
THE
BUSINESS
MODEL
CANVAS
FRAMEWORK
108
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.
BOOKS
AND
BOOK
SECTIONS
109
B.
JOURNAL
&
PRESS
ARTICLES
110
C.
ONLINE
DOCUMENTS
112
D.
REPORTS
115
E.
INTERVIEWS
116
E.1
INTERVIEWED
EXPERTS
116
E.2
INTERVIEWED
ENTREPRENEURS
117

7
Table
of
Figures
Figure
1:
Illustration
of
the
elements
that
characterise
the
Smart
Web
and
the
web
developments
that
exploit
them.
................................................................................
17
Figure
2:
Illustration
of
the
elements
that
characterise
the
Participative
Web
and
the
web
developments
that
exploit
them
.........................................................................
20
Figure
3:
Illustration
of
the
elements
that
characterise
the
Social
Web
and
the
web
developments
that
exploit
them
................................................................................
22
Figure
4:
Illustration
of
the
Web
2.0
characteristics
in
the
three
dimensions
...............
23
Figure
5:
Illustration
of
the
Web
2.0
developments
in
the
three
dimensions
................
23
Figure
6:
Illustration
of
the
impact
of
Web
2.0
on
consumer
behaviour
........................
26
Figure
7:
Illustration
of
three
marketing
techniques
that
respond
to
the
Web
2.0
context
..........................................................................................................................
28
Figure
8:
Twitter
users
tend
to
be
early
adopters
.............................................................
39
Figure
9:
The
Customer
Development
Process
.................................................................
50
Figure
10:
The
Linear
Value
Chain
.....................................................................................
54
Figure
11:
The
Value
Creation
System
................................................................................
54
Figure
12:
Illustration
of
the
marketing
challenges
encountered
during
the
Concept
phase
and
the
Web
2.0
elements
that
help
overcome
them
....................................
57

Figure
13:
Illustration
of
the
marketing
challenges
encountered
during
the
Seed
phase
and
the
Web
2.0
elements
that
help
overcome
them
...............................................
60
Figure
14:
The
Lean
Marketing
Funnel
..............................................................................
62
Figure
15:
An
A/B
testing
example
.....................................................................................
63
Figure
16:
Illustration
of
the
marketing
challenges
encountered
during
the
Early
phase
and
the
Web
2.0
elements
that
help
overcome
them
...............................................
65
Figure
17:
The
Revised
Technology
Adoption
Life
Cycle
..................................................
67
Figure
19:
Illustration
of
the
marketing
challenges
encountered
during
the
Growth
phase
and
the
Web
2.0
elements
that
help
overcome
them
....................................
73
Figure
20:
Presentation
of
the
results
of
the
2014
Marketing
Trends
Survey
.................
77
Figure
21:
Share
of
global
adspend
by
medium
.................................................................
87
Figure
22:
Percentage
of
total
marketing
budget
spent
in
digital
marketing
according
to
firm
evolution
..............................................................................................................
88
Figure
23:
Most
important
Social
Networks
to
US
B2C
Marketers
..................................
93
Figure
24:
Percentage
of
business
buyers
using
medium
as
source
of
information
.......
95
Figure
25:
Most
Important
Social
Networks
to
US
B2B
Marketers
..................................
96
8

9
Introduction
and
Methodology
Since
its
first
mention
in
2005
by
Tim
O’Reilly1,
famous
computer-‐book
publisher,
there
has
been
a
lot
of
literature
regarding
the
term
Web
2.0.
While
at
first
focused
on
identifying
the
major
characteristics
that
differentiate
Web
2.0
from
its
previous
1.0
version,
literature
then
further
expanded
to
cover
the
consequences
of
this
web
evolution.
Indeed,
the
impacts
of
Web
2.0
go
beyond
a
change
in
the
online
world.
Web
2.0
has
introduced
a
series
of
new
tools
and
web
developments
that
have
drastically
impacted
the
business,
the
political,
the
technological
and
the
sociological
environment.
As
a
consequence,
marketing
strategies
have
also
been
affected.
Web
2.0
has
strikingly
increased
the
Internet’s
prominence
in
users’
and
businesses’
environment,
and
hence
in
marketing.
Marketers
have
had
to
integrate
new,
dynamic,
online
communication
channels
in
their
approach.
Numerous
guidebooks
and
articles
presenting
Web
2.0
marketing
techniques
and
good
practices
have
been
published
in
this
respect.
In
parallel,
over
the
past
twenty
years,
there
has
been
a
surge
in
entrepreneurial
activity.
The
plunge
in
job
security
has
led
individuals
to
increasingly
consider
self-‐
employment
as
an
alternative.
Moreover,
the
spread
of
the
Internet
in
the
1990s
has
opened
up
to
a
massive
new
industry
and
reshaped
the
way
business
is
done
while
providing
major
cost
savings.
Numerous
startups
blossomed
during
the
dot.com
bubble,
among
which
future
giants
like
Amazon,
Google,
eBay,
Yahoo
and
Alibaba.com.
The
achievements
of
successful
entrepreneurs
were
subject
of
many
publications
and
the
status
of
the
entrepreneur
rapidly
became
one
reflecting
innovation
and
economic
growth.
As
a
result,
many
publications
have
tried
to
set
the
fundamentals
of
entrepreneurial
success
in
order
to
understand
the
underlying
principles
of
this
growing
field.
The
literature
is
rich
with
theories
that
depict
the
1
O'Reilly,
T.
(2005,
09
30).
What
is
Web
2.0:
Design
Patterns
and
Business
Models
for
the
Next
Generation
of
Software.
Consulté
le
04
18,
2014,
sur
O'Reilly:
oreilly.com

conditions
of
startup
success,
that
provide
guidelines
to
company
founders,
and
that
attempt
to
explain
the
startup
environment.
This
work
aims
to
combine
the
literature
regarding
startups
and
Web
2.0
while
focusing
on
the
field
of
marketing.
The
term
marketing
here
is
understood
as
the
set
of
processes
that
are
carried
out
to
create,
deliver
and
communicate
value
to
customers
as
well
as
all
the
activities
that
relate
to
customer
relationship
management.
The
objective
is
to
identify
how
Web
2.0
constitutes
a
marketing
opportunity
for
startups
and
what
are
the
limitations
of
these
possible
opportunities.
To
do
so,
this
thesis
starts
by
identifying
the
new
marketing
techniques
enabled
by
Web
2.0
and
analysing
the
role
and
importance
of
marketing
in
startup
development.
It
then
puts
forward
how
the
Web
2.0
applications
previously
described
help
overcome
the
marketing
challenges
startups
face.
The
ultimate
goal
is
to
identify
to
what
extent
these
applications
are
advantageous
for
startups,
what
are
their
limitations
and
applicability,
and
what
resources
and
investments
are
required
to
capitalise
on
the
marketing
opportunities
they
offer.
Before
getting
to
the
heart
of
the
matter,
it
seemed
relevant
to
first
clarify
the
Web
2.0
context
by
defining
the
term
based
on
the
various
definitions
advanced
by
Tim
O’Reilly
in
his
many
articles2.
Web
2.0
characteristics
are
then
enumerated
to
further
delineate
the
scope
of
Web
2.0.
This
enables
to
picture
the
three
major
facets
of
the
Web
2.0
(inspired
by
the
three-‐dimensional
approach
of
Gottfried
Vossen
–
computer
science
professor
at
Muensten
University3):
the
Smart
Web,
the
Participative
Web
and
the
Social
Web.
Together,
these
web
evolutions
have
severely
impacted
consumer
behaviour.
The
first
part
of
this
work
thus
continues
by
depicting
the
new
consumer
characteristics
that
are
a
direct
consequence
of
Web
2.0
based
on
a
further
review
of
the
Web
2.0
literature
and
its
influence
on
marketing.
In
response
to
consumers’
changing
expectations,
Web
2.0
introduces
a
panel
of
new
marketing
approaches.
This
10
2
O'Reilly,
T.
(2005,
10
1).
Web
2.0:
Compact
Definition?
Consulté
le
05
23,
2014,
sur
Radar
Oreilly:
http://radar.oreilly.com/2005/10/web-‐20-‐compact-‐definition.html
O'Reilly,
T.
(2005,
09
30).
What
is
Web
2.0:
Design
Patterns
and
Business
Models
for
the
Next
Generation
of
Software.
Consulté
le
04
18,
2014,
sur
O'Reilly:
oreilly.com
Musser,
J.,
&
O'Reilly,
T.
(2007).
Web
2.0
Principles
and
Best
Practices.
New
York:
O'Reilly
Media,
Incorporated.
3
Vossen,
G.,
&
Hagemann,
S.
(2007).
Unleashing
Web
2.0:
from
concepts
to
creativity.
Burlington:
Elsevier.

work
details
the
three
most
important
ones:
Search
Engine
Marketing,
Social
Media
Marketing
and
Web
Analytics.
These
approaches
differ
considerably
from
traditional
strategies
therefore
each
one
is
defined
and
explained
based
on
the
information
collected
from
a
series
of
interviews
with
specialists
in
the
domain4.
Together
they
set
a
new
paradigm
for
marketing
and
require
specific
skill
and
competence
to
be
carried
out
efficiently.
Consequently,
the
last
point
of
this
section
introduces
a
series
of
typical
2.0
professions.
The
second
part
of
this
work
addresses
the
startup
environment.
It
begins
by
defining
the
term
startup
and
explaining
how
Web
2.0
has
reshaped
the
startup
environment.
Popular
entrepreneurial
methodologies
such
as
11
The
Lean
Startup5
and
The
Customer
Development
Process6
are
introduced
and
put
in
parallel
with
Web
2.0
characteristics.
Based
on
a
thorough
review
of
the
startup
literature
and
several
interviews
with
Belgian
entrepreneurs7,
it
was
possible
to
retrace
the
four
stages
of
a
startup’s
lifecycle
and,
for
each
phase,
identify
the
major
marketing
challenges
that
impede
a
startup’s
success.
For
each
of
these
challenges,
this
work
identifies
how
the
Web
2.0
elements
previously
describing
can
help
startups
overcome
these
barriers
and
form
auspicious
marketing
opportunities.
Finally,
the
section
ends
by
outlining
the
concept
of
web
democratisation,
which
is
spurred
by
the
Web
2.0
context.
The
last
part
of
this
work
aims
to
nuance
the
findings
of
part
II.
The
interviews
conducted
with
entrepreneurs
and
experts
as
well
as
several
publications
such
as
The
Myth
of
Digital
Democracy8
or
Small
Businesses
and
Web
2.0:
Hope
or
Hype9?
reveal
a
series
of
limitations
that
hamper
the
opportunities
entailed
by
Search
Engine
Marketing,
Social
Media
Marketing
and
Web
Analytics.
The
section
goes
through
these
drawbacks
and
then
continues
by
emphasising
on
the
importance
of
a
multi-‐channel
communication.
It
then
pursues
by
determining
the
necessary
prerequisites
to
harness
the
marketing
opportunities
offered
by
Web
2.0.
Finally,
the
diversity
in
activity
sector
4
See
presentation
of
interviewees
in
Bibliography
5
Ries,
E.
(2011).
The
Lean
Startup.
New
York:
Crown
Business.
6
Blank,
S.
(2005).
The
Four
Steps
to
the
Epiphany.
Lulu
Enterprises
Incorporated.
7
See
presentation
of
interviewees
in
Bibliography
8
Hindman,
M.
(2009).
The
Myth
of
Digital
Democracy.
Princeton:
Princeton
University
Press.
9
Boyles,
T.
(2011).
Small
Business
and
Web
2.0:
Hope
or
Hype?
Entrepreneurial
Executive
,
16.

of
the
consulted
startups
made
it
possible
to
compare
their
approach
and
conclude
on
the
general
applicability
of
Web
2.0
marketing
strategies.
This
work
presents
certain
limitations
that
should
be
acknowledged.
First,
the
number
of
interviews
conducted
with
entrepreneurs
was
limited
so
as
to
favour
their
qualitative
aspect.
Moreover,
all
the
interviewed
entrepreneurs
were
founders
of
startups
that
mainly
operate
in
Belgium,
undoubtedly
colouring
their
responses.
Therefore,
the
results
do
not
afford
the
same
kind
of
generalizability
as
a
quantitative
sampling
would.
However
the
quantity
was
sufficient
to
identify
common
sayings
and,
from
there,
depict
prevalent
practices,
trends
and
difficulties.
Regarding
the
interviewed
specialists,
it
must
be
pointed
out
that
most
were
currently
working
in
a
digital
marketing
agency.
This
implies
that
their
responses
were
slightly
biased
since
direct
criticism
was
avoided.
However,
this
was
easily
nuanced
by
confronting
their
responses
with
the
experience
of
the
entrepreneurs.
Finally,
for
the
sake
of
remaining
concise,
this
work
essentially
focuses
on
the
marketing
opportunities
and
limitations
of
three
major
Web
2.0
marketing
approaches:
Search
Engine
Marketing,
Social
Media
Marketing
and
Web
Analytics.
Other
less
dominant
forms
such
as
marketing
through
virtual
worlds,
game
marketing
or
marketing
on
application
stores
are
not
considered.
The
ambition
of
this
thesis
is
to
help
entrepreneurs
and
marketers
better
understand
the
new
marketing
approaches
that
have
emerged
from
the
Web
2.0
context,
what
marketing
opportunities
they
encompass
for
startups,
their
limits,
and
what
the
necessary
prerequisites
are
to
effectively
integrate
them
into
a
startup’s
marketing
strategy.
12

13
Part
I:
Web
2.0,
a
new
paradigm
for
marketing
The
first
part
of
this
work
focuses
on
laying
out
the
Web
2.0
context.
It
starts
by
clarifying
the
term
Web
2.0
and
describing
its
major
characteristics.
It
then
describes
the
impact
of
Web
2.0
evolutions
on
consumer
behaviour
and
continues
by
detailing
three
new
forms
of
marketing
that
are
a
direct
consequence
of
the
Web
2.0
context.
Finally,
the
section
puts
forwards
a
series
of
new
marketing
skills
that
are
essential
to
carry
out
the
previously
mentioned
new
marketing
approaches.
A. The
new
web
generation
“Web
2.0;
the
next
generation,
user-‐driven,
intelligent
web.”10
A.1 Defining
Web
2.0
as
an
underlying
movement
Web
2.0
designs
a
new
evolution
of
the
web’s
structure
that
introduces
a
read-‐write
interface
as
opposed
to
the
“read-‐only”
interface
of
the
Web
1.0.
In
the
Web
1.0
context,
information
was
produced
by
a
small
number
of
experts
before
being
published
to
the
mass
who
used
the
Internet
for
information
retrieval
exclusively.
Digitally
enabled
business
transactions
put
an
end
to
the
Internet
as
a
static
environment
and
turned
it
into
a
new
sales
channel,
causing
a
huge
migration
of
retail
activity
from
the
streets
to
the
web.
Further
developments
introduced
technologies
that
invited
users
to
participate
and
enabled
them
to
inexpensively
share
and
contribute
to
online
content.
This
marks
the
arrival
of
Web
2.0,
a
web
that
relies
on
collective
intelligence
–
where
content
value
is
greater
when
produced
by
a
larger
number
of
users.
The
term
Web
2.0
was
introduced
in
2005
by
Tim
O’Reilly,
founder
and
CEO
of
O’Reilly
Media
and
famous
computer
book
publisher.
O’Reilly
defines
Web
2.0
as
follows:
“Web
2.0
is
the
network
as
a
platform,
spanning
all
connected
devices;
Web
2.0
applications
are
those
that
make
the
most
of
the
intrinsic
advantages
of
that
platform:
delivering
software
as
a
continually-‐updated
service
that
gets
better
the
more
people
use
10
Musser,
J.,
&
O'Reilly,
T.
(2007).
Web
2.0
Principles
and
Best
Practices.
New
York:
O'Reilly
Media,
Incorporated.

it,
consuming
and
remixing
data
from
multiple
sources,
including
individual
users,
while
providing
their
own
data
and
services
in
a
form
that
allows
remixing
by
others,
creating
network
effects
through
an
‘architecture
of
participation’,
and
going
beyond
the
page
metaphor
of
Web
1.0
to
deliver
rich
user
experiences.”11
To
sum
up,
the
definition
depicts
three
major
changes
in
the
World
Wide
Web:
14
-‐ the
Web
is
a
platform
of
interconnected
data,
-‐ the
Web’s
content
is
continuously
evolving,
-‐ the
Web
gets
richer
as
more
users
participate
in
it.
In
a
more
concise
definition,
also
from
O’Reilly,
Web
2.0
is
referred
to
as
“a
set
of
economic,
social,
and
technology
trends
that
collectively
form
the
basis
for
the
next
generation
of
the
Internet
–
a
more
mature,
distinctive
medium
characterized
by
user
participation,
openness,
and
network
effects12.”
The
important
point
to
underline
in
this
definition
is
that
Web
2.0
relies
on
a
series
of
important
principles
and
progressions
that
set
the
basis
of
a
new
Internet
generation.
Therefore,
Web
2.0
should
be
understood
as
an
underlying
movement
that
goes
beyond
its
simple
buzzword.
Web
2.0
is
thus
a
web
one
of:
-‐ openness:
value
is
created
by
remixing
data
from
already
existing
sources;
-‐ interactivity:
users
are
invited
to
participate
in
the
process
of
content
creation;
-‐ community:
every
user
adds
value
by
increasing
the
size
of
the
collective
pool
of
intelligence,
creating
powerful
network
effects.
A.2 The
three
dimensions
of
Web
2.0
From
a
more
technical
aspect,
Web
2.0
can
be
characterised
by
several
major
web
developments.
These
developments
are
divided
based
on
the
three
dimensions
–
Data,
Technology
and
Socialization
–
identified
by
the
Computer
Science
Professor
Gottfried
Vossen
(University
of
Muensten,
Germany)
13.
Each
dimension
introduces
a
facet
of
Web
2.0.
11
O'Reilly,
T.
(2005,
10
1).
Web
2.0:
Compact
Definition?
Consulté
le
05
23,
2014,
sur
Radar
Oreilly
:
http://radar.oreilly.com/2005/10/web-‐20-‐compact-‐definition.html
12
Musser,
J.,
&
O'Reilly,
T.
(2007).
Web
2.0
Principles
and
Best
Practices.
New
York:
O'Reilly
Media,
Incorporated.
13Vossen,
G.,
&
Hagemann,
S.
(2007).
Unleashing
Web
2.0:
from
concepts
to
creativity.
Burlington:
Elsevier.

A.2.1 Data
–
The
Smart
Web
The
Internet
has
made
it
possible
to
track,
record
and
measure
every
user
interaction
online.
Combined
with
the
development
of
cheap
storage
techniques,
this
has
led
to
the
generation
of
huge
databases.
New
technologies
have
widespread
inexpensive
online
storage
in
such
a
way
that,
today,
every
web
application
is
data-‐driven
and
backed
with
a
database
in
the
aim
to
collect
user-‐information.
The
data
can
be
analysed
and
transformed
into
metrics
such
as
cost
per
conversion,
interaction
rate
or
ad-‐exposure.
As
a
result,
control
over
unique
and
hard
to
recreate
data
sources
is
a
major
competitive
advantage.
Indeed,
building
quality
data
sources
is
an
expensive
process
as
the
data
has
to
be
sufficiently
representative,
properly
cleaned
and
standardised
for
utilisation
and
storage.
The
information
retrieved
from
such
databases
has
a
huge
potential
for
creating
or
adding
strategic
value
to
a
product
or
service
and
there
are
numerous
ways
for
it
to
be
monetised.
For
instance,
reviews
posted
on
Amazon,
or
content
posted
on
Facebook,
are
no
longer
the
author’s
property
but
belong
to
the
firm.
This
makes
it
possible
for
the
company
to
sell
the
collected
user-‐data
to
advertisers
or
other
interested
parties.
Therefore
data
ownership
also
implies
a
variety
of
responsibilities
regarding
ownership,
copyrights,
security,
safety
and
privacy
protection.
It
is
also
extremely
time-‐consuming
and
intricate
to
retrieve
relevant
insights
from
big
data.
Consequently,
database
management
has
become
a
typical
Web
2.0
core
competency
and
has
introduced
new
disciplines
such
as
Web
Analytics
that,
when
done
efficiently,
open
up
to
a
panel
of
marketing
opportunities.
The
discipline
of
Web
Analytics
is
clarified
in
point
C.3.
15
The
accumulation
of
data
has
led
the
web
to
become
“an
ever-‐growing
and
omnipresent
library
of
information.”
14
Retrieval
of
information
is
still
one
of
the
main
uses
of
the
web.
Faced
with
an
infinite
amount
of
knowledge
online;
directors,
portals
and
in
particular
search
engines,
were
developed
in
the
attempt
to
facilitate
the
users’
search
process.
Yet,
as
opposed
to
a
Web
1.0
context,
Web
2.0
comes
with
new
dynamics
in
14
Vossen,
G.,
&
Hagemann,
S.
(2007).
Unleashing
Web
2.0:
from
concepts
to
creativity.
Burlington:
Elsevier.

search.
Search
engines
have
become
sophisticated
and
take
into
account
user-‐data
to
personalize,
localise
and
contextualise
search
results.
These
results
include
diverse
media
other
than
just
hyperlinks
like
photos,
videos
and
maps,
to
engage
with
users
through
a
variety
of
channels.
Form
a
marketing
perspective,
search
engines
have
revolutionised
the
way
advertising
can
be
conducted
online.
In
Web
1.0,
adverts
appeared
as
display
ads
or
pop-‐ups.
They
basically
reflected
the
traditional
means
of
advertising
translated
into
the
online
context.
Such
ads
are
perceived
as
intrusive
and
irritating
by
users
since
they
interrupt
them
in
their
activity.
Secondly,
these
adverts
suffer
from
“banner
blindness”
as
the
clutter
of
them
overwhelms
users.
Thirdly,
their
disruptive
nature
makes
them
irrelevant
and
drives
an
uninterested
traffic
to
the
site,
making
them
completely
inefficient.
The
increasing
use
of
search
engines
by
consumers
to
find
information
has
led
advertisers
to
find
a
new
way
to
get
quality
traffic
to
their
site
and
increase
ad-‐
relevancy.
Bill
Gross
was
the
first
to
come
up
with
the
idea
of
delivering
adverts
in
response
to
users’
online
search
queries.
The
hypothesis
was
that
people
searching
for
a
specific
term
were
potentially
highly
interested
in
ads
linked
to
the
term.
This
new
approach
constitutes
the
first
steps
of
Search
Engine
Marketing,
a
marketing
that
capitalises
on
search
engines
to
differentiate
traffic,
narrowcast
consumers
according
to
their
interests
and
expose
them
to
targeted
and
relevant
adverts.
This
new
form
of
marketing
is
detailed
in
point
C.1.
To
sum
up,
Web
2.0
is
a
smart
web
because
it
forms
a
giant
reservoir
of
knowledge
online.
On
the
one
hand,
data
is
accumulated
in
giant
valuable
databases,
the
Internet
facilitating
the
tracking
of
user
behaviour.
On
the
other
hand,
means
such
as
search
engines
offer
tailored
access
to
an
infinite
pool
of
information
for
anyone,
anytime,
anywhere.
In
both
cases,
the
impact
on
marketing
is
substantial.
Figure
1
captures
the
links
between
the
Smart
Web’s
characteristics
and
the
Web
2.0
developments
that
rely
on
them.
16

17
Figure
1:
Illustration
of
the
elements
that
characterise
the
Smart
Web
and
the
web
developments
that
exploit
them.
A.2.2 Technology
–
The
Participative
Web
Another
series
of
technical
evolutions
have
led
the
web
to
become
a
more
participative
environment.
While
some
of
these
developments
result
into
increased
web-‐
functionalities
–
further
increasing
online
possibilities,
bringing
more
applications
online
and
feeding
the
amount
of
online
data
–,
others
introduce
measures
that
enable
users
to
manage
the
excess
of
data
and
provide
tools
to
efficiently
structure,
order
and
prioritise
it.
A
third
stream
of
mechanisms
gives
users
the
opportunity
to
generate
online
content,
no
longer
limiting
web
publishing
to
a
restricted
pool
of
experts.
a. INCREASED
FUNCTIONALITY
MECHANISMS
Web
2.0
developments
have
introduced
a
series
of
new
mechanisms
with
enhanced
functionalities
such
as
Rich
Internet
Applications,
evolving
software
and
mash-‐ups.
Rich
Internet
Applications
(RIA)
are
applications
with
a
high
level
of
functionality
and
interactivity
that
can
be
executed
entirely
within
a
browser
without
having
to
download
anything.
For
example,
Google
offers
a
panel
of
RIA
such
as
Google
Docs
(the
equivalent
of
Microsoft
Office)
or
Google
Maps
that
are
all
executed
directly
online.
The
emergence
of
RIA
has
led
to
a
massive
migration
of
desktop
applications
to
the
web.

Another
defining
characteristic
of
the
Web
2.0
is
the
delivery
of
software
as
a
constantly
evolving
service
(software
evolution).
Applications
are
no
longer
software
artefacts
released
as
periodic
packages
but
ongoing
services
that
are
improved
on
a
continuous
basis.
The
Google
Apps
cited
above
are
all
services
whose
interfaces
are
in
constant
development.
They
are
considered
to
be
in
a
perpetual
beta-‐state.
Users
act
as
real-‐time
testers
to
validate,
refine
the
functionalities,
suggest
additional
features
and
co-‐develop
the
software.
Gmail
for
instance
kept
the
term
18
beta
in
its
logo
for
four
years.
Today
it
still
relies
on
user
feedback
to
update
and
improve
its
service.
This
reflects
well
the
Web
2.0
mindset
of
interactivity
and
collective
intelligence:
the
more
users
join
the
software
the
better
it
becomes.
A
mash-‐up
is
the
process
of
providing
a
new
value-‐added
service
by
bringing
multiple
services
or
sources
of
content
together.
For
instance,
HousingMaps.com
is
a
site
that
takes
classified
real-‐estate
ads
from
the
site
craiglist.org
and
displays
them
on
the
Google
Map.
This
perfectly
illustrates
the
openness
of
Web
2.0:
information
is
shared
and
reused;
applications
are
light-‐weighted
to
be
easily
hacked
and
remixed
with
others
and
create
added
value.
Web
2.0
market
leaders
are
those
who
will
successfully
harness
and
integrate
the
services
provided
by
others
into
a
new
valuable
application.
b. DATA-‐CLASSIFICATION
MECHANISMS
As
the
quantity
of
information
online
increases
exponentially,
so
has
the
need
for
tools
that
enable
users
to
sort
and
evaluate
it.
In
this
respect,
various
data-‐classification
methods
have
surfaced.
For
example,
RSS
(which
stands
for
Really
Simple
Syndication)
enables
users
to
subscribe
to
information
feeds
from
diverse
sources
they
qualify
relevant.
Users
control
the
flow
of
information
by
determining
the
time-‐intervals
of
refreshments.
From
an
owner’s
perspective,
enabling
RSS
feeds
constitutes
another
channel
for
users
to
access
site
content.
With
RSS,
communication
process
shifts
from
a
search
and
discovery
model
to
a
notification
model
and
overcomes
the
problem
of
information
overload.
A
second
classification
method
is
that
of
Social
Tagging,
or
Folksonomies.
It
is
a
form
of
collaborative
tagging
that
exploits
the
concept
of
collective
intelligence
to
classify

online
content.
Users
tag
the
content
according
to
what
makes
sense
to
them.
The
tags
are
then
combined
and
the
opinion
of
the
majority
defines
their
appropriateness.
Flickr,
a
web-‐based
community
for
sharing
photos,
fully
exploits
the
potential
of
social
tagging.
Community
members
can
tag
photos
according
to
their
perception
of
appropriate
keywords.
Once
a
critical
mass
is
reached,
the
site
can
correctly
categorise
the
photos
based
on
their
tags,
easing
their
search.
19
c. USER-‐GENERATED
CONTENT
MECHANISMS
The
third
type
of
Web
2.0
technical
mechanisms
are
those
that
enable
users
to
generate
and
edit
content.
In
Web
1.0,
users
were
limited
to
reading
the
content
whereas
Web
2.0
is
a
participatory
web
in
which
people
jointly
create.
A
direct
consequence
of
this
read/write
web
is
the
exponential
increase
of
data
–
explaining
the
emergence
of
the
data-‐classifications
mechanisms
cited
above.
Open-‐source
software,
wikis,
blogs
and
reviews
are
all
elements
with
an
open
architecture
that
enables
users
generate
content.
• A
software
is
“open-‐source”
when
its
code
is
disclosed,
giving
users
the
ability
to
modify
it
and
add
new
features
or
functionalities
to
it.
• Blogs
are
web
pages
designed
in
a
way
that
enables
the
average
user,
with
no
programming
skills
at
all,
to
publish
content
online.
Their
user-‐friendly
interface
makes
it
easy
for
anyone
to
become
a
content
publisher.
Moreover,
the
comment
entries
enable
readers
to
directly
react
to
a
post,
initiating
user
interaction.
• As
opposed
to
blogs,
in
which
users
can
only
contribute
by
adding
comments,
wikis
constitute
web
pages
that
can
be
edited
by
any
user
in
real-‐time.
Modifications
directly
appear
online.
• Last
but
not
least,
product
or
service
reviews
constitute
another
form
of
user-‐
generated
content.
Firms
are
encouraged
to
allow
users
to
publish
product
or
service-‐related
comments
on
their
sites,
not
only
because
it
is
a
very
demanded
feature
but
also
because
it
is
beneficial
from
a
company
point
of
view.
When
buying
a
product,
consumers
seek
unbiased
credible
sources
of
information
to
guide
their
decisions.
The
consumption
experience
shared
by
peer
consumers
is
thus
a
key
driver
in
the
purchase
decision.
Indeed,
other
consumers
are
perceived
as
a
trustworthy
source
of
information
as
they
aren’t
incentivized
to
submit

positive
reviews.
From
the
supplier’s
perspective,
reviews
constitute
a
valuable
source
of
data
and
feedback.
They
enable
companies
to
collect
frank
customer
opinion,
in
a
cheap
and
unobtrusive
way.
Together,
these
mechanisms
set
a
web-‐architecture
of
participation
that
relies
on
network
effects.
User
contributions
have
become
the
lifeblood
of
online
services.
Blogs
need
user-‐interactions
to
remain
active
and
their
value
increases
as
topic-‐experts
join
the
discussion;
Wikipedia
crucially
depends
on
user
input;
the
Amazon
recommendation
service
benefits
from
user
engagement,
an
eBay
seller
profile
becomes
more
significant
as
more
people
share
their
experience
with
the
seller
etc.
Harnessing
user
collective
intelligence
is
a
key
success
driver
in
the
Web
2.0
era.
Figure
2
gives
an
overview
of
the
Web
2.0
developments
that
exploit
the
characteristics
of
the
Participative
Web.
Figure
2:
Illustration
of
the
elements
that
characterise
the
Participative
Web
and
the
web
developments
20
that
exploit
them
A.2.3 Socialization
–
The
Social
Web
All
these
Web
2.0
evolutions
have
led
users
to
dramatically
change
the
way
they
interact
with
the
web.
Most
generations
have
gotten
used
to
the
web
as
a
communication
medium
and
now
even
as
a
socialization
medium.
The
web’s
interactivity
has
enabled
people
from
opposite
ends
of
the
planet
to
socialize,
without
necessarily
having
met.
The
Web
2.0
context
has
shifted
online
communication
from
a
vertical
model
(one-‐to-‐many)
to
a
horizontal
one
(many-‐to-‐many),
where
users
can

discuss
with
their
peers
and
freely
diffuse
messages
to
a
large
potential
audience.
People
can
connect
with
friends
and
family
and
have
spontaneous
dialogues
and
two-‐
way
conversations.
The
social
lives
of
individuals
and
families
are
increasingly
enriched
with
social
online
applications.
The
emergence
of
blogs,
online
communities
and
social
networks
have
allowed
users
to
openly
express
themselves
and
share
their
experiences
with
their
network
on
a
real-‐time
basis.
Therefore,
while
the
20th
century
was
one
of
diffusion,
the
21st
century
is
one
of
conversation.
21
15
• Through
blogs,
users
can
share
their
personal
opinion
or
experiences
and
invite
others
to
comment.
Blogs
constitute
online
diaries
that
can
be
kept
by
anyone
and
read
by
everyone.
• Online
communities
are
the
perfect
representation
of
web
socialization.
The
web
has
enabled
communities
to
no
longer
be
geographically
restricted.
Technologies
such
as
instant
messaging,
comments
and
posts
have
helped
people
build
online
communities
and
maintain
their
linkage
through
the
web.
Mumsnet
(for
connected
mothers),
TripAdvisor
(for
travellers),
MyGarden
(for
professional
and
amateur
gardeners)
and
SK
Gaming
(for
active
gamers)
are
all
examples
of
online
communities.
An
online
community’s
existence
heavily
depends
on
the
participation
and
interaction
of
its
members.
The
more
active
the
members
–
the
more
they
share,
post
and
discuss
topics
–
the
more
successful
the
community.
Therefore,
users
are
encouraged,
or
even
have
the
moral
duty,
to
participate
in
content
creation.
• Social
networks
like
Facebook
and
MySpace
fully
exploit
the
social
dimension
of
Web
2.0
by
multiplying
the
links
between
people
and
communities.
Their
popularity
and
acute
presence
in
our
lives
are
driving
radical
changes
in
communication
media
and
social
behaviours.
Social
networks
provide
a
platform
for
individuals
to
connect
with
each
other,
develop
and
maintain
relationships
and
share
information.
They
fulfil
the
users’
social
needs
while
providing
entertainment
and
information.
Again,
users
are
the
content
creators.
They
create
online
accounts
and
profiles
from
which
they
interact
with
others
by
sharing
messages,
pictures,
videos
or
articles
and
commenting
on
other
users’
content.
15
Laurent,
F.
(2008).
Marketing
2.0:
L'Intelligence
Collective.
Paris:
M21
Editions.

According
to
a
report
of
the
UK
Office
of
Communication16,
adults
spend
51
minutes
per
day
on
social
media
and
younger
generations
1h24.
The
report
clearly
depicts
a
growing
trend
in
favour
of
online
services
instead
of
television,
newspapers
and
radio.
This
shift
of
habit
has
made
social
media
increasingly
relevant
for
companies
as
a
marketing
vehicle.
They
constitute
platforms
with
high
length
of
exposure
time
that
can
reach
both
mass
and
niche
markets.
Moreover,
user
profiles
form
powerful
segmentation
tools
that
gather
valuable
user
information
such
as
demographics,
geographic
location
and
user
interests.
As
a
result,
Social
Media
is
of
increasing
importance
in
marketing
strategies;
Social
Media
Marketing
is
detailed
in
point
C.2.
Figure
3
represents
the
elements
of
the
Social
Web
that
have
fostered
social
media.
Figure
3:
Illustration
of
the
elements
that
characterise
the
Social
Web
and
the
web
developments
that
22
exploit
them
A.3
In
a
word
Web
2.0
sets
the
context
of
a
new
web
generation.
It
is
a
web
of
interconnected
data
in
which
everything
can
be
monitored
resulting
into
the
formation
of
an
expanding
pool
of
knowledge
that
can
be
accessed
by
anyone,
anytime.
In
parallel,
Web
2.0
is
a
web
that
favours
user-‐participation
and
pushes
for
the
share,
mix
and
reuse
of
information:
online
applications
are
light-‐weighted,
designed
for
remixability,
co-‐
16
Office
of
Communication.
(2014).
The
Communications
Market
2014.

developed
with
users
and
perpetually
improved.
Collective
intelligence
is
exploited
to
handle,
sort
and
evaluate
information
overload.
This
leads
to
a
model
centered
on
network
effects,
where
value
is
gained
as
more
users
join
in.
Finally,
Web
2.0
is
a
social
web,
one
in
which
everyone
is
invited
to
join
the
conversation.
Dialogues
are
spontaneous
and
personal,
online
communication
is
horizontal
and
users
find
in
communities
and
networks
a
valid
medium
to
fulfil
their
need
for
affiliation
and
socialisation.
Figures
4
and
5
gather
the
three
dimensions
of
Web
2.0
and
the
characteristics
and
web
developments
they
encompass.
23
Figure
4:
Illustration
of
the
Web
2.0
characteristics
in
the
three
dimensions
Figure
5:
Illustration
of
the
Web
2.0
developments
in
the
three
dimensions

B. The
empowered
consumer
“Consumers
are
prosumers
–
masters
of
their
destiny,
their
choices,
of
the
products
that
24
they
imagine,
that
they
criticize
and
of
which
they
make
or
break
the
success”17
Web
2.0
and
IT
developments
have
deeply
affected
and
relaxed
the
power
relations
between
producers
and
consumers.
The
Internet
has
empowered
consumers
by
giving
them
cheap
access
to
information,
greater
choice
and
the
possibility
to
express
themselves.
This
has
resulted
into
new
consumer
characteristics
and
behaviours.
B.1 Exacting
Consumers
With
the
Internet
and
the
globalisation
of
markets,
consumers
have
access
to
an
unlimited
variety
of
worldwide
products
and
services
available
at
a
click
of
the
mouse.
Moreover,
the
Internet
provides
a
huge
reservoir
of
accessible
information
and
knowledge
for
free.
Customers
can
easily
compare
product
features
and
prices;
they
can
share
their
own
experience
and
read
reviews
from
others.
As
they
are
better
informed,
they
become
more
demanding
and
have
higher
expectations.
They
expect
quality,
customisable
and
competitively
priced
goods
available
at
all
times
and
from
all
over
the
globe.
From
a
company’s
point
of
view,
this
results
in
an
increased
competition
and
pressured
prices.
The
smart
aspect
of
Web
2.0
has
caused
users
to
become
exacting18
consumers
and
rebalanced
the
producer-‐consumer
forces.
B.2 Resounding
Consumers
Through
the
Internet,
consumers
have
also
discovered
new
rights
and
possibilities.
They
can
communicate
more
easily,
they
can
express
themselves
publicly
and
they
can
share
their
personal
experiences,
satisfactions
and
disillusions
with
mass
audience.
On
the
web,
their
voice
is
amplified
and
they
have
the
potential
to
influence
their
peers.
Brands
have
lost
the
comfortable
and
low-‐risk
position
of
monopoly
over
communication
channels.
With
the
introduction
of
many-‐to-‐many
communication,
any
user
can
become
a
brand
evangelist
or
terrorist.
This
is
accentuated
by
the
fact
that
consumers
no
longer
trust
brands
and
seek
transparent
and
authentic
messages.
17
Florès,
L.
(2008).
Web
2.0:
des
études
ayant
du
répondant!
Décision
Marketing
,
50,
79-‐82.
18
With
very
high
expectations
or
standards.

They
develop
their
own
knowledge
about
a
product
or
brand
without
using
the
information
the
company
has
published.
A
random
user
comment
can
thus
have
more
impact
than
a
costly
marketing
campaign.
The
bicycle
anti-‐theft
brand
Kryptonite
painfully
experienced
this
shift
of
information
control
when
a
user
managed
to
open
one
of
its
locks
with
a
standard
ball
pen.
The
individual
made
a
quick
explanatory
video
and
shared
it
on
YouTube.
The
video
rapidly
went
viral
and
seriously
damaged
Kryptonite’s
brand
reputation,
not
to
mention
the
millions
of
dollars
spent
in
lock
reimbursement.
The
computer
manufacturer
Dell
went
through
a
similar
case.
In
2005,
angry
blogger
Jeff
Jarvis
posted
a
reproachful
article
about
Dell’s
lousy
after
sales
service.
Other
frustrated
Dell
customers
echoed
the
article
and
the
news
rapidly
expanded
through
the
web
and
was
even
published
under
the
title
“Dell
Hell”
in
the
New
York
Times.
Dell
learnt
a
lot
from
this
mishap
and
radically
changed
its
Customer
Relationship
Management.
These
examples
illustrate
how
an
average
citizen
can
mobilise
forces
against
multinationals.
As
customers
have
more
voice,
companies
are
confronted
with
their
ethical,
social
and
commercial
responsibilities.
They
also
lose
influence
as
traditional
media
are
less
effective
in
guiding
purchase
decisions.
Users
prefer
basing
their
decisions
on
inputs
provided
by
parties
beyond
company
control.
In
such
a
context,
companies
have
to
switch
from
a
vertical
to
a
horizontal
communication
and
become
an
interlocutor
among
others
that
respects
users
and
considers
them
as
equals.
Firms
should
provide
infrastructures
that
enable
permanent
dialogue
with
consumers
and
encourage
the
share
of
experience.
This
entails
accepting
to
delegate
tasks
to
them,
losing
control
of
communication,
acknowledging
viral
critics
and
providing
rapid
response.
Refusing
to
do
so
will
only
result
in
consumers
talking
about
the
brand
in
places
beyond
its
control.
The
social
aspect
of
Web
2.0
has
thus
led
consumers
to
becomes
resounding.
B.3 Prosumers
The
Web
2.0
being
a
participative
one,
the
consumer
2.0
is
to
be
considered
as
an
active
participant
instead
of
a
passive
recipient.
The
client
becomes
a
pro-‐sumer:
a
25

content
producer
who
directly
contributes
to
product
development.
There
is
a
shift
in
locus
of
value
creation
from
firm
to
consumer19.
Companies
can
take
advantage
of
user
participation
by
outsourcing
activities
to
customers
and
extracting
the
value
they
create.
By
doing
so,
risk
of
failure
as
well
as
implementation
and
development
costs
are
reduced.
However,
for
the
firm,
this
entails
providing
innovative
approaches
to
implicate
and
learn
from
customers,
to
exploit
their
creativity
and
to
incite
them
to
share
their
opinion
in
order
to
co-‐create
value.
This
cannot
be
done
by
simply
creating
a
company
Facebook
page.
If
the
strategy
is
to
be
successful,
companies
have
to
adopt
a
Web
2.0
philosophy
and
treat
customers
as
partners
instead
of
targets.
This
means
they
have
to
learn
to
integrate
concepts
that
arise
from
the
outside
and
accept
to
share
their
power
with
consumers
by
establishing
a
balanced
dialogue.
It
is
the
participative
feature
of
Web
2.0
that
inspires
consumers
to
become
prosumers.
Figure
6
gives
an
overview
of
how
each
facet
of
Web
2.0
and
their
characteristics
influence
consumer
behaviour.
26
Figure
6:
Illustration
of
the
impact
of
Web
2.0
on
consumer
behaviour
19
Berthon,
P.
R.,
Pitt,
L.
F.,
Plangger,
K.,
&
Shapiro,
D.
(2012).
Markeitng
meets
Web
2.0,
social
media,
and
creative
consumers:
Implications
for
international
marketing
strategy.
(Elsevier,
Éd.)
Business
Horizons
,
55
(3),
261-‐271.

B.4 Impact
on
marketing
These
new
consumer
behaviours
and
expectations
have
forced
marketing
techniques
to
evolve.
Mass
communication
is
no
longer
effective
as
consumers
seek
unique
products
that
perfectly
fit
their
needs.
Moreover,
they
have
become
much
more
unpredictable,
spontaneous
and
inconstant.
Their
decisions
seem
to
be
aleatory,
forcing
firms
to
leave
their
comfort
zone
and
engage
with
consumers
in
real-‐time
if
they
wish
to
fully
understand
them.
Fortunately,
the
explosion
of
data
storage
capacity
and
dynamic
online
communication
techniques
has
made
it
possible
for
firms
to
develop
a
more
relational
marketing.
As
a
response
to
increasingly
creative
and
participative
consumers,
the
concept
of
Knowledge
Marketing
is
introduced:
a
marketing
in
which
the
marketer
learns
from
the
consumer.
In
this
context,
firms
are
encouraged
to
establish
means
for
dialogue
and
socialization
to
extract
consumer
knowledge
and
favour
value
co-‐creation.
For
such
a
strategy
to
be
successful,
consumers
have
to
be
both
empowered
(to
have
the
competence
to
create
value)
and
engaged
(to
be
able
to
communicate
value
with
the
firm).
In
brief,
Knowledge
Marketing
consists
in
building
a
community
of
active
consumers;
setting
effective
dialogue
tools
that
favour
engagement;
creating
appropriate
incentives
to
motivate
customers
to
freely
share
their
knowledge;
and
implementing
tools
that
capture
explicit
and
tacit
feedback.
Web
2.0
technologies
have
considerably
enhanced
the
web
architectures
in
this
respect,
setting
a
more
flexible
and
reactive
environment.
Web
2.0
should
thus
be
seen
as
an
opportunity
for
firms
to
interact
with
their
customers
and
integrate
them
in
the
value
creation
process.
Clearly,
from
a
company
point
of
view,
there
is
a
tension
between
maintaining
control
on
communication
and
encouraging
consumer
interaction.
Yet,
Web
2.0
is
an
era
of
openness,
dialogue
and
personal
approach;
therefore,
the
latter
prevails
over
the
former.
B.5 In
a
word
By
increasingly
integrating
the
web
into
their
daily
lives,
consumers
have
changed
the
way
they
communicate,
they
make
decisions,
the
way
they
socialize,
learn
and
27

entertain
themselves.
Companies
have
to
adapt
to
empowered
prosumers
with
high
expectations
and
new
values.
These
new
consumers
have
instant
access
to
information
and
face
a
variety
of
comparable
choices.
Through
the
web,
they
have
the
capacity
to
express
their
voice,
interact,
engage
and
share
experiences
with
their
peers
or
brands.
Firms
should
not
see
Web
2.0
as
a
threat
that
causes
loss
of
control
over
communication
but
rather
embrace
it
as
an
opportunity
to
respond
to
these
new
consumer
attitudes.
Web
2.0
is
an
ideal
context
to
carry
out
Knowledge
Marketing
and
learn
from
consumers.
It
enables
marketers
to
engage
in
an
ongoing,
dynamic
and
balanced
dialogue
with
their
clients,
to
implicate
them
in
brand
development
and
value
co-‐creation.
C.
The
new
marketing
approaches
Web
2.0
developments
have
opened
many
doors
to
consumers,
yet
they
also
introduce
a
panel
of
new
tools
and
media
that
are
becoming
essential
for
firms
to
integrate
in
marketing
strategies.
This
section
describes
the
most
salient:
Search
Engine
Marketing,
Social
Media
Marketing
and
Web
Analytics.
Figure
7
illustrates
how
these
three
marketing
techniques
adequately
respond
to
the
consumer
evolutions
depicted
above.
28
Figure
7:
Illustration
of
three
marketing
techniques
that
respond
to
the
Web
2.0
context

29
C.1 Search
Engine
Marketing
“The
secret
of
search
marketing
is
that
it
delivers
on
the
core
goal
of
advertising.
[…]
Search
[…]
does
what
advertising
is
ultimately
supposed
to
do:
find
out
where
is
the
demand
for
a
product
or
service
and
put
a
relevant
message
in
front
of
that
demand.”20
C.1.1 Definitions
Although
the
boundaries
of
Search
Engine
Marketing
(SEM)
are
blurred,
most
definitions
consider
all
the
techniques
that
boost
commercial
and
marketing
benefits
originated
from
online
research
through
search
engines.
This
includes
techniques
that
optimise
site
position
in
organic
search
results
(Search
Engine
Optimisation
–
SEO)
as
well
as
in
sponsored
results
(Search
Engine
Advertising
–
SEA).
The
equation
SEM
=
SEO
+
SEA
is
sometimes
extended
to
SEM
=
SEO
+
SEA
+
SMO
(Social
Media
Optimisation)
as
a
presence
in
Social
Media
gains
weight
in
search
rankings.21
C.1.2 The
importance
of
Search
Engines
Retrieval
of
information
is
one
of
the
main
uses
of
the
web.
Search
engines
occupy
a
prominent
position
in
this
respect
as
90%
of
users
use
them
to
find
information
and
more
than
half
of
the
Internet
traffic
begins
with
a
search
engine22.
This
dominance
is
even
reflected
in
our
common
language:
instead
of
saying
“Search
it
on
the
Internet”,
we
say
“Google
it”.
To
find
information,
whether
it
be
on
products,
places,
events,
brands
or
people,
users’
first
reflex
is
to
consult
a
search
engine.
Direct
use
of
a
specific
URL
has
become
most
unlikely.
This
makes
it
essential
for
companies
to
ensure
optimal
brand
visibility
in
relevant
search
results;
a
well-‐designed
web
site
is
not
sufficient.
Search
engines
have
become
to
form
a
critical
link
between
companies
and
the
browsing
population.
According
to
Forrester
Research,
70%
of
online
transactions
originate
from
a
search
query23.
Search
result
visibility
is
thus
crucial
to
increase
site
traffic,
directly
affecting
site
profitability.
20
Karpinski,
R.
(2004,
04).
Search
Marketing
what's
next?
Advertising
Age
,
pp.
22-‐23.
21Bathelot,
B.
(2011,
12
1).
Défintion
Search
Engine
Marketing.
Récupéré
sur
Définitions
web-‐marketing
:
http://www.definitions-‐
webmarketing.com/Definition-‐Search-‐engine-‐marketing
22
Shih,
B.-‐Y.,
Chen,
C.-‐Y.,
&
Chen,
Z.-‐S.
(2013).
An
Empirical
Study
of
an
Internet
Marketing
Strategy
for
Search
Engine
Optimization
.
Human
Factors
and
Ergonomics
in
Manufacturing
&
Service
Industries
,
23
(6),
pp.
528-‐540.
23
New
Media
Age.
(2005,
05
26).
Search
Marketing:
Local
Search.
New
Media
Age
,
p.
4.

C.1.3 Search
Engine
Optimisation
Search
results
are
ranked
according
to
special
algorithms
that
determine
page
relevancy
based
on
various
criteria.
A
well-‐optimised
site
will
appear
in
top
organic
results
of
relevant
search
queries.
This
has
a
direct
impact
on
traffic
volume
and
enhances
a
site’s
visibility
and
exposure.
However,
as
search
engine
popularity
has
increased,
search
engine
optimisation
has
become
increasingly
complicated
and
optimisation
techniques
include
manipulation
of
hundreds
of
website
elements.
These
techniques
can
be
broken
down
into
four
major
phases24:
keyword
selection,
on-‐page
optimisation,
off-‐page
optimisation
and
continuous
updating.
30
a. KEYWORD
SELECTION
Choosing
the
appropriate
keywords
is
a
crucial
step
in
SEO.
Three
criteria
have
to
be
taken
into
account
when
considering
keywords25:
volume,
competition
and
relevancy.
The
volume
reflects
the
search
frequency
of
a
term
and
thus
the
number
of
potential
site
visits
it
can
generate.
However,
popular
keywords
often
have
a
high
competition
–
they
are
highly
requested
–
thus
it
is
more
difficult
to
appear
in
the
top
results
of
their
queries.
Finally,
keyword
relevancy
is
central.
A
site
will
never
appear
high
in
the
results
for
keywords
that
are
not
linked
to
its
content.
To
balance
these
three
divergent
criteria,
it
is
advised
to
choose
very
specific
keywords.
Precise
terms
generate
lower
volume
but
attract
truly
interested
people,
resulting
into
higher
conversion
rates26.
For
example,
by
adding
a
geographical
region
or
a
specialisation
in
key
phrases,
traffic
is
narrowed,
competition
is
reduced
and
value
of
visitors
increased.
b. ON-‐PAGE
OPTIMISATION
Once
the
keywords
are
selected,
it
is
important
to
develop
page
content
in
relation
to
them.
The
keywords
have
to
be
placed
throughout
the
page
content,
headings
and
URLs
in
order
for
the
page
to
be
considered
relevant
by
search
engines
and
boost
visibility.
Inefficient
content
management
can
have
a
drastic
effect
on
page
ranking.
For
example,
a
supermarket
chain
failed
to
appear
in
the
results
for
the
term
“supermarket”
simply
because
its
site
never
mentioned
the
term.
Content
constitutes
24
Malaga,
R.
A.
(2008,
12).
Worst
Practices
in
Search
Engine
Optimization.
Communications
of
the
ACM
,
51
(12),
pp.
147-‐150.
25
François,
S.
(2014,
04
12).
Interview
de
Sébastien
François,
Partners
and
Operations
Director
of
Universem.
(M.-‐L.
Cruyt,
Intervieweur)
26
Percentage
of
visitors
that
convert
into
customers

one
of
the
three
major
elements
that
intervene
when
considering
on-‐page
optimisation.
The
second
is
popularity
and
refers
to
the
internal
link
structure
of
the
site.
Pages
buried
within
a
site’s
link
hierarchy
are
isolated
and
therefore
ignored
by
search
engines
and
left
unreached
by
visitors.
A
good
in-‐site
structure
is
one
that
references
important
pages
through
the
same
link
on
various
relevant
site
areas.
The
third
element
refers
to
all
the
technical
aspects
of
SEO
that
aren’t
visible
for
end-‐users
but
that
help
search
engines
read
and
classify
the
site.
For
instance,
an
electronic
site
map,
invisible
to
users,
helps
the
search
engine
understand
the
site
structure
and
identify
its
important
pages.
31
c. OFF-‐PAGE
OPTIMISATION
Search
engine
algorithms
attach
a
lot
of
importance
to
the
number
of
external
links
that
refer
to
a
site.
These
back
links
are
considered
as
an
endorsement
of
the
site
by
its
peers.
Back
link
generation
is
thus
key
to
gain
in
ranking
position
and
can
be
boosted,
inter
alia,
through
blog
postings,
presence
on
social
network,
video
submissions
or
press
releases.
Some
sites,
like
education
or
governmental
sites,
have
more
weight
than
others.
Links
from
these
sites
are
of
high
value.
d. CONTINUOUS
UPDATING
SEO
is
a
continuous
process.
Sites
have
to
be
regularly
updated
in
order
to
be
considered
active.
For
instance,
sites
who
blog
more
than
20
times
a
month
get
5
times
more
traffic
than
those
who
blog
less
than
4
times
a
month27.
Moreover,
ranking
rules
change
on
a
weekly
basis.
Therefore
firms
have
to
stay
alert,
rapidly
understand
changes,
and
adapt
site
structure
accordingly.
Each
search
engine
has
its
own
algorithms
and
rules,
yet
these
remain
similar.
This
entails
that
a
site
well
optimised
for
a
particular
engine
will
also
be
for
another
and
effort
is
spread
over
the
various
engines.
This
is
not
the
case
for
SEA,
where
a
campaign
is
specific
to
an
engine.
C.1.4 Search
Engine
Advertising
SEA
consists
in
bidding
on
keywords
for
a
site
to
appear
in
their
search
results.
A
provider
formulates
an
ad
that
is
restricted
to
a
few
lines
of
text
and
then
pays
to
list
27
Hubspot.
(2011).
Lead
Generation
Lessons
From
4,000
Businesses
.
Consulté
le
07
12,
2014,
sur
Hubspot
:
http://cdn2.hubspot.net/hub/53/file-‐13221878-‐pdf/docs/ebooks/lead-‐generation-‐lessons-‐from-‐4000-‐businesses.pdf

the
ad
in
search
results.
The
choice
of
relevant
keywords
in
ad
description
is
crucial.
When
a
user
enters
a
query,
paid-‐results
are
placed
in
a
reserved
area
next
to
the
organic
results
based
on
entered
keywords.
Thanks
to
this
system,
advertising
is
directed
to
people
who
have
already
shown
interest
in
ad-‐content,
significantly
increasing
ad-‐relevancy.
By
clicking
on
the
ad,
the
user
is
redirected
to
the
provider’s
website.
For
every
click,
the
advertiser
is
charged
a
fee,
which
means
that
he
only
pays
if
the
ad
has
actually
generated
traffic.
Nevertheless,
from
an
advertiser’s
point
of
view,
what
matters
is
conversion,
not
traffic.
An
SEA
campaign
is
costly
and
useless
if
site
is
not
optimised
for
conversion.
No
matter
how
many
advertisers
sign
up
to
publish
an
ad,
the
number
of
paid-‐results
on
result
page
is
limited.
This
has
led
search
engines
to
develop
contextual
advertising,
a
system
that
places
ads
on
web
pages
other
than
those
of
search
results.
The
content
of
the
page
is
read
by
a
software
that
then
attributes
it
a
relevant
ad.
Users
are
likely
to
be
interested
in
the
ad
as
it
is
shown
in
a
suited
context.
This
new
channel
enables
search
engines
to
increase
their
revenues,
publishers
to
monetise
the
empty
spaces
of
their
sites
and
advertisers
to
expand
their
reach.
SEA
comes
with
a
series
of
limitations.
First
of
all,
as
bidding
becomes
a
common
practice,
bid
prices
have
gone
through
the
roof,
making
it
impossible
for
limited
budgets
to
follow.
The
pay
per
click
model
has
also
led
to
misuses
as
pirates
artificially
increase
the
number
of
clicks
by
generating
automatic
fraudulent
clicks.
Firms
are
also
vulnerable
to
becoming
dependent
of
SEA
as
a
major
source
of
generating
traffic,
putting
themselves
in
a
delicate
hostage
situation.
Finally,
users
show
scepticism
towards
paid
results
and
are
five
times
more
inclined
to
trust
organic
ones.
Yet,
SEA
is
a
valuable
tool
that
offers
advertisers
a
faster
way
to
achieve
a
higher
level
of
presence
on
search
engines.
Compared
to
SEO,
it
is
a
far
more
reactive
alternative
that
can
generate
peaks
of
traffic
for
specific
events
or
product
launching.
However,
it
is
a
cost
and
not
an
investment.
SEA
campaigns
are
ephemeral;
they
leave
no
trace
behind
once
they
are
over.
SEO
has
the
advantage
of
reaping
long-‐term
results.
Once
the
substantial
work
of
site
structuring
is
done,
the
website
is
likely
to
keep
a
high
32

ranking
as
long
as
it
is
regularly
updated.
Together,
SEA
and
SEO
form
complementary
methods
that
maximise
a
site’s
visibility
in
search
results.
To
illustrate,
if
a
firm
only
engages
in
SEO,
it
leaves
its
competitors
the
opportunity
to
appear
in
the
paid-‐results
of
sensitive
keywords
and
vice-‐versa.
This
induces
the
risk
of
loosing
valuable
traffic
for
the
competition.
C.1.5 The
limits
of
Search
Engine
Marketing
SEM
popularity
has
led
to
many
abuses
and
cheat
practices.
Cases
of
brand
infringement
arose
as
companies
used
competitor’s
names
as
keywords
to
attract
potential
customers.
Other
abuses
consist
of
33
Google
Bombing
and
Black-‐hat
techniques,
which
are
detailed
in
Appendix
1.
Search
Engine
Marketing
campaigns
are
also
directly
affected
by
bots
(“software
programs
that
imitate
the
behaviour
of
humans28”).
Bot
traffic
accounts
for
61.5%29
of
all
website
traffic,
directly
affecting
a
site’s
metrics,
diluting
ad-‐exposure
and
wasting
the
ad
budget
spent.
Search
engines
constantly
increase
their
efforts
to
tackle
these
abuses.
They
are
becoming
more
and
more
intelligent
and
sophisticated,
making
it
tougher
to
lure
them.
As
the
reliability
(from
a
user
perspective)
of
search
results
is
improved,
sites
are
incited
to
be
optimally
conceived
for
end-‐users
in
order
to
appear
in
top
results.
As
a
consequence,
search
engine
listings
have
come
to
form
a
non-‐intrusive
pull
marketing
technique30
that
is
more
effective
than
traditional
push
marketing31
means.
76%
of
marketing
executives
rate
SEM
as
more
effective
than
banner
advertising32.
Indeed,
ad-‐
relevancy,
cost-‐effectiveness
and
positive
consumer
perception
are
increased.
C.2 Social
Media
Marketing
“Social
Media
is,
at
its
most
basic
sense,
a
shift
in
how
people
discover,
read,
and
share
news
and
information
and
content.
It’s
a
fusion
of
sociology
and
technology,
transforming
monologue
(one
to
many)
into
dialog
(many
to
many).”33
28
The
American
Heritage®
Dictionary
of
the
English
Language,
Fourth
Edition
copyright
©2000
by
Houghton
Mifflin
Company.
29
Incapsula.
(2013,
12
09).
Report:
Bot
traffic
is
up
to
61.5%
of
all
website
traffic.
Consulté
le
07
15,
2014,
sur
Incapsula,
An
Imperva
Company:
http://www.incapsula.com/blog/bot-‐traffic-‐report-‐2013.html
30
Marketing
approach
designed
to
draw
customers
to
a
brand
or
product.
The
branded
message
is
solicited
by
the
consumer.
31
Marketing
approach
that
consists
in
showing
brand
or
product
to
the
prospect
without
soliciting
him.
32
Karpinski,
R.
(2004,
04).
Search
Marketing
what's
next?
Advertising
Age
,
pp.
22-‐23.
33
Yost,
L.
(2010).
You've
got
Tweets.
Parks
&
Recreation
,
45
(2),
48.

The
term
Social
Media
encompasses
the
online
technologies
that
allow
people
to
connect
in
a
new
variety
of
ways.
Besides
offering
the
opportunity
for
people
around
the
world
to
connect
in
real-‐time,
Social
Media
is
also
a
new
medium
for
marketing.
It
offers
a
new
approach
that
encourages
interaction
between
consumers
and
brands,
a
boon
when
facing
highly
connected
consumers
avid
for
reciprocal
conversations.
Brands
can
build
personas
through
Social
Media
to
appear
more
human,
authentic
and
transparent.
This
helps
build
trust
and
credibility
and
sets
a
better
framework
for
knowledge
sharing.
Moreover,
Social
Media
is
a
powerful
medium
for
spreading
word-‐
of-‐mouth;
content
is
shared
to
users’
network
with
remarkable
speed
and
ease.
In
Web
2.0,
reputations
are
built
through
numerous
conversations
that
take
place
on
the
web,
whether
the
company
is
part
of
it
or
not.
Consumers
have
a
voice
and
can
have
a
true
impact
on
company
reputation,
in
which
case
responding
appropriately
and
rapidly
is
key
to
avoid
losing
potential
customers.
Firms
should
capitalise
on
Social
Media
as
a
means
to
join
the
conversation
and
monitor
the
public
opinion.
Social
Media
should
be
seen
as
a
customer
relationship
management
tool
as
well
as
a
medium
to
increase
brand
exposure
and
customer
engagement.
There
are
four
major
channels
to
engage
in
Social
Media
Marketing:
Communities,
Blogs,
Social
Networks
and
Microblogs.
Each
medium
is
used
differently
and
for
different
purposes.
Therefore,
just
as
a
company
decides
whether
to
use
billboards,
television
or
radio
for
a
marketing
campaign,
so
will
it
have
to
choose
the
appropriate
Social
Media
mix.
Thorough
understanding
of
each
medium
–
who
uses
them,
in
what
context
and
for
what
purpose
–
is
essential
to
effectively
carry
out
Social
Media
Marketing.
The
choice
depends
on
firm’s
sector,
its
positioning,
strategy
and
goals.
C.2.1 Brand
Communities
:
a
crowdsourcing
vehicle
Communities
gather
users
that
share
a
common
interest.
Sometimes
this
common
interest
is
a
particular
brand.
Brand
communities
are
“social
entities
that
reflect
the
34
situated
embeddedness
of
brands
in
the
day-‐to-‐day
life
of
consumers”34.
Their
members
34
Muniz,
A.
M.,
&
O'Guinn,
T.
C.
(2001).
Brand
Community.
Journal
of
Consumer
Research
,
27
(4),
412-‐432.

have
similar
consumption
practices
and
understand
each
other’s
feelings
towards
the
brand.
They
share
a
social
bond
around
the
brand
and,
most
importantly,
they
feel
a
connection
between
one
another.
Brands
with
strong
images
and
publicly
consumed
products
are
the
most
likely
to
create
such
communities35.
Brand
communities
gather
actively
engaged
customers
that
act
as
brand
evangelists.
They
represent
a
powerful
means
to
develop
the
brand-‐consumer
relationship
and
involve
members
in
the
co-‐creation
process
by
crowdsourcing
their
ideas.
For
example,
Dell
implemented
the
crowdsourcing
platform
IdeaStorm
through
which
customers
share
thousands
of
ideas.
As
they
use
the
products
daily,
they
know
best
what
their
needs
are
and
what
improvements
are
to
be
made.
Their
ideas
are
valuable
feedback
of
what
truly
matters
to
clients
while
being
a
rich
pool
of
inspiration
for
product
designers.
Brand
communities
can
also
be
used
to
crowd-‐source
solutions
and
solve
challenges.
Apple
has
an
Apple
Support
Community
where
members
share
tips
and
solutions
with
fellow
Apple
users
for
free.
Customers
rapidly
find
answers
to
their
questions
and
companies
save
millions
on
support
call
centres.
As
clients
freely
express
themselves
through
the
community,
valuable
information
is
shared
and
firms
have
to
make
sure
this
knowledge
is
captured
and
taken
into
account.
C.2.2 Blogs:
an
authentic
communication
vehicle
Blogs
can
be
used
in
numerous
ways
for
marketing
purposes.
A
company
can
join
the
conversations
on
existing
blogs
by
answering
and
commenting
company-‐related
posts.
In
this
case
it
is
essential
to
leave
business-‐talk
behind
and
concentrate
on
getting
brand
personality
and
opinion
across.
Indeed,
blogging
is
a
person-‐to-‐person
activity;
dialogue
is
direct
and
transparent.
Although
anyone
is
invited
to
comment
his
opinion
freely,
each
blog
has
its
own
code
of
ethics
that
has
to
be
respected
in
order
to
guarantee
authenticity
and
content
relevancy.
For
this
reason
it
is
advised
to
follow
the
blog
before
joining
in
so
as
to
understand
its
purpose,
the
way
people
communicate
on
it,
the
typical
member
profile,
the
appropriate
tone
to
use,
who
are
the
leaders
and
what
are
the
implicit
rules.
In
some
cases,
conversations
are
better
off
without
any
brand
participation
and
company
intervention
is
seen
as
an
attack.
35
35
Muniz,
A.
M.,
&
O'Guinn,
T.
C.
(2001).
Brand
Community.
Journal
of
Consumer
Research
,
27
(4),
412-‐432.

Firms
can
also
create
their
own
blogs.
A
company
blog
must
always
appear
human
and
readers
have
to
sense
that
it
is
held
by
a
real
person
and
not
an
organisation.
For
instance,
CEOs
can
create
corporate
blogs
and
share
their
daily
feelings,
thoughts
and
suggestions.
This
gives
a
very
human
and
tangible
aspect
to
the
firm
that
consumers
appreciate.
When
Vichy
set
up
the
fake
blog
“My
Skin
Blog”
held
by
a
so-‐called
Claire,
readers
were
quick
to
sense
that
postings
weren’t
sincere
and
rapidly
discovered
that
Claire
was
a
pure
marketing
invention.
This
triggered
a
violent
bad
buzz
for
the
brand.
Vichy
was
quick
to
react
and
transparently
addressed
the
most
active
users,
asking
them
to
become
the
Vichy
bloggers.
By
remaining
honest,
the
brand
managed
to
transform
the
hostile
bloggers
into
powerful
spokeswomen.
The
case
puts
forward
the
desire
of
users
to
dialogue
with
real
people.
Finally,
blog
content
should
be
relevant
for
target
audience.
It
should
by
no
means
consist
in
pushy
marketing
messages.
Authenticity
and
expertise
is
appreciated.
For
example,
a
company
can
share
free
advice
to
readers;
this
is
valuable
to
them
while
demonstrating
company
know-‐how.
Blogs
should
combine
a
media
mix
of
images,
videos
and
related
links
and
be
regularly
updated.
It
is
equally
important
to
invite
customers
to
comment
and
interact
and
to
respond
to
their
engagement.
Last
but
not
least,
blog
postings
should
be
easily
sharable
with
relevant
tags
to
boost
visibility,
search
engine
reference
and
increase
traffic.
C.2.3 Social
Networks:
an
engagement
vehicle
As
opposed
to
blogs
where
conversations
are
asymmetric,
Social
Networks
enable
much
more
human
and
personal
conversations.
Social
Networks
have
reconciled
the
web
identity
with
the
real
identity
as
people
use
profiles
instead
of
pseudonyms.
Engaging
in
Social
Network
is
very
time-‐consuming;
therefore,
a
firm
has
to
carefully
choose
which
networks
are
the
most
relevant
by
identifying
where
its
audience
is.
There
are
many
different
types
of
social
networks,
each
one
having
a
specific
focus
or
utility
that
directly
influences
its
target
audience.
Social
networks,
such
as
Facebook,
MySpace
or
LinkedIn,
support
relationship
building
and
maintenance.
Facebook
is
based
on
personal
accounts
that
are
meant
to
connect
friends
and
family,
whereas
36

LinkedIn
has
a
more
professional
approach
and
aims
to
connect
professionals
in
specific
fields
or
businesses.
Other
networks
have
a
niche
approach
as
they
focus
on
a
specific
hobby
or
personal
interest.
For
instance,
Dogster
is
a
social
network
that
is
focused
on
committed
dog
owners.
Most
firms
choose
to
be
present
on
the
most
popular
networks
because
they
have
a
high
“stickiness”
–
members
visit
them
frequently
and
stay
on
them
for
a
long
time
–
and
the
advantage
of
gathering
a
giant
number
of
users.
Indeed,
social
networks
rely
on
network
effects:
they
become
interesting
only
once
a
critical
mass
of
users
is
obtained.
Therefore
companies
will
have
higher
returns
by
capitalising
on
existing
networks
that
have
already
reached
this
mass.
Yet
reach
is
not
the
most
important
factor
when
considering
social
networks.
What
counts
is
engagement,
and
this
often
depends
on
relevancy.
For
example,
a
firm
selling
dog
products
will
reap
better
results
on
Dogster
where
reach
is
smaller
but
relevancy
is
high.
Once
a
platform
is
chosen,
companies
have
to
build
a
profile
that
is
consistent
with
the
platform
and
the
brand’s
positioning.
It
is
essential
to
integrate
the
network
without
being
perceived
as
intrusive.
A
presence
on
several
platforms
implies
building
several
profiles,
each
one
adapted
to
the
site
while
remaining
consistent
with
brand
image.
Company
profiles
give
the
brand
a
persona
that
makes
it
easier
to
engage
and
interact
with
customers.
Facebook,
for
instance,
enables
firms
to
build
graphically
personalised
pages
–
the
branded
equivalent
of
a
user
profile
–
that
users
can
become
“fan”
of.
Such
a
page
demands
a
lot
of
time
investment
as
fans
do
not
come
in
naturally.
Companies
have
to
design
a
credible
and
likable
brand
personality
as
well
as
provide
valuable
content
to
give
consumers
a
reason
to
become
fan.
Bringing
in
fans
is
a
necessary
condition
to
assure
survival,
yet
it
is
not
a
sufficient
one.
Engagement
is
vital;
fans
need
to
be
nourished
regularly
with
appetising
content.
The
brand
has
to
incite
them
to
dialogue,
share
and
connect
in
order
to
build
a
community.
A
page
with
no
valuable
interaction
is
doomed
to
be
left
unread.
This
means
that
brands
have
to
make
sure
that
they
are
ready
to
converse
with
clients
before
integrating
social
networks.
37

Finally,
social
networks
are
also
a
good
lever
for
virality.
Every
user
interaction
has
the
potential
of
becoming
viral.
Social
networks
favour
both
active
and
passive
virality36.
Active
virality
–
actions
done
by
the
user
himself
–
is
encouraged
through
easy
and
visible
interaction
buttons
such
as
“Like”,
“Share”,
“Add
to
favourites”
or
“Recommend
to
a
friend”.
Passive
virality
is
done
automatically.
For
instance,
when
a
user
becomes
fan
of
a
page,
the
information
automatically
appears
in
the
newsfeed
of
his
network.
The
feed
“[User
38
Name]
is
now
fan
of
[Company
Name]”
gives
a
social
motivation
for
others
to
become
a
fan
too.
C.2.4 Microblogs:
a
mood-‐monitoring
vehicle
A
Microblog
is
a
social
medium
through
which
users
post
short
frequent
newsfeeds.
Microblogs
are
built
around
the
status,
as
opposed
to
social
networks
that
are
built
around
the
profile.
The
most
prominent
microblog
known
today
is
Twitter.
Users
share
their
thoughts
in
real-‐time
in
the
form
of
Tweets.
Tweets
are
limited
to
140
characters.
Although
this
may
be
perceived
as
a
constraint,
it
is
what
makes
Twitter
so
powerful.
Tweets
are
spontaneous
and
direct,
resulting
into
rapid
and
real-‐time
exchanges.
Interactions
on
microblogs
are
much
more
dynamic
than
blog
discussions,
they
are
also
more
to-‐the-‐point
and
less
personal
than
social
network
exchanges.
This
makes
them
a
complementary
medium
that
completes
the
Social
Media
panel.
Tweets
are
public
by
default.
This
means
that,
knowing
that
Twitter
has
more
than
645
million
active
users
since
January
201437,
each
tweet
has
the
potential
to
reach
645
million
people.
Of
course
the
message
has
a
greater
chance
to
be
seen
by
followers
(people
that
follow
a
Twitter
profile).
Visibility
is
further
enhanced
through
retweets
(users
retweet
the
tweet
on
their
own
profile,
exposing
the
tweet
to
their
followers
and
creating
a
snowball
effect)
or
by
highlighting
keywords
with
the
symbols
@
(profile
reference)
and
#
(keyword
tagging
for
better
reference
in
searches).
36
Fraysse,
E.
(2011).
Facebook,
Twitter,
et
le
web
social:
les
nouvelles
opportunités
de
business.
Bluffy:
Editions
Kawa.
37
Statistic
Brain.
(2014,
01
01).
Twitter
Statistics.
Consulté
le
06
02,
2014,
sur
Statistic
Brain:
http://www.statisticbrain.com/twitter-‐
statistics/

Initially
conceived
as
a
communication
tool,
Twitter
has
rapidly
become
a
dominant
information
network,
enabling
real-‐time
discovery
and
consumption
of
information.
It
is
particularly
adapted
for
opinion
leaders
and
trendsetters
to
express
themselves
and
thus

has
become
the
barometer
of
public
mood.
It
is
a
great
means
to
identify
market
trends
and
connect
with
the
most
influent
users
(cf.
Figure
8).
Twitter
is
“the
web’s
39
pulse”38
and
hence
an
essential
medium
to
follow.
10%
AMONG THE 1ST TO BUY/TRY NEW
PRODUCTS
BUY/TRY NEW PRODUCTS BEFORE
OTHERS, NOT FIRST
BUY/TRY NEW PRODUCTS SAME AS
OTHERS
BUY/TRY NEW PRODUCTS AFTER
OTHERS, NOT LAST
Figure
8:
Twitter
users
tend
to
be
early
adopters39
24%
27%
Twitter
is
also
an
amazingly
fast-‐moving
Customer
Relationship
Management
tool.
A
firm
can
monitor
client
opinion
and
address
issues
instantly.
It
can
cover
live
events
in
real-‐time,
immerging
followers
into
it
and
enhancing
their
experience.
It
is
equally
a
great
crisis
management
instrument.
For
example,
during
the
Christmas
holidays
in
2009,
the
air
traffic
was
heavily
disturbed
due
to
snow.
EasyJet
frequently
updated
travellers
through
Twitter
by
communicating
alternative
schedules
and
presenting
apologies.
AirFrance’s
communication
was
completely
different,
followers
would
read
tweets
such
as
“Enjoy
your
holiday”
and
“Merry
Christmas”
as
if
nothing
was
amiss.
Customer
perception
was
badly
tarnished.
When
opening
a
corporate
Twitter
account,
a
firm
has
to
make
sure
it
can
allocate
the
adequate
resources
to
it.
Twitter
communication
is
only
effective
if
done
very
frequently.
Tweets
are
rapidly
buried
in
the
flow
of
information,
making
it
essential
to
38
Fraysse,
E.
(2011).
Facebook,
Twitter,
et
le
web
social:
les
nouvelles
opportunités
de
business.
Bluffy:
Editions
Kawa.
39
Webster,
T.
(2010).
Twitter
Usage
In
America
2010.
Edison
Research.
11%
16%
29%
25%
19%
25%
12%
USUALLY LAST TO KNOW TO TRY/BUY
NEW PRODUCTS
TOTAL POPULATION 12+
MONTHLY TWITTER
USERS 12+
SOURCE: EDISON RESEARCH, 2010

tweet
on
a
daily
nay
hourly
basis.
However,
high
frequency
should
not
entail
low
quality.
It
is
necessary
to
keep-‐up
interest
to
animate
the
community
and
build
reputation.
This
includes
regular
updates,
engaging
with
people,
retweeting,
reacting
to
user
tweets
or
brand
mentions,
sending
private
messages
to
important
new
followers
and
responding
to
customer
issues
in
a
timely
manner.
C.2.5 Social
Media
:
an
Inbound
Marketing
vehicle
Marketing
through
Social
Media
is
powerful
due
to
its
possibility
to
hyper-‐segment
and
accurately
target
a
specific
audience.
Communities
and
blogs
are
often
focused
on
a
particular
theme,
microblogs
make
it
easy
to
identify
trendsetters
and
social
networks
are
built
on
profiles
that
constitute
easy
access
to
valuable
prospect
information
such
as
geographic
location,
age,
sex
and
interests
(assuming
that
profile
information
is
accurate).
This
makes
Social
Media
an
ideal
means
to
target
groups
and
refine
communication
to
make
it
the
least
intrusive
possible.
In
a
word,
Social
Media
Marketing
is
about
reaching
a
specific
user
profile
without
disrupting
him.
Social
Media
Marketing
is
thus
a
pull-‐marketing:
one
that
attracts
consumers’
attention
rather
than
steals
it.
The
user
chooses
the
information
he
is
exposed
to.
It
is
a
form
of
Inbound
Marketing:
a
marketing
that
focuses
on
creating
quality
content
aligned
with
consumer
interests
so
that
he
spontaneously
engages
with
the
firm.
By
providing
users
with
relevant
quality
content,
firms
educate
and
inform
users
while
gaining
their
trust.
C.3 Web
Analytics
“Web
Analytics
is
the
measurement,
collection,
analysis
and
reporting
of
Internet
data
40
for
the
purposes
of
understanding
and
optimizing
Web
usage.40
The
Internet
has
become
a
prominent
marketing
channel
that
has
the
huge
advantage
of
being
measurable.
This
has
introduced
a
new
golden
rule
in
marketing:
decisions
are
only
taken
on
measured
elements;
instincts
and
good
sense
are
no
longer
reliable.
The
new
discipline
of
Web
Analytics
is
a
direct
consequence
of
the
possibility
to
monitor
40
Web
analytics
association.
(2008).
Web
Analytics
Definitions.
Wakefield:
Web
Analyics
Association.

and
gather
data
at
a
very
low
cost.
Its
objective
is
to
retrieve
relevant
information
from
the
collected
data
in
order
to
improve
online
performance
and
fine-‐tune
communication.
Every
online
interaction
is
recorded
and
feeds
the
astronomical
amount
of
data
that
accumulates.
The
data
is
then
interpreted
into
relevant
statistics
such
as
number,
length
and
frequency
of
visits,
number
of
sales,
conversion
ratio,
source
of
traffic
etc.
These
statistics
help
understand
the
successful
and
less
successful
elements
of
a
website
or
online
campaign,
making
it
possible
to
adjust
accordingly.
For
instance,
by
comparing
the
conversion
rates
of
different
keywords,
a
SEA
marketer
can
identify
which
keywords
are
the
most
profitable
to
bid
on.
One
can
also
identify
which
source
of
traffic
is
the
most
relevant
–
whether
from
search
engines,
social
networks
or
a
particular
site
–
so
as
to
better
concentrate
marketing
efforts.
Web
Analytics
is
equally
helpful
for
site
optimization.
With
the
appropriate
indicators,
a
marketer
can
identify
which
site
areas
are
the
most
popular,
which
pages
are
ignored,
which
call-‐to-‐action
buttons
work
best
or
at
which
step
of
the
registration
or
buying
process
does
the
user
drop-‐out.
All
this
is
crucial
information
hidden
in
the
data
that,
once
retrieved
and
treated,
can
leverage
impressive
results.
Finally,
the
potential
of
linking
a
user’s
behaviour
with
his
profile
further
increases
the
opportunities
to
calibrate
communication
and
customize
experience.
This
can
be
done
by
inviting
users
to
register
with
their
social
media
account.
It
enables
firms
to
gather
a
huge
amount
of
precious
user
information
(name,
age,
sex,
living
area,
professional
activity,
interests)
while
simplifying
the
registration
process
from
a
user
perspective.
C.4 In
a
word
Web
2.0
has
deeply
reshaped
marketing
approaches.
Search
Engine
Marketing
techniques
capitalise
on
the
dominance
of
search
engines
as
a
means
of
finding
information.
By
exploiting
the
potential
of
keywords,
marketers
manage
to
better
41

target
their
message
towards
an
interested
audience.
Social
Media
Marketing
has
helped
companies
build
personalities
and
become
more
human
in
their
communication.
Direct
conversations
with
consumers
can
be
established,
favouring
a
context
of
interaction
and
sharing
of
knowledge.
Again,
the
approach
is
different
from
that
of
traditional
marketing
as
firms
learn
to
give
up
intrusive
methods
and
adopt
a
strategy
of
quality
content
that
naturally
attracts
the
right
customers.
Finally,
Web
Analytics
constitute
powerful
tools
that
enable
firms
to
constantly
monitor
and
improve
their
communication.
This
results
into
a
hyper-‐targeted
approach,
adapted
to
user
behaviour
and
profile,
that
engages
with
consumers
without
disrupting
them
in
their
natural
environment
and
provides
them
with
exactly
what
they
value.
D. The
new
2.0
competences
“[Web
2.0]
applications
are
only
tools.
One
then
has
to
create
animation
and
interaction
42
to
make
them
live.
[…]
human
intervention
is
ultimately
needed.”41
The
previous
point
identifies
a
series
of
Web
2.0
marketing
approaches
that
open
up
many
opportunities
in
terms
of
marketing
strategy.
These
approaches
have
reshaped
communication
in
such
a
way
that
one
cannot
simply
copy-‐paste
the
traditional
marketing
techniques
to
them.
To
be
carried
out
efficiently,
they
require
specific
expertise.
Web
2.0
thus
introduces
new
professions
that
specialise
in
the
day-‐to-‐day
operation
and
management
of
these
Web
2.0
applications.
Four
examples
are
briefly
depicted
below.
D.1 Search
Engine
Marketing
Specialist
A
few
years
ago,
anyone
could
engage
effectively
in
Search
Engine
Marketing
by
reading
a
few
guidebooks.
Today,
however,
the
discipline
has
become
much
more
sophisticated.
In
terms
of
Search
Engine
Optimisation
(SEO),
keywords
have
to
be
carefully
analysed
and
site
has
to
be
meticulously
structured
for
a
page
to
appear
in
41
Fraysse,
E.
(2011).
Facebook,
Twitter,
et
le
web
social:
les
nouvelles
opportunités
de
business.
Bluffy:
Editions
Kawa.

top
organic
search
results.
For
instance,
websites
with
500-‐1000
pages
get
six
times
more
traffic
than
those
with
50-‐100
pages42.
Search
rankings
also
depend
on
numerous
and
complex
factors
that
are
constantly
reviewed.
For
example,
Google
recently
gave
additional
weight
to
multimedia
results
like
videos,
images
and
maps.
As
a
consequence,
sites
had
to
reference
their
images,
post
videos
on
YouTube,
be
present
on
Google
Maps
and
include
a
Google
Street
View
to
enhance
their
Google
visibility.
SEO
specialists
are
required
to
relentlessly
follow
these
evolutions,
grasp
how
they
impact
rank
position
and
adapt
site
structure
accordingly.
As
opposed
to
SEO,
Search
Engine
Advertising
(SEA)
implies
recurrent
costs.
Therefore
SEA
campaigns
have
to
be
carefully
thought
through
and
monitored
to
ensure
decent
return.
If
not
done
properly,
a
SEA
campaign
can
reveal
to
be
very
costly
for
little
return.
The
task
should
be
assigned
to
an
expert
to
avoid
costly
mistakes.
D.2 Content
Strategist
The
content
strategist,
as
its
name
suggests,
is
responsible
for
defining
the
content
strategy
of
a
firm.
This
involves
identifying
the
appropriate
media
to
reach
target
audience,
setting
the
Social
Media
Marketing
objectives,
establishing
a
content
plan
(guidelines
to
maintain
consistency
in
communication
while
adapting
content
to
each
medium)
and
measuring
return
based
on
defined
KPIs.
Each
of
these
activities
are
detailed
in
Appendix
2.
D.3 Community
Manager
The
community
manager
is
responsible
for
building
and
managing
the
company’s
community.
The
position
is
a
time-‐consuming
one
that
requires
expertise.
Community
managers
have
to
produce
adequate
content,
engage
with
users,
relentlessly
scan
the
Internet
for
new
content
or
brand
mentions,
participate
in
numerous
overlapping
conversations
and
react
to
comments
and
feedback.
Community
management
is
a
human-‐to-‐human
activity,
therefore,
human
resources
are
indispensable
and
interactions
cannot
be
automatized
since
the
objective
is
to
create
authentic
and
long-‐
43
42
Hubspot.
(2011).
Lead
Generation
Lessons
From
4,000
Businesses
.
Consulté
le
07
12,
2014,
sur
Hubspot
:
http://cdn2.hubspot.net/hub/53/file-‐13221878-‐pdf/docs/ebooks/lead-‐generation-‐lessons-‐from-‐4000-‐businesses.pdf

term
relationships
with
users.
Further
detail
on
a
community
manager’s
day-‐to-‐day
activities
and
profile
can
be
found
in
Appendix
2.
D.4 Web-‐editor
in
chief
Writing
for
the
web
is
a
challenging
task.
On
the
one
hand,
user
attention
is
difficult
to
catch.
Users
tend
to
read
in
diagonal
therefore,
to
draw
their
attention,
content
has
to
be
concise,
impactful
and
multimedia
enriched
(photos,
videos,
hyperlinks
etc.).
On
the
other
hand,
web-‐editing
follows
very
specific
good
practices
that
are
far
from
similar
to
traditional
editing.
Phrases
should
be
short,
lively
and
direct.
They
should
invite
users
to
interact
(Right?
or
44
You
know
what
I
mean
or
Don’t
you
think?).
Such
a
style
is
difficult
to
master
therefore
companies
should
refer
to
web-‐editing
specialists
before
publishing
articles
online.
D.5 In
a
word
Web
2.0
has
introduced
several
new
professions
that
are
decisive
to
capitalise
on
the
opportunities
offered
by
Web
2.0
applications.
This
section
has
described
a
few
of
them.
The
SEM
specialist
masters
the
optimisation
techniques
that
ensure
top
rank
position
and
optimal
advertising
campaigns
on
search
engines;
guaranteeing
high
visibility
at
a
controlled
budget.
The
content
strategist
defines
the
online
communication
guidelines,
identifies
the
most
effective
channels,
and
monitors
results
for
continuous
improvement.
The
community
manager
carries
out
the
guidelines
set
by
the
content
strategist.
He
is
responsible
for
building
and
animating
an
engaged
community
with
whom
he
is
in
constant
dialogue.
Finally,
the
web-‐
editor
is
in
charge
of
writing
the
articles
that
are
to
be
published
on
the
company
website
or
blog.
He
is
familiar
with
the
peculiar
style
and
format
that
is
to
be
used
online.

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