2. Introduction
The Mediterranean Sea borders three continents and
has been home to many of history’s great
civilisations
As these civilisations explored - and in some cases
conquered - the world around them they took their
love of wine and knowledge of viticulture with them
Viticulture and winemaking were introduced to new
cultures leading to the establishment of most of the
wine producing regions of western Europe we see
today
4. Phoenicia
2300BC – 65BC
One of the first ancient civilisations to have a
significant effect on the history of wine
Founded trading posts and colonies around
the entire Mediterranean
Founders of Carthage
Home of Mago: Father of Agriculture
6. Phoenician Influence on Wine
1000BC – explosion of
the Mediterranean
wine trade
Introduced or
encouraged the spread
of winemaking and
viticulture
First people to bring
wine to Egypt
7. Egypt
3500BC – 500BC
Osiris – God of wine
Wine drunk by gods,
kings, and nobles
Five wines constitute
canonical set of
provisions for the
afterlife
8. Egyptian Viticulture & Winemaking
Nile Delta - centre of wine production
Ptolemaic Period – vines taken further south
Red and white wines produced
Two winemaking operations – free run juice and
pressings
9. Egyptian Wine Trade
Before the vineyards on the Nile were established
wine was imported from Asia and Canaan
Egypt exported various goods in exchange for
wine
Grain
Papyrus
Fruit
Much Egyptian trade was in the form of
‘presents’ between the Pharaohs and rulers of
other countries
10. Greece - including Minoa & Mycenae
2500BC – 86BC
Dionysus – God of
wine
Earliest evidence of
Minoan winemaking
on Crete – 1600BC
Mycenaeans traded
wine throughout the
ancient eastern
Mediterranean
Phocaeans established
Massalia
11. Greek Wine Trade
The Greek wine trade was extensive; taking place
both within Greece and internationally
Viticulture important to the economy of many
states with some taking precautions to protect
their wine trade
Approximately 10 million litres of wine were
shipped to Gaul via Massalia each year
12. Greek Influence on Viticulture
Study of vineyard soils
Canopy and yield management
Propagation
14. Gaul & The Celts
Trade with Greeks and
Etruscans introduced
wine to the region
Large consumers of
wine
Credited with the
development of the
barrel
Adopted viticultural
techniques introduced
by the Greeks
16. Rome
Bacchus – God of wine
Introduced wine to all classes of society
Roman Empire was a market economy
Pompeii was a major trading port
17. Rome – Effect on Modern Wine
Many of the techniques and principles
developed in Roman times can be found in
modern winemaking
By the time Rome fell in the 5th century AD,
the foundations for the famous vineyards of
Europe had been laid
18. References
• Ancient Egyptian Overseas Trade. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/trade/index.html
• Ancient Greece. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.allaboutgreekwine.com/history.htm
• Ancient Greece. (2001). Retrieved from
http://www.greekwinemakers.com/czone/history/2ancient.shtml
• Ancient Greece. (2012a). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 1 August, 2012, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece
• Ancient Rome and Wine. (2012b). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 1 August, 2012. from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine
• Dal Piaz, G. (2009). The history of wine part III: Wine storage – barrels. Retrieved from
• http://www.snooth.com/articles/the-history-of-wine-part-ii-wine-storage-barrels/
• Egyptian Wine. (2011). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 1 August, 2012, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_wine
• Johnson, H., Robinson, J.. (2001). The world atlas of wine. (5th ed.). London, Great
Britain: Mitchell Beazley
• Phoenicians and Wine. (2012c). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 1 August,2012, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicians_and_wine
• Phoenician Trade and Ships. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://phoenicia.org/trade.html
• Robinson, J.. (1994). The oxford companion to wine. Oxford, Great Britain: Oxford
University Press
• The Ancient History of Wine. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://encyclowine.org/wine/category/history/
19. Picture Sources
• Barrel. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.snooth.com/articles/the-history-of-wine-part-
ii-wine-storage-barrels/?viewall=1
• Egyptian wine. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://www.winerackstore.com/wine_rack_history.php
• Egyptian wine press. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://etc.usf.edu/clipart/18700/18721/egyptwineprs_18721.htm
• Gaul Map. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://fany.savina.net/2010/10/gaul-and-the-romans-
before-and-after/
• Greek Wine Press. (n.d.) Retrieved from
http://www.uk.digiserve.com/mentor/minoan/vathypetro.htm
• Greek Winemaking. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://www.theoi.com/Gallery/T51.1.html
• Major diffusion routes of viticulture in Southwest Asia and Europe. Jackson, R. S.
(2000). Wine science: Principles, practice, perception (2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic
Press
• Pompeii. Johnson, H., Robinson, J.. (2001). The world atlas of wine. (5th ed.). London,
Great Britain: Mitchell Beazley
• Mediterranean Map. (n.d.) Retrieved from http://d-
maps.com/carte.php?lib=mediterranean_sea_map&num_car=3124&lang=en
• Osiris. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://newsdesk.si.edu/photos/eternal-life-osiris-statue
• Phoenicians and Wine. (2012c). In Wikipedia. Retrieved 1 August,2012, from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicians_and_wine
• Phoenician Trade. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://phoenicia.org/trade.html
Hinweis der Redaktion
Sources: D-maps, 2012
Sources:Jackson, 2000
‘Phoenician’ was a name used by the Greeks to describe a confederation of maritime traders based in and around the major Canaanite port towns. Canaan covered an area of the eastern Mediterranean coast (modern day Lebanon, Israel, Syria, and part of Turkey) and was part of the Fertile Crescent - commonly known as the ‘Cradle of Civilisation’.Mago’s treatises on agriculture included details on various aspects of viticulture and winemaking. The 28 volume piece of work was considered so important that the Roman senate decreed the work should be translated into Latin, and when Carthage was sacked by the Romans in 146BC the works were saved from the library.Sources:Wikipedia, 2012c
The Phoenicians were prolific traders. Cedar and Tyrian purple - a highly prized dye - were their main export commodities but they also traded many other goods, including wine.Wine was transported in amphorae known as Canaanite jars. Evidence of these jars has been found in shipwrecks off various coasts around the Mediterranean sea.As well as trading wine produced in Canaan, the Phoenicians developed markets for wine produced in colonies and port cities along the Mediterranean.Sources:Wikipedia, 2012c
The Phoenician influenceon wine cannot be underestimated. While their trade allowed them to establish colonies – where they set up new viticultural enterprises – they also shared their knowledge of both viticulture and winemaking.Their extensive maritime network lead to the explosion in the Mediterranean wine trade.Sources:Phoenicia.org, 2012Wikipedia, 2012c
Although the grapevine is not native to Egypt, ancient Egyptian viticulture and winemaking are well documented thanks to tomb wall paintings.It is thought the grapevine was introduced to Egypt from Canaan.Sources:Smithsonian, 2011Wikipedia, 2011Robinson, 1994
Vines, which were grown on various support structures, were irrigated and fertilised.Treading yielded free run juice while the pressings were squeezed, by twisting, out of sack presses.Wine was collected in amphorae with details such as year of harvest, vineyard site and owner, and chief winemaker all recorded.Sources:Winerackstore, 2012Florida Centre for Instructional Technology, 2012Wikipedia, 2011Robinson, 1994
As far as the wine trade and spread of viticulture is concerned, ancient Egypt was firmly on the receiving end. Imports fed the Egyptian’s love of wine and eventually lead to early viticulture and winemaking techniques being adopted.Sources:Encyclowine, 2012Reshafim, 2009Robinson, 1994
It is thought the Minoans were introduced to wine making methods by the Egyptians, whom they traded with.Remains of grapes and wine presses have been found by archaeologists – most notably at Vathypetro where the wine press pictured above was discovered.Massalia (modern day Marseilles) became a vital port for Greek trade – especially in wine.Sources:Greekwinemakers, 2001Robinson, 1994UK.digiserve, 2012
As the largest and richest city, Athens offered the best domestic market for wine.Internationally Greece traded with Egypt, Cyprus, Sicily, and Etruria (modern day Tuscany).Several states employed a system where amphorae were required to be a standard size and were sealed with the name of the annual magistrate, guaranteeing authenticity.Thasos protected its commerce by forbidding citizens to import wine.The seals on Greek amphorae indicated their origin; this allowed positive identification of 10,000 amphorae as Greek when discovered in a shipwreck off the coast of France.Establishment of Massalia enabled trade with the Celts in Gaul. Wine was traded for iron, spices, wheat, and slaves.Sources:Wikipedia, 2012aRobinson, 1994
Records from the 4th centuryBC indicate the Greeks studied vineyard soils and matched them to grape varieties with some vineyards having over 50 different varieties planted.Vines were stacked rather than being left to climb untrained making harvest easier.Crop yields were managed to ensure better flavours and quality.Suckering and plant cuttings were used for new vineyard plantings.By the time Athens fell to Rome in 86BC the groundwork for advanced viticulture had been laid throughout a vast expanse of the western world.Sources:Wikipedia, 2012a
Wicker baskets filled with grapes were placed inside vats (wooden or earthenware) to allow the grapes to be crushed before fermentation.Unripe grapes were harvested for their acidic qualities, and the wines produced from these was used for blending.Two methods of sweetening – drying the grapes to almost raisins before pressing, and boiling grape must.Wine was ‘improved’ with additives such as resin, herbs, spice, seawater and perfume. Retsina, Mulled wine, and Vermouth are modern examples of these practices.Viticultural and winemaking techniques were introduced to the colonies in Italy and Sicily around the 8th century BC, and later to France (Gaul) and Spain.Sources:Allaboutgreekwine, 2010Wikipedia, 2012aTheoi, 2011
Gaul was an ancient region in western Europe (modern day France, Northern Italy, Belgium, South Netherlands) inhabited by a group of tribal societies collectively known as the Celts.Gryphon headed cauldrons known as craters, jugs, strainers, and cups were used in a complex system of trade which bound the Celts to Greek and Etruscan traders.Annual consumption of wine is estimated to have been 100,000,000L .Like Egypt, Gaul was firmly on the receiving end of the ancient wine trade. Viticultural techniques introduced to the region by the Greeks at Massalia were adopted and, like wine, spread up the navigable rivers into the interior.Sources:Robinson, 1994Fany.savina, 2010
The writer Strabo (63/64BC - 23AD) wrote that the Gauls bought wine from northern Italy and stored it in wooden containers as large as a house – an observation supported by the discovery of remnants of wooden containers having capacities of over 1000 litres.Pliny the Elder (23AD - 79AD) wrote that the Gauls stored their wine in wooden containers that were held together with metal hoops.Discarded amphorae found at Toulouse and Chalon-sur-Saone indicate wine was transferred to barrels for transport by cart.Sources:Greg, 2009Robinson, 1994
The Romans believed wine was a necessity of daily life and promoted its widespread availability among all classes.Trade was encouraged with both imports and exports of wine driving the Roman economy.Pompeii was central to the Roman wine trade. As well as being a trading port many vineyards were established in the area. The eruption of Mt Vesuvius devastated both the port and the vineyards causing a wine shortage and increase in wine prices.Sources:Johnson & Robinson, 2001Wikipedia, 2012b
Fermentation was carried out in temperature controlled environments by burying dolium (fermentation jars).Small holes were drilled in the top of dolium to allow CO2 to escape.De-acidification was established using chalk or marble dust.White wine was aged on lees to enhance the flavour.Sources:Johnson & Robinson, 2001Wikipedia, 2012b