2. Three preliminary observations:
Persisting Faith in Higher Education
Higher Education a privileged of the few
Paucity of data
Key Issues:
Equitable Access
Quality in Higher Education
Indications of Success
The Way Forward
2
3. Persisting Faith in Higher Education
“We are in a transition period where intellectual capital, brainpower, is
replacing financial and physical as the key to our strength, prosperity, and
well being. In a very real sense, we are entering a new age, an age of
knowledge, in which the key strategic resources necessary for prosperity has
become knowledge itself, that is, educated people and their ideas. As our
society becomes ever more knowledge-intensive, it becomes ever more
dependent upon those social institutions that create knowledge, that educate
people, and that provide them with knowledge and learning resources
throughout their lives.” James J. Duderstadt, 2010. A University for the
21st Century. pp 13-14.
“Higher education has the potential of providing African-led solutions to
African problems in the spirit of Africa’s collective vision.” African Union,
The 2nd Decade of Education for Africa, 2007.
“Kenya will provide globally competitive quality education, training and
research to her citizens for development and enhanced individual well-
being…. Public and private universities will be encouraged to expand
enrolment, with an emphasis on science and technology courses” Kenya
Vision 2030, Chapter 5,sec1.
3
4. HE a Privilege for the Few:
Higher Education refers to “post secondary education (or study beyond the level of
post secondary education,)where degree, diploma, or a certificate is awarded at the
end of study.”(AU,2007). It includes universities polytechnics and technical colleges
and other specialized training institutions after secondary education. (Association of
African Universities, 2006)
In 2010, there were 357,488 students who sat for Kenya Certificate for
Secondary Education (KCSE). This represented about 10 percent of the
age cohort 18-24.
27% of the KCSE candidates (97,134) scored grade C+ and above
qualifying them for consideration for university education in Kenya( public
and private) and foreign universities and colleges
However the majority of the secondary school leavers with (grade C and
below) were destined to compete for access to middle level colleges, training
colleges, technical institutions, formal employment, self-employment, or
remain unemployed. This is annual circle.
Hence in discussing equitable access we need to recognize that only a
small proportion of African youth age between 18-24 are accessing HE.
(World Bank 2009, Accelerating Catch-up: Tertiary Education for Growth in
Sub-Saharan Africa, pp 51)
4
5. This year there were 413,696 candidates taking KCSE, we
estimate that 30%will qualify to be considered for university
education and other tertiary institutions in Kenya.
The rest will join the swelling ranks of youth searching for the
few opportunities in the economy.
The picture in some sub-Saharan African countries is similar
to the Kenyan situation, while in others is worse- especially
those emerging from wars and conflicts.
According to UNESCO,2011 EFA Global Monitoring
Report, only 6% of the age cohort have access to tertiary
education, compared to 70% in North America and
Western Europe.
5
6. Paucity of data
In carrying out research of HE in the region one encounters the
challenge of accurate and up-to-date data on all aspect of the
development of HE
The PUIB report recommended that management information system
for the entire education system in Kenya needed to be put in place
both at national and institutional levels. This would be a starting point
of any credible research of HE
A discourse on issues of equity and quality in HE need systematic,
accurate and in-depth data to come to grips with these concepts and
prevailing trends
The paucity of data encountered has constrained the kind of analysis
required in discourses of this kind. Lack of update research looking
into these issues in any serious depth is also a limiting factor.
6
7. This leads us to three critical Questions of this
presentation:
Are the limited opportunities for HE equitably
distributed?
Are those few accessing HE, experiencing or exposed to
the desired quality and relevant education?
Are students accessing HE prepared prior to entry, upon
entrance, and when exposed to higher education
experience for success expected of them at this level of
education( acquisition of requisite knowledge, skills,
values and preparation for life)?
7
8. Paucity of data
In carrying out research of HE in the region one encounters the
challenge of accurate and up-to-date data on all aspect of the
development of HE
The PUIB report recommended that management information system
for the entire education system in Kenya needed to be put in place
both at national and institutional levels. This would be a starting point
of any credible research of HE
A discourse on issues of equity and quality in HE need systematic,
accurate and in-depth data to come to grips with these concepts and
prevailing trends
The paucity of data encountered has constrained the kind of analysis
required in discourses of this kind. Lack of update research looking
into these issues in any serious depth is also a limiting factor.
8
9. Given the value associated to Higher education in distribution of various
societal goods and opportunities( employment , incomes, power and
influence, self- actualization, etc), equity in HE is an issue of paramount
economic , social and political concern.
Expansion of HE in the world and especially in developing countries last two
decades has been remarkable.
In SSA, the enrollments in tertiary education increased from 2,136,000 in
1999 to 4,140,000 in 2007 (UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report , 2010 )
The expansion is attributed to growth of enrolments in both public and
private institutions
In the past two decades enrollments in Africa have expanded annually at
8.7% ,compared to 5.1% for the world as a whole, and have tripled since
1990, to more than 4 million students (Altbach & Salmi, 2011 and UNESCO
EFA Global Monitoring Reports, 2009 and 2010 )
The number of tertiary institutions now surpasses 650 mark (some 200
public and 468 private) .The private sector has established itself as an
important part of the tertiary system, accounting for about 18 percent of
enrollments in the region. 9
10. Table 1. Total Number Students enrolled in Tertiary Education (1999, 2006 and 2007)
160,000,000
140,000,000
120,000,000
Enrollments
100,000,000
80,000,000
60,000,000 1999
40,000,000 2006
20,000,000 2007
0
Developed Developing Sub‐Saharan
World
Countries Countries Africa
1999 92,273,000 36,358,000 47,229,000 2,136,000
2006 143,723,000 43,961,000 85,331,000 3,723,000
2007 150,498,000 44,420,000 91,331,000 4,140,000
Source: UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2009 and 2010
10
11. Table 2. Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) in Tertiary Education in 1999, 2006 and 2007
Source: UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2009 and 2010
11
13. But who has benefitted from the recent expansion of higher education?
Gender Equity:
While globally the increased places in tertiary education went to
women (World Bank, 2011,World Development Report: Gender
Equality and Development, pp 59-61), gender inequalities have
persisted in most countries in sub- Saharan Africa
However, in 2008/ 2009 Cape Verde, Mauritius, Namibia and Tunisia
data indicated these countries had surpassed gender parity mark,
with more women than male students enrolled at tertiary level. Other
countries on progress towards gender parity were Uganda and
Cameroon (MDG Report 2011,p.38)
There is an emerging challenge of men accessing higher education
and especially in private higher education institutions.
13
14. Table 3. Gender Parity Index (F/M) in Tertiary Education (1999, 2006 and 2007)
Source: UNESCO EFA Global Monitoring Report, 2009 and 2010
14
15. Table 4. KCSE Candidates, C+ and above 2008 to 2011
Year Total C+ and Gender JAB Intake JAB Intake
Candidates above C+ and (%)
above
(%)
Male Female
2008 305,015 72,649 28.3 No 44,310 28,339 24,058 7.88
(%) 60.9 39.0
2009 337,404 81,048 24.0 No 50,109 30,939 24,221 7.17
(%) 61.8 38.2
2010 357,488 97,134 27.2 No 60,200 36,934 n/a n/a
(%) 61.9 38.0
2011* 413,696 123,953* 30* No n/a n/a n/a n/a
(%) n/a n/a
Source: Kenya Certificate for Secondary Education
NB: * estimates
N/A-Data not yet available
15
16. JAB Admissions into selected Degree programmes by
Gender, 2007‐2010
2007/2008 2008/2009 2009/2010 2010/2011
Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female
No 874 595 734 538 738 565 779 539
BEd
(Arts) (%) 59.5 40.5 57.7 42.3 56.6 43.4 59.1 40.9
BEd No 617 218 571 217 402 169 591 218
(SCI) (%) 73.9 26.1 72.5 27.5 70.4 29.6 73.1 26.9
No 397 257 360 183 314 305 340 230
B Com
(%) 60.7 39.3 66.3 33.7 50.7 49.3 59.6 40.4
No 113 91 154 98 123 123 126 132
Law
(%) 55.4 44.6 61.1 38.9 50 50 48.8 51.216
18. Observations on data given in slides 14, 15 and 16
Overall performance of girls in KCSE over the years
indicate their performance was far below that of boys
Less proportion of girls compete for degrees which
require high level of achievement in KCSE such as
medicine, law, commerce and engineering
In 2008 to 2011, less than 30% of women had access to
BEd (Science), Computer Science and Engineering
degree courses.
While Law, BCom and BEd (Arts) degrees courses
indicated close to gender parity. 18
19. Class: Family background and ability to pay :
There is an emergent middle class in Africa, and its expanding
(Mckinsey 2010, ADB 2011).
The socio-economic background of the parents (education,
occupation status and wealth) has become critical factors of who
gets into good quality pre-school, primary and secondary education
and eventually into universities.
Anecdote evidence indicates that the students from poor socio-
economic background are being edged out into entry to HE and in
particular in high-valued professional education (HE loans
notwithstanding).
The high social differentiation and stratification in the society is being
reproduced in the education system, and in turn reproducing and
reinforcing societal inequalities.
In Kenya, evidence seems to indicate that entry to professional
degree programmes is becoming an exclusive domain of a few well
resourced national secondary schools located in the capital and
around the Nairobi metropolis.
19
20. Inequalities in access to HE are reinforced by the current self-sponsored
programmes (Module II or parallel degree programmes),catering mainly
for those who are able to pay market fees and are often preferred because
of the resources they generate particularly in the public universities.
We have no data at the moment but the trend seem likely to become the
dominant mode of access to HE in Kenya and other East African countries .
This process is often referred to as “commercialization and privatization
of university education”(Mamdani,Mahmood, 2007;Derek Bok, 2003).
In many African countries basic, primary and secondary education both
(public and private) is highly differentiated. Children coming from high socio-
economic backgrounds tend to access high quality primary and secondary
education giving them an advantaged in access to HE.
In Kenya, the education system has become highly differentiated with private
academies catering students from high SES, enabling them to have a
disproportionate share in access to high quality national secondary schools
and in turn giving them an advantage in performance and consequently 20
access to HE.
21. Regional:
Regional imbalances in HE are rooted in historical, cultural,
economical and political development in colonial and post colonial
periods.
Uneven colonial penetration and economic development has
persisted in most of African the countries. This is the case in Kenya.
Poverty and marginalization in various regions tend to perpetuate
regional inequalities in access to basic education and eventually HE.
The cumulative effects of colonial and post-colonial policies,
conflicts and wars have tended to manifest regional inequalities
not only in provision of basic education but also HE.
21
22. As observed in Africa, only a small proportion of age cohort 18-24
have access to HE. This is below the global trend and emerging
economies.
Despite high rate expansion of HE in Africa in last ten years,
gender disparities continue to be prevalent particularly in
access to professions and scientific fields( Lumumba N’Dri
T.Assié, 2007;Jonathan, Adams et.al, 2010)
To come into grips with inequality in access to HE there is need for
accurate and up-to-date data . This should be catered for through
accurate and up-date Education Management Information System
and through research. Research of this kind can facilitate
decomposition of inequalities in HE to bring out the emerging
dimensions and complexities. Once the problem data is overcome
we could discern the various aspects of inequalities (rural vs urban,
urban rich and poor, marginalized communities, etc)
22
23. The concept of quality in higher education is a complex to define,
measure and programme for it.
Quality defines the relationship between idealized expectations and actual
outcomes (PUIB, 2006).
Quality in HE is a multi dimension concept that embrace all functions and
activities of a higher education institution (AU, 2007)
Critical components that determine quality of HE:
• The quality of students admitted:
• The caliber of staff available, their Motivation and
Commitment
• Diversity and international character of student body and
staff and programmes
• The curriculum offered: content ,coverage and quality of
delivery
• Infrastructure (ICT hubs, laboratories, libraries, lecture
theater halls, etc).
23
24. Critical components that determine quality of HE:
• Leadership, and Governance of the institutions
• Management of the people, programmes and processes
• Level of Funding: staff remuneration, staff development
implementation of curriculum, development and
maintenance of the infrastructure ,
• Graduate Schools and Institutes
• Research: relevance and output, graduation processes &
community service
• the integrity and implementation of the existing Quality
Assurance(QA) mechanisms , monitoring and evaluation
systems, internal and external .
24
25. Global perspective:
Globalization and especially global ranking, has both direct &
indirect impact on higher education, its quality and quality
assessment.
Quality in higher education has assumed great significance in recent
times in the context of “knowledge Society” Hence competition for
students, staff, research funding: Quality a critical factor
Increasing commercialization of higher education -Emergence of
cross-border institutions, Distance learning and Utilization of ICT,
institutional collaboration: student and teacher mobility (N.V.
Varghese, 2009)
Educated populations today are global citizens, so it becomes
necessary to seek international recognition and legitimatization
through quality assessment and certification according to
“international standards”
25
26. Some Observations on Quality: An African Perspectives
Rapid expansion of Higher Education Institutions of Learning spurred by
competition for limited places or opportunities as a result of increased secondary
school populations,( African population predominantly youthful)
Commercialization and “vocationalization” of institutions: “…the recent
wave of entrepreneurial behavior is a response to the reductions in government
support for higher education that began in the 1970s” (Derek Bok,2003.
Universities in the Market place: The Commercialization of Higher
Education).The establishment of Module II for students willing to pay but missed
access to public HEIs in the first merit selection could be compromising the
quality of student body in the institutions.
Weak Accreditation processes: eg Mode of introduction in curriculum for
instance Engineering, Medical and Law courses without blessings of
professional bodies. Such curricula attractive fee paying students interested in
entering high status professions.
Inadequate and outdated equipment & facilities : limited access to ICT,
research laboratories, limited access to journals,
26
27. Neglect of development of academic communities: remuneration
and rewards systems, Staff development and Capacity
development, Lack of vibrant intellectual communities and networks,
“Travelling’ lectures and falling standards” Daily Nation, pg 1-2
October 17, 2011, emphasizing the straddling phenomenon,
common in the region: The current staff strikes
Limited funding of research: Heavy teaching load, ascendency of
donor funding, Consultancy syndrome- individualization of research
enterprise. Declining staff output on Research and publications.
Limited resource attention given to graduate education: graying
intellectuals and professors, academic community overwhelmed by
the rapidly changing higher education landscape.
Weak national QA institutions: Government Leadership and
stakeholder commitment required for quality advancement through
comprehensive, independent and effective external QA mechanism.
Going beyond accreditation and licensing of private universities.
27
28. Foundations of quality in HE
Safeguard the quality of basic education and national assessment
Invest in quality academic Staff: Development and formation of graduate students
(next generation of scholars) through graduate schools. Take measures to Recruit
Rewarding , Recognize and Retain qualified personnel for teaching , management
and research. Reward excellence in teaching, learning and mentoring of
students
Strategically investments in infrastructures for enabling quality teaching, learning
and research
Reclaim research functions of the universities, and Accelerated development of
Graduate education
Diversify funding , but beware of the perverse impact of commercialization:
“…many (critics) are afraid that commercially oriented activities will come to
overshadow other intellectual values and that university programs will be judged
primarily by the money they bring in and not by their intrinsic intellectual
quality.”(Derek, Bok, 2003; Mamdani,Mahmood, 2007)
Institute transparent internal QA mechanisms, and open up for external QA
assessment s .
28
29. What constitutes success in HE is problematic and complex:
Meeting national goals: undertaking research and innovations required
and community service (realization of national Visions: Kenya 2030;
Rwanda 2020 and Tanzania 2025):
Institutional perspective: realizing the vision and mission of each the
tertiary institution (Are the staff enabling the institution realize its
mission: achieve goals through transmitting and generating knowledge,
teaching and disseminating innovations for change)
Individual goals: Are there students successful in acquiring the skills
and knowledge and values they require, are they prepared for success
in the society that has paid for their education and training. Critical
interventions for success- Orientation, mentoring, tutoring, leadership
training, accompanying students through various programmes and
activities- financial, spiritual, moral guidance, etc
Value for they money invested.
Regional and international perspective: contribution to generation of
knowledge, innovations, creativity, achievement of global and regional
competitiveness 29
30. While measurement of success from various
perspectives is complex and difficult, HE institutions
should constitute in every four/five years mechanisms of
raising the question of whether they have been
successful in implementing their missions and achieving
their targets. This can be done through internal or
external mechanisms; National QA mechanism, (ii)
Visitation and Inspection and (iii) Global and regional
ranking.
Whatever mechanism utilized to assess success, it
should involve all stakeholders (students, staff partners
and the community)
30
31. Access
Tackling poverty in the society key to equity: Recognizing the
limitations of HE in dealing with inequalities emanating and
embedded in the society, HE institutions contribution to intervention
programmes to eliminate poverty is critical (MDG goal 1) - through
courses offered, interventions given to the disadvantaged and
marginalized, relevant research and community service.
A Critically Evaluate existing intervention programs to cater for
women and students from marginalized communities.
Improve on data collection, management and analysis to monitor
emerging inequalities (gender, regional, ethnic and class
inequalities) and being in forefront in rallying the communities, policy
makers, civil society to deal with the issues of access and equity.
Diversify access and equity through differentiated Tertiary
Education to create necessary skills and competences required by
diversified economies and populations
31
32. Quality:
Institutional leadership committed to quality of HE programmes is
critical, and should be accompanied by effective governance and
management structures and systems to implement changes and
reforms necessary for realization of quality objectives at institutional
levels.
Strengthen mechanisms and processes of institutional QA:
Revisit and re-evaluate ongoing commercialization programmes
to assess their impact on quality of students recruited, teaching
processes and degrees rewarded
Strengthen teaching and research functions of HEIs through
formation of qualified cadres(4Rs)
Pay attention to inputs, processes and outputs that contribute to
the quality of HE
32
33. Effectiveness of HE
The overall success of HE is realized when an effective
and enabling environment for vibrant, creative and
innovative HE is provided for through requisite funding,
infrastructural development, academic freedom and
autonomy, research engagement; and HEIs interaction
with policy makers, scholars, local and international
communities and in partnership with private and
productive sectors of the society
33
