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BVT 211 – BIOLOGY OF VECTORS
AND PARASITES
Dr. Nik Ahmad Irwan Izzauddin B. Nik Him
Room: G09/403
Email: nikirwan@usm.my
1 nutrition in protozoa
 60% - Final exam
 40% - Coursework

 - 12% - Prof Wahab
 - 14% - Dr. Nik
 - 14% - Dr. Hamady
    Nutrition and excretion/secretion in parasites
    Ecology of parasites
    Treatment and control methods in parasitology
    Introduction to vectors
    Arthropod vector  Mosquitoes
    Mosquito-borne diseases:
1.   Malaria
2.   Dengue
3.   Filariasis
NUTRITION AND
EXCRETION/SECRETION IN PARASITES
Part 1: Protozoa
HOW A PARASITE GETS NUTRIENT FROM
HOST?

 2 system are employed by parasites:
a) Direct nutrients transfer through membranes

b) Through the involvement of various specialized
   organs/ structures – permanent/temporary.
   Based on the kinds of food/ nutrients taken in – 2 class of
    protozoa

1) Phagothropic
  – if protozoa takes in large particles of food

2 ) Saprozoic – Obtaining nourishment by absorption of
    dissolved organic and inorganic materials

    The manner of nutrition in Protozoa varies, depending on
     species and where it lives.
PHAGOTHROPIC
   Feeding by engulfing a food cell or particle and ingesting
    it in a phagocytic vacuole

   In Entamoebidae family, there is a structure called
    pseudopodia (plural)/ pseudopodium (singular) involved
    in feeding.

   In ciliates there is a specialized groove or chamber in the
    cell where phagocytosis takes place, called the cytostome
    or mouth.
SPOROZOA
 The Sporozoa are parasitic protozoans that lack
  locomotor organs.
 They have no cilia, no flagella, no pseudopods.

 At some state in their life histories, they are usually
  intracellular parasites.
 The sporozoan can’t move or obtain food by itself and it
  needs to depend on it’s host for transportation and to
  obtain food.
 Feeding on the cells and body fluids of a main organism
  during their life cycle.
PART 1: PROTOZOA
   Need to reiterate the following points:
     - Protozoa consist of a single cell, although many species
    contain more than one nucleus during all or portions of
    their life cycles
      - Cytoplasm contained with a membrane
        - can be divided into ecto and endoplasm
        - many organelles/ structures
          - mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
            endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, contractile
            vacuoles, flagellum, cilium etc
a)   Pentatrichomonas hominis, a
     harmless commensal of the human
     digestive tract.
b)   A species of Trypanosoma, 15–30
     μm, from the bloodstream of
     vertebrates (both a and b have
     undulating membranes).
c)   Free-living Amoeba sp., 100–150 μm,
     showing lobopodia.
d)   Actinosphaerium sp., 200 μm (many
     species are much smaller), with
     actinopodia.
e)   Arcella vulgaris, a freshwater shelled
     ameba, about 100 μm with lobopodia.
f)   Globigerina sp., a marine
     foraminiferan up to 800 μm, with
     filopodia.
g)   Oocyst of Levineia canis, (35–42)
     (27–33) μm, a coccidian parasite of
     dogs.
h)   Zoothamnium sp. colony, individuals
     50–60 μm, colony up to 2 mm tall, an
     obligate ectocommensal ciliate of
     aquatic invertebrates.
i)   Euplotes sp., 100–170 μm, a free-
     living ciliate with ventral cirri and
     prominent oral membranes.
j)   Tetrahymena sp., ∼60 μm, a free-
     living ciliate showing ciliary rows
     (kineties)
ORGANELLES – WITH DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS

 Mitochondria – respiration, exception – anaerobic
   - Mitochondria, the organelles that bear enzymes of
  oxidative phosphorylation and the tricarboxylic acid cycle,
  often have tubular rather than lamellar cristae.
   - In addition, some amebas have branched tubular
  cristae, but in other protozoan groups the cristae may be
  absent altogether.
   - Mitochondria may be present as a single, large body, as
  in some flagellates, or arranged as elongated, sausage-
  shaped structures, as occur in pellicular ridges of some
  ciliates.
 Ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum
  – Secretory functions
 Contractile vacuoles
  – excretion of excess water
 Flagellum and cilium
  – locomotion and food gathering
 Pseudopodia - are temporary extensions of the cell
  membrane and
     - are found in amebas as well as in a variety of cell
  types in other organisms.
    - Pseudopodia function in locomotion and feeding.

   All this organelles directly involved with nutrition process
PHYLUM RHIZOPODA
                   .
   Take up dissolved organics directly across the cell
    membranes,

   The most common mechanisms of ingestion are pinocytosis
    and phagocytosis.

   The size of the food vacuoles varies greatly, depending on the
    primarily on the size of the food materials ingested.

    Ingestion can occur anywhere on the surface of the body,
    there being no distinct cytostome.

   Most rhizopodans are carnivores and frequently predaceous.
   A food vacuole forms from invagination in the cell surface –
    sometimes called a food cup – that pinches off and drops inward.

   This process called endocytosis, occurs in response to stimulus at
    the environment.

   Vacuole formation in rhizopodans may be induced either mechanical
    or chemical stimuli

   Even nonfood items may be incorporated into food vacuoles, but they
    are soon ingested.

   Not only the size of food item, but also the amount of water taken in
    during feeding determine the size of the food vacuole.
is the case when a molecule causes the cell membrane to bulge
inward, forming a vesicle
surrounding of food particles
 - pushing of food particles into its cytoplasm
   If live prey been ingested, they generally die within a few
    minutes from the paralytic and proteolytic enzymes
    present.

   Undigested material that remains within the vacuole wall
    reincorporated into cell membrane.

   In most rhizopodans this process of cell defecation may
    occur anywhere on the body, but in some active forms it
    tend to take place at or near the trailing end of the moving
    cell.
The streaming of protoplasm inside the
   pseudopods moves the amoeba
   forward.
Amoeba make contacts with a food
   particle.

The pseudopods surround the particle.

After the food is corralled by the amoeba,
   an opening in the membrane allows the
   food particle to pass into the cell.

Inside the cell, the food is enclosed within
    food vacuoles, digested by enzymes,
    and assimilated by the amoeba.
The amoeba expels particles that are not
    acceptable as food.
B) Uptake of dissolved
nutrients through a
pinocytotic channel in
Amoeba

C) Two ameba ingested
ciliates by phagocytosis.
PHYLUM KINETOPLASTIDA




                    Trypanosoma brucei, a blood
                    stream parasite
   All kinetoplastids are heterotropic.

   Free-living bodonids capture particulate food, primarilly
    bacteria, with the aid of anterior flagellum and ingest
    through a permanent cytostome.

   The cytostome leads to a cytopharynx which is supported
    by microtubules

   At the base of the cytopharynx, food is enclosed in food
    vacuoles by endocytosis
1 nutrition in protozoa
   Unfortunately, little is known about feeding mechanisms in
    trypanosomes, all of which are parasitic.

   Some trypanosomes have cytostome-cytopharyngeal complex
    through which proteins are ingested.

   The proteins are taken into food vacuoles by pinocyctosis at
    the base of cytopharynx.

   It has also reported that some trypanosomes can take in
    proteins by pinocyctosis from the membrane lining the flagellar
    pocket or by some sort of cell membrane mediated
    mechanism.
PHYLUM APICOMPLEXA




                 An apicomplexan sporozoite or merozoite
                 illustrating the apical complex and other
                 structures typical of this life-cycle stage.
   The alveoli are interrupted at both the anterior and posterior
    ends, and at tiny invaginations of the cell membranes called
    microspores, which have been implicated in feeding.

   Nutrient ingestion is thought to occur primarily by pinocytosis
    or phagocytosis at the microspores.

   In the haemosporidians, ingestion of the host’s cytoplasm
    through the microspores has been observed.

   Absorption of the nutrients in some gregarines at the point
    where the parasite attaches to the host’s cell.
B and C: The body of a
gregarine is commonly into
3 three recognizable
regions
PLASMODIUM
   Malaria parasites transport carbohydrates, amino acids, purine
    nucleosides, fatty acids, complex lipids, anions and cations
    and the presence of the parasite confers upon the infected red
    cell pathological alterations in nutrient transport that may
    favour the development of the parasite.

   The asexual stages of the parasite within the red cell lack
    stored carbohydrate but require considerable quantities of
    glucose to fuel their active metabolism and division.

   Infected erythrocytes use between 10 and 50 times more
    glucose than uninfected cells and the parasite appears to
    induce permeability changes in the red cell membrane which
    facilitate the passage of host glucose and amino acids into the
    erythrocyte.
   The nutritional source of amino acids for intracellular stages of
    malaria is not fully understood; haemoglobin digestion
    undoubtedly provides significant amounts, but the infected red
    cell also shows increased transport of free amino acids in
    culture.

   In P. falciparum, these changes in amino acid transport rates
    are first seen 15 hours after invasion and the infected
    erythrocyte loses energy'coupled transport systems in favour
    of diffusion; whether these amino acids enter the parasite itself
    by carrier mediated transport or by diffusion remains to be
    determined and awaits the development of methods permitting
    culture of the asexual stages of the parasite outside the red
    cell.
   Malaria parasites transport exogenous purine nucleosides but
    not pyrimidines.

   This may be related to their inability to synthesize the purine
    ring de novo.

   Parasites liberated from red cells may accumulate certain
    purines (e.g. adenosine, guanosine and hypoxanthine) and
    can incorporate radioactivity from labelled adenosine, AMP
    and ATP.

   Several studies have demonstrated that lipids (i.e. free fatty
    acids, cholesterol and phospholipid) are readily incorporated
    into malaria parasites resident within the red cell but the
    transport processes involved are unknown.
PHYLUM DIPLOMONADIDA
   Most diplomonads are phagotrophic and feed on
    bacteria.

   These forms have a cytostome through which
    endocytosis of the bacteria occur.

   Other genera susch as Giardia lack of cytostomes and
    are saprozoic, feeding by pinocytosis on mucous
    secretions of the host’s intestinal tissue.
   All parabasilids are heterotrophic and lack of cystome.

   Fluid is taken up by pinocytosis in depression of cell surface.

   Some take in by phagoctosis.

   In heypermastigotes, pseudopodia formed in a sensitive region
    at the posterior end of the cell engulf wood particles.

   Trichomonads also form pseudopodia that engulf bacteria,
    cellular debris and leukocytes
(a) Trichomonas foetus; (b) Trichomonas vaginalis
PHYLUM CHILIOPHORA
   The ciliates include may different feeding types.

   Some are filter feeders, other capture and ingest other
    protista or small invertebrates, many eat algal filaments or
    diatoms, some graze on attached bacteria, and a few are
    saprophytic parasites.

   In most ciliates, feeding is restricted to a specialized oral
    area containing the cytostome or ‘the cell mouth’.

   Food vacuoles are formed at the cytostome and then are
    circulated through the cytoplasm a digestion occurs.
   There are a variety of structures associated with, and
    modifications of the cytostome.

   Holozoic ciliates that ingest relatively large food items usually
    possess a nonciliated tube – called the cytopharnx, which
    extend from cytosome deep into the cytoplasm.

   The wall of the cytopharynx often reinforced with rods of
    microtubules (nematodesmata).

   In Didinium, the cytopharynx is normally everted to form a
    projection that sticks to prey and then inverts back into the cell,
    thus pulling the prey into food vacuole.
   In this way Didinium can engulf its relatively gigantic prey.

   Other ciliates, such as hypostomes, have complex
    nematodesmal baskets in which microtubules work
    together to withdrawn filament of algae into cytostome,
    reminiscent on the way sucks up a piece of spaghetti.

   In most of these ciliates, the cilia around the mouth are
    relatively simple
   Other ciliates, including many of more familiar form (e.g
    Stentor) are suspension feeders.

   These often lack or have reduced cytopharynxes.

   They have elaborate speciall oral cilia for creating water
    currents, and filtering structures or scrapping devices.

   Their cytostomes often sit in a depression on the cell
    surface.
   The size of food eaten by such ciliates depends on the nature
    of feeding current and when present, the size of depression.

   The oral ciliates often consists of compound ciliary organeles,
    call the adoral zone of membranelles or simply the AZM, on the
    other side of cytostome and a row of closely situated paired
    cilia which is frequently called the paroral membrane on the
    other side.

   E.G Euplotes, Stentor, and Vorticella.

   Many hypotrichs e.g Euplotes that move about the substratum
    with their oral region oriented ventrally use their specialized
    oral ciliature to swirl settle materials into suspension and then
    into buccal cavity for ingestion.
1 nutrition in protozoa
   Among the most specialized cialite feeding methods are
    those use by suctorians, which lack cilia as adults and
    instead have knobbed feeding tentacles.

   A few suctorians, have two types of tentacles, one form
    for food capture, and another one for digestion.

   The swelling at the tips of the tentacles contains
    extrusomes called haptocysts, which are discharged upon
    contact with potential prey.
   Portions of the haptocyst penetrate the victim and hold it
    to the tentacle.

   Sometime prey are actually paralysed after contact with
    haptocycts, presumably by enzymes released during
    discharge.

   Following attachment to the prey, a temporary tube forms
    within the tentacle and the contents of the prey are
    sucked into tentacle and incorporated into food vacuoles
Phylum Ciliophora: Feeding in
suctorian ciliate Acinate.

A) Acinate has capitate feeding
   tentacles; note the absence of
   cilia
B) Contact with prey and firing of
   haptocysts into prey
C) Shortening the tentacle and
   formation of a temporary
   feeding duct within the ring of
   microtubules
D) Drawing of contents of prey into
   duct and formation of food
   vacuole
   Several other types are extrusomes are present in the
    ciliates.

   Some predatory ciliates have tubular extrusomes, called
    toxicysts, in the oral region of the cell.

   During feeding, the toxicysts are extruded and release
    their contents, which apparently include both paralytic and
    digestive enzymes.

   Active prey are first immobilised and then partially
    digested food is later taken into food vacuoles.
   Some ciliates have organelles called mucocysts located
    on the beneath the pellicle.

   Mucocysts discharge mucus onto the surface of the cell
    as a protective coating; they may also play a role in cyst
    formation.

   Other have trichocysts, which contain nail-shaped
    structures that can be discharged through the pellicle.

   This structure serve a defensive function.
Extrusomes in ciliates:
A) Toxicysts
B) Mucocysts
C) The pellicle showing of mucocysts of (rised dots) just
   below the surface
EXCRETION AND OSMOREGULATION
 Most protozoa appear to be ammonotelic; that is, they
  excrete most of their nitrogen as ammonia, most of which
  readily diffuses directly through the cell membrane into
  the surrounding medium.
 Other sometimes unidentified waste products are also
  produced, at least by intracellular parasites.
 After these substances are secreted they are
  accumulated within their host cell and, on the death of the
  infected cell, have toxic effects on the host.
 Carbon dioxide, lactate, pyruvate, and short-chain fatty
  acids are also common waste products.
 Contractile vacuoles are probably more involved with
  osmoregulation than excretion.
 Because free living, freshwater protozoa are hypertonic to
  their environment, they imbibe water continuously by
  osmosis.
 Contractile vacuoles effectively pump out the water.

 Marine species and most parasites do not form these
  vacuoles, probably because they are more isotonic to
  their environment.
 However, Balantidium species have contractile vacuoles.
CONTRACTILE VACUOLE




  Water is collected into the central ring of the vacuole and actively
  transported from the cell
RFERENCES;

 Foundations of Parasitology
 Parasitology – An Integrated Approach

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1 nutrition in protozoa

  • 1. BVT 211 – BIOLOGY OF VECTORS AND PARASITES Dr. Nik Ahmad Irwan Izzauddin B. Nik Him Room: G09/403 Email: nikirwan@usm.my
  • 3.  60% - Final exam  40% - Coursework - 12% - Prof Wahab - 14% - Dr. Nik - 14% - Dr. Hamady
  • 4. Nutrition and excretion/secretion in parasites  Ecology of parasites  Treatment and control methods in parasitology  Introduction to vectors  Arthropod vector  Mosquitoes  Mosquito-borne diseases: 1. Malaria 2. Dengue 3. Filariasis
  • 5. NUTRITION AND EXCRETION/SECRETION IN PARASITES Part 1: Protozoa
  • 6. HOW A PARASITE GETS NUTRIENT FROM HOST?  2 system are employed by parasites: a) Direct nutrients transfer through membranes b) Through the involvement of various specialized organs/ structures – permanent/temporary.
  • 7. Based on the kinds of food/ nutrients taken in – 2 class of protozoa 1) Phagothropic – if protozoa takes in large particles of food 2 ) Saprozoic – Obtaining nourishment by absorption of dissolved organic and inorganic materials  The manner of nutrition in Protozoa varies, depending on species and where it lives.
  • 8. PHAGOTHROPIC  Feeding by engulfing a food cell or particle and ingesting it in a phagocytic vacuole  In Entamoebidae family, there is a structure called pseudopodia (plural)/ pseudopodium (singular) involved in feeding.  In ciliates there is a specialized groove or chamber in the cell where phagocytosis takes place, called the cytostome or mouth.
  • 9. SPOROZOA  The Sporozoa are parasitic protozoans that lack locomotor organs.  They have no cilia, no flagella, no pseudopods.  At some state in their life histories, they are usually intracellular parasites.  The sporozoan can’t move or obtain food by itself and it needs to depend on it’s host for transportation and to obtain food.  Feeding on the cells and body fluids of a main organism during their life cycle.
  • 10. PART 1: PROTOZOA  Need to reiterate the following points: - Protozoa consist of a single cell, although many species contain more than one nucleus during all or portions of their life cycles - Cytoplasm contained with a membrane - can be divided into ecto and endoplasm - many organelles/ structures - mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosome, contractile vacuoles, flagellum, cilium etc
  • 11. a) Pentatrichomonas hominis, a harmless commensal of the human digestive tract. b) A species of Trypanosoma, 15–30 μm, from the bloodstream of vertebrates (both a and b have undulating membranes). c) Free-living Amoeba sp., 100–150 μm, showing lobopodia. d) Actinosphaerium sp., 200 μm (many species are much smaller), with actinopodia. e) Arcella vulgaris, a freshwater shelled ameba, about 100 μm with lobopodia. f) Globigerina sp., a marine foraminiferan up to 800 μm, with filopodia. g) Oocyst of Levineia canis, (35–42) (27–33) μm, a coccidian parasite of dogs. h) Zoothamnium sp. colony, individuals 50–60 μm, colony up to 2 mm tall, an obligate ectocommensal ciliate of aquatic invertebrates. i) Euplotes sp., 100–170 μm, a free- living ciliate with ventral cirri and prominent oral membranes. j) Tetrahymena sp., ∼60 μm, a free- living ciliate showing ciliary rows (kineties)
  • 12. ORGANELLES – WITH DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS  Mitochondria – respiration, exception – anaerobic - Mitochondria, the organelles that bear enzymes of oxidative phosphorylation and the tricarboxylic acid cycle, often have tubular rather than lamellar cristae. - In addition, some amebas have branched tubular cristae, but in other protozoan groups the cristae may be absent altogether. - Mitochondria may be present as a single, large body, as in some flagellates, or arranged as elongated, sausage- shaped structures, as occur in pellicular ridges of some ciliates.  Ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum – Secretory functions
  • 13.  Contractile vacuoles – excretion of excess water  Flagellum and cilium – locomotion and food gathering  Pseudopodia - are temporary extensions of the cell membrane and - are found in amebas as well as in a variety of cell types in other organisms. - Pseudopodia function in locomotion and feeding.  All this organelles directly involved with nutrition process
  • 15. Take up dissolved organics directly across the cell membranes,  The most common mechanisms of ingestion are pinocytosis and phagocytosis.  The size of the food vacuoles varies greatly, depending on the primarily on the size of the food materials ingested.  Ingestion can occur anywhere on the surface of the body, there being no distinct cytostome.  Most rhizopodans are carnivores and frequently predaceous.
  • 16. A food vacuole forms from invagination in the cell surface – sometimes called a food cup – that pinches off and drops inward.  This process called endocytosis, occurs in response to stimulus at the environment.  Vacuole formation in rhizopodans may be induced either mechanical or chemical stimuli  Even nonfood items may be incorporated into food vacuoles, but they are soon ingested.  Not only the size of food item, but also the amount of water taken in during feeding determine the size of the food vacuole.
  • 17. is the case when a molecule causes the cell membrane to bulge inward, forming a vesicle surrounding of food particles - pushing of food particles into its cytoplasm
  • 18. If live prey been ingested, they generally die within a few minutes from the paralytic and proteolytic enzymes present.  Undigested material that remains within the vacuole wall reincorporated into cell membrane.  In most rhizopodans this process of cell defecation may occur anywhere on the body, but in some active forms it tend to take place at or near the trailing end of the moving cell.
  • 19. The streaming of protoplasm inside the pseudopods moves the amoeba forward. Amoeba make contacts with a food particle. The pseudopods surround the particle. After the food is corralled by the amoeba, an opening in the membrane allows the food particle to pass into the cell. Inside the cell, the food is enclosed within food vacuoles, digested by enzymes, and assimilated by the amoeba. The amoeba expels particles that are not acceptable as food.
  • 20. B) Uptake of dissolved nutrients through a pinocytotic channel in Amoeba C) Two ameba ingested ciliates by phagocytosis.
  • 21. PHYLUM KINETOPLASTIDA Trypanosoma brucei, a blood stream parasite
  • 22. All kinetoplastids are heterotropic.  Free-living bodonids capture particulate food, primarilly bacteria, with the aid of anterior flagellum and ingest through a permanent cytostome.  The cytostome leads to a cytopharynx which is supported by microtubules  At the base of the cytopharynx, food is enclosed in food vacuoles by endocytosis
  • 24. Unfortunately, little is known about feeding mechanisms in trypanosomes, all of which are parasitic.  Some trypanosomes have cytostome-cytopharyngeal complex through which proteins are ingested.  The proteins are taken into food vacuoles by pinocyctosis at the base of cytopharynx.  It has also reported that some trypanosomes can take in proteins by pinocyctosis from the membrane lining the flagellar pocket or by some sort of cell membrane mediated mechanism.
  • 25. PHYLUM APICOMPLEXA An apicomplexan sporozoite or merozoite illustrating the apical complex and other structures typical of this life-cycle stage.
  • 26. The alveoli are interrupted at both the anterior and posterior ends, and at tiny invaginations of the cell membranes called microspores, which have been implicated in feeding.  Nutrient ingestion is thought to occur primarily by pinocytosis or phagocytosis at the microspores.  In the haemosporidians, ingestion of the host’s cytoplasm through the microspores has been observed.  Absorption of the nutrients in some gregarines at the point where the parasite attaches to the host’s cell.
  • 27. B and C: The body of a gregarine is commonly into 3 three recognizable regions
  • 28. PLASMODIUM  Malaria parasites transport carbohydrates, amino acids, purine nucleosides, fatty acids, complex lipids, anions and cations and the presence of the parasite confers upon the infected red cell pathological alterations in nutrient transport that may favour the development of the parasite.  The asexual stages of the parasite within the red cell lack stored carbohydrate but require considerable quantities of glucose to fuel their active metabolism and division.  Infected erythrocytes use between 10 and 50 times more glucose than uninfected cells and the parasite appears to induce permeability changes in the red cell membrane which facilitate the passage of host glucose and amino acids into the erythrocyte.
  • 29. The nutritional source of amino acids for intracellular stages of malaria is not fully understood; haemoglobin digestion undoubtedly provides significant amounts, but the infected red cell also shows increased transport of free amino acids in culture.  In P. falciparum, these changes in amino acid transport rates are first seen 15 hours after invasion and the infected erythrocyte loses energy'coupled transport systems in favour of diffusion; whether these amino acids enter the parasite itself by carrier mediated transport or by diffusion remains to be determined and awaits the development of methods permitting culture of the asexual stages of the parasite outside the red cell.
  • 30. Malaria parasites transport exogenous purine nucleosides but not pyrimidines.  This may be related to their inability to synthesize the purine ring de novo.  Parasites liberated from red cells may accumulate certain purines (e.g. adenosine, guanosine and hypoxanthine) and can incorporate radioactivity from labelled adenosine, AMP and ATP.  Several studies have demonstrated that lipids (i.e. free fatty acids, cholesterol and phospholipid) are readily incorporated into malaria parasites resident within the red cell but the transport processes involved are unknown.
  • 32. Most diplomonads are phagotrophic and feed on bacteria.  These forms have a cytostome through which endocytosis of the bacteria occur.  Other genera susch as Giardia lack of cytostomes and are saprozoic, feeding by pinocytosis on mucous secretions of the host’s intestinal tissue.
  • 33. All parabasilids are heterotrophic and lack of cystome.  Fluid is taken up by pinocytosis in depression of cell surface.  Some take in by phagoctosis.  In heypermastigotes, pseudopodia formed in a sensitive region at the posterior end of the cell engulf wood particles.  Trichomonads also form pseudopodia that engulf bacteria, cellular debris and leukocytes
  • 34. (a) Trichomonas foetus; (b) Trichomonas vaginalis
  • 36. The ciliates include may different feeding types.  Some are filter feeders, other capture and ingest other protista or small invertebrates, many eat algal filaments or diatoms, some graze on attached bacteria, and a few are saprophytic parasites.  In most ciliates, feeding is restricted to a specialized oral area containing the cytostome or ‘the cell mouth’.  Food vacuoles are formed at the cytostome and then are circulated through the cytoplasm a digestion occurs.
  • 37. There are a variety of structures associated with, and modifications of the cytostome.  Holozoic ciliates that ingest relatively large food items usually possess a nonciliated tube – called the cytopharnx, which extend from cytosome deep into the cytoplasm.  The wall of the cytopharynx often reinforced with rods of microtubules (nematodesmata).  In Didinium, the cytopharynx is normally everted to form a projection that sticks to prey and then inverts back into the cell, thus pulling the prey into food vacuole.
  • 38. In this way Didinium can engulf its relatively gigantic prey.  Other ciliates, such as hypostomes, have complex nematodesmal baskets in which microtubules work together to withdrawn filament of algae into cytostome, reminiscent on the way sucks up a piece of spaghetti.  In most of these ciliates, the cilia around the mouth are relatively simple
  • 39. Other ciliates, including many of more familiar form (e.g Stentor) are suspension feeders.  These often lack or have reduced cytopharynxes.  They have elaborate speciall oral cilia for creating water currents, and filtering structures or scrapping devices.  Their cytostomes often sit in a depression on the cell surface.
  • 40. The size of food eaten by such ciliates depends on the nature of feeding current and when present, the size of depression.  The oral ciliates often consists of compound ciliary organeles, call the adoral zone of membranelles or simply the AZM, on the other side of cytostome and a row of closely situated paired cilia which is frequently called the paroral membrane on the other side.  E.G Euplotes, Stentor, and Vorticella.  Many hypotrichs e.g Euplotes that move about the substratum with their oral region oriented ventrally use their specialized oral ciliature to swirl settle materials into suspension and then into buccal cavity for ingestion.
  • 42. Among the most specialized cialite feeding methods are those use by suctorians, which lack cilia as adults and instead have knobbed feeding tentacles.  A few suctorians, have two types of tentacles, one form for food capture, and another one for digestion.  The swelling at the tips of the tentacles contains extrusomes called haptocysts, which are discharged upon contact with potential prey.
  • 43. Portions of the haptocyst penetrate the victim and hold it to the tentacle.  Sometime prey are actually paralysed after contact with haptocycts, presumably by enzymes released during discharge.  Following attachment to the prey, a temporary tube forms within the tentacle and the contents of the prey are sucked into tentacle and incorporated into food vacuoles
  • 44. Phylum Ciliophora: Feeding in suctorian ciliate Acinate. A) Acinate has capitate feeding tentacles; note the absence of cilia B) Contact with prey and firing of haptocysts into prey C) Shortening the tentacle and formation of a temporary feeding duct within the ring of microtubules D) Drawing of contents of prey into duct and formation of food vacuole
  • 45. Several other types are extrusomes are present in the ciliates.  Some predatory ciliates have tubular extrusomes, called toxicysts, in the oral region of the cell.  During feeding, the toxicysts are extruded and release their contents, which apparently include both paralytic and digestive enzymes.  Active prey are first immobilised and then partially digested food is later taken into food vacuoles.
  • 46. Some ciliates have organelles called mucocysts located on the beneath the pellicle.  Mucocysts discharge mucus onto the surface of the cell as a protective coating; they may also play a role in cyst formation.  Other have trichocysts, which contain nail-shaped structures that can be discharged through the pellicle.  This structure serve a defensive function.
  • 47. Extrusomes in ciliates: A) Toxicysts B) Mucocysts C) The pellicle showing of mucocysts of (rised dots) just below the surface
  • 48. EXCRETION AND OSMOREGULATION  Most protozoa appear to be ammonotelic; that is, they excrete most of their nitrogen as ammonia, most of which readily diffuses directly through the cell membrane into the surrounding medium.  Other sometimes unidentified waste products are also produced, at least by intracellular parasites.  After these substances are secreted they are accumulated within their host cell and, on the death of the infected cell, have toxic effects on the host.  Carbon dioxide, lactate, pyruvate, and short-chain fatty acids are also common waste products.
  • 49.  Contractile vacuoles are probably more involved with osmoregulation than excretion.  Because free living, freshwater protozoa are hypertonic to their environment, they imbibe water continuously by osmosis.  Contractile vacuoles effectively pump out the water.  Marine species and most parasites do not form these vacuoles, probably because they are more isotonic to their environment.  However, Balantidium species have contractile vacuoles.
  • 50. CONTRACTILE VACUOLE Water is collected into the central ring of the vacuole and actively transported from the cell
  • 51. RFERENCES;  Foundations of Parasitology  Parasitology – An Integrated Approach