Food Diversification and Income Generation: The Role of a Crop Utilization Specialist

Food Diversification and Income Generation:
The Role of a Crop Utilization Specialist

Presented at the Contract Review Seminar, 29 June 2010.

International Institute of Tropical Agriculture – Institut international d’agriculture tropicale – www.iita.org

Outline • Introduction

• What we have achieved

• What we plan to do in the near
future


von Grebner K., Fritschel H., Nestorova B., Olofinbiyi O., Pandya-Lorch R., Yohannes Y., 2008. Global Hunger Index. The Challenge of
Hunger 2008. Welthungerhilfe, IFPRI, CONCERN. Bonn, Washington D.C., Dublin. Available online under
http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/cp/ghi08.pdf

Levels and Trends in Childhood Stunting in Sub-
Saharan Africa


Geographical distribution of vitamin A deficiency

Preschool children
X 1.5 % and VAD 15 %

X 1.5 % or VAD 15 %

X =0.5 % to 1.49 % and VAD <15 %

X <1.5 % and VAD <15 %

* serum retinol concentrations < 0.70 µmol/L
or abnormal conjunctival impression
cytology, and xerophthalmia (X), all active
stages combined

Pregnant women
VAD 20 % and XN 1.5 %
VAD 20 % or XN 1.5 %
VAD <20 % or XN <1.5 %

* serum or breast milk retinol
concentrations <1.05 µmol/L and
maternal night blindness, based on extant
data for either or both indicators
West. J Nutr 2002;132:2857S-66S.

Population Figures for West and Central Africa

 Population of the 22 countries considered
together will increase from current level of
417 million to 527 million in 2020 and over
883 million in 2050.

 By 2020, an equal number of the population
will live in rural and urban areas.

 Beyond 2020, the urban population is
projected to rapidly outgrow the population in
rural areas.

 By 2050, 67% of the region’s population will
live in urban areas.

The food industry in West and Central Africa

• Consists of the large foreign-supported companies;
government owned or sponsored, medium-scale, small-
scale and cottage enterprises

• The large-scale food industries are located
predominantly in urban areas

• They are mainly involved in brewing, beverage
production, flour milling, production of complementary
foods, vegetable oil refining, and bakery products.

Small and • Root and tuber processing, especially
medium scale cassava and yam processing
industries • Cereal and legume processing
• Baking
• Fruit and vegetable processing
• Brewing and beverage production
• Flour milling
• Vegetable oil processing
• Fish and meat smoking and drying
• Production of condiments

Quality Characteristics (Food quality/end-user attributes)

• Quality is a combination of product properties or attributes which
can play a crucial role in defining end user acceptability

• Properties considered:
a) Organoleptic and sensory attributes
b) Safety
c) Nutritional value including bioavailability
d) Functional properties
e) Stability during storage


Representative chromatograph of carotenoid extract from raw cultivars
of cassava.

All trans beta carotene was the predominant species

Both 9- and 13-cis isomers were present

Tuber contents of total carotenoids and dry matter in genotypes of
D. dumetorum
Genotype Total Carotenoids Dry matter content
(µg/g fresh weight) (%)
TDd 3102 27.5 27.7
TDd 2788 26.6 27.6
TDd 04-16 22.2 24.7
TDd 3776 1.2 30.5
TDd 3112 0.55 26.5
TDd 3101 5.7 24.4
Mean 8.8 25.7
SE 1.34 0.40
Range 0.55-27.5 20.3-30.5


Representative chromatograph of carotenoid
extract from raw genotypes of D. dumetorum.

β-cryptoxanthin-5,6-epoxide
β -carotene-5.8-epoxide

β -carotene

Provitamin A activity of yam tubers of D.
dumetorum

• Provitamin A value was calculated
by adding
– All trans -carotene (assuming
100 % activity)
– ½ trans- -carotene-5,8-epoxide
– ½ carotne-5,6-epoxide,
– ½ cryptoxanthin-5,6-epoxide
– ½ cis- -carotene.

• Provitamin A activity ranged from
2.07 – 15.01 g/g with a mean of
8.92 g/g

Frequency distribution of protein contents
(percentage on dry matter basis) in grains of 846
cowpea germplasm lines.
Protein

420

350

280
Frequency

210

140

70

0
15.1-18.0 18.1-21.0 21.1-24.0 24.1-27.0 27.1-30.0 30.1-33.0
Protein


Location means for ascorbic acid and phytate
concentration of D. rotundata yam genotypes

Ascorbic Acid Phytate
(mg/100g fresh wt. (mg/100g dry wt.
basis) basis)
Abuja Ibadan Ubiaja Abuja Ibadan Ubiaja
Mean 1.29 1.34 0.95 3.05 3.53 1.84
Min 5.66 7.62 6.41 3.50 5.85 10.17
Max 11.14 13.24 10.72 14.10 17.27 16.72
Std dev 1.29 1.34 0.95 3.05 3.53 1.84
SE 0.30 0.30 0.21 0.70 0.79 0.41


Study Nutrient losses during processing

Cassava (i) Peeling
Processing
(ii) Chipping, crushing, milling, slicing or grating
(iii) Dehydration by pressing, decanting, or drying
in the sun
(iv) Fermenting by soaking in water, heaping or
stacking
(v) Sedimentation
(vi) Sieving
(vii) Cooking, boiling, toasting or steaming.


Maize • Winnowing to remove
processing
extraneous matter

• Shelling of kernels from the cob

• Steeping in water

• Milling with disc attrition mills

• Fermentation

• Cooking (stir-cooking)


The need for retention studies

• Nutrient intakes of individuals and populations is calculated
using food composition tables

• Because varieties, growing conditions, and processing methods
differ in various localities

• The actual content of a nutrient in a food may differ
significantly from that reported in food composition tables


Relative amounts of cis isomers of BC in raw and processed
cassava storage roots

Genotype Raw Processed (% cis isomers)

Boiled Gari Fufu
01/1371 31.8 0.1 38.8 1.1 33.3 0.1 40.3 0.3
01/1412 45.2 0.3 43.0 0.2 57.0 0.6 46.3 0.6
01/1663 30.6 0.7 45.8 0.1 48.0 0.2 38.0 0.4

Relative amounts of cis isomers generally increased as a result of
processing, although this appeared to be influenced by genotypes
Thakkar, et al. 2009. J. Agric and Food Chemistry

Content and isomers of BC in raw and processed cassava storage
roots per unit dry weight (µg/g) for genotype 01/1371

Product Moisture All trans BC 13 cis BC 9 cis BC
content (%)
Raw 82.0 0.5a 27.9 0.87a 5.0 0.18a 8.0 0.26a
Boiled 81.8 0.3a 25.5 0.92a 10.5 0.42b 5.7 1.99b
Gari 55.4 0.2b 14.6 0.6b 3.6 0.40a 3.7 0.25c
Fufu 90.7 0.1c 28.9 0.72a 8.8 0.16b 10.8 0.21d

Total BC content was not markedly changed by boiling raw cassava for 30 min or
by ferementation followed by boiling for 10 min.
Thakkar, et al. 2009. J. Agric and Food Chem

Retinol Activity Equivalence (RAE) for raw and processed
cassava storage roots per 100g (dry weight)

Processed
Genotype Raw Boiled Gari Fufu

RAE per 100 g dry weight
01/1371 286.7 280.0 152.1 322.5
01/1412 202.9 282.5 120.4 214.6
01/1663 200.4 252.5 120.4 227.1
Average 230.0a 271.7b 131.0c 254.7b


Effect of roasting the fermented cassava at reduced
temperature (165 C) for 5-20 min on BC retention
Gari initially
was prepared
by roasting
fermented
cassava
(01/1371) for
20 min at
195 C. This
resulted in the
loss of 90% of
total BC. Total
BC decreased
37% after
roasting at the
lower
temperature for
5 min
Thakkar, et al. 2009. J. Agric and Food Chemistry

Percent true retention of vitamin C from sun-dried cassava chips
produced from white and yellow-fleshed genotypes

Genotype Raw storage Sun-dried % True
roots chips Retention
(mg/100g) (mg/100g)
07/0614 17.5 10.6 11.8
07/0649 36.1 8.8 6.8
TME 117 29.4 13.0 11.6
TME 693 30.3 11.6 12.0
Mean 22.8 11.1 10.8
SE 1.5 0.9 0.8
Range 14.5-36.1 6.5-18.8 5.8-16.4

Bioavailability
• In Vitro
Piglet Feeding Trial
In Vitro Digestion/Caco-2Digestion/Caco-2 Cell
(n=3-6)
Cell Model (n=20-200) Model
• ((n = 20 – 200)

Human Feeding Trial,
Efficacy, and Impact
(n=2-3)


Determine bioavailability of desired nutrients in
processed foods

• Bioaccessibility: how much carotenoid is released from the food matrix and
available for absorption.
– 100% ~ all ingested b-carotene is released.

• Bioavailability: fraction of ingested nutrient available for utilization or storage.
– 100% ~ all ingested b-carotene is absorbed.

• Bioconversion: proportion of bioavailable carotene converted to retinol.
– 100% ~ all bioavailable b-carotene is converted.

• Bioefficacy: efficiency ingested carotenoids are absorbed and converted to
retinol.
– 100% ~ 1 mmol b-carotene = 2 mmol retinol.

Adapted from Tanumihardjo,
S.A.

• 40-d old male gerbils
Determine bio- 10/treatment
efficacy through
single meal
studies • 45% white cassava feed with oil
(Control),
• 45% white cassava with β-carotene
in oil (BC),
• 45% high-β-carotene cassava #1
feed with oil (Cassava),
• 45% white cassava with vitamin A
in oil (VA)
Howe, et al. 2009. British Journal of Nutrition

Bioconversion • Bioconversion rate
– assuming all vitamin A is from
cis/trans b-carotene:
3.7 mg beta carotene = 1 mg retinol

– Biofortified cassava adequately
maintained vitamin A status and was
as efficacious as b-carotene
supplementation in the gerbil model.
Howe, et al. 2009. British Journal of Nutrition


Retinol Equivalency of provitamin A rich foods: human
studies

Cassava


Complementary • Complementary foods are mainly
foods produced from cereals and tuber crops

• Functional and nutritional quality
inadequate-----high viscosity, low protein
content, and low starch digestibility

• Use of legumes to improve nutritional
quality


Disadvantage of starch staples as weaning foods

Poor Digestibility
Essential nutrients not met

Malnutrition

High viscosity- Low nutrient density Poor bioavailability


Apparent viscosity of cassava/soybean
porridges measured at 40C Conventionally
100 cooked fullfat

Conventionally
Extrusion cooked

Apparent viscosity (pa.s)
10 defatted
cooking conventionally
cooked
reduced the cassava
1 extrusion cooked
viscosity of the 1 10 100 1000 cassaa

porridges. Extrusion cooked
defatted
0.1

extrusion
cooked fullfat
0.01
composite
Shear rate (1/s) Reference
(25% soilids)

Starch Digestibility

A-C Conventionally
Starch digestibility as a function of cooked cassava,
incubation time defatted composite and
full fat composite
100 respectively
90
D-F Extrusion cooked
% Total starch

80
Hydrolysed

70 cassava, defatted and
60 full-fat composite
50 respectively
40
30
G-White Bread
20
H- commercial baby
10
cereal
0
0 50 100 150 200
I-K Raw cassava,
Time (Min) defatted and full-fat
composite respectively
A B C D E F G
H I J K

Protein quality of cassava: soybean composite porridges

Product Protein Lysine Available
content lysine
E. Full fat 15.08 5.48 3.64
E. Defatted 13.02 4.28 4.76
C. Defatted 17.48 5.36 4.86
C. Full fat 13.73 5.48 4.66
Cassava 1.8 nd nd
Commercial 13.04 6.99 7.79
food

Protein content of plain gari and gari fortified with soybean
residue at different levels

18% 1%

32%

49%


Protein (%) of kokoro produced from different ratios of maize flour
(M) and Distiller’s Spent Grain (DSG) blends

Product (%)
Protein
100:O 10.72 0.06h
95:5 11.30 0.06g
90:10 12.20 0.04f
85:15 13.50 0.12e
80:20 15.14 0.28d
75:25 15.91 0.26c
70:30 16.58 0.13b
65:35 18.06 0.14a

Wasiu et al. 2010. Submitted to Int. J. Food Sci. Tech

Sensory evaluation of Kokoro produced from different ratios of
maize flour (M) and Distiller’s Spent Grain (DSG) blends

Product Taste Appearance Overall
acceptability
100: 0 2.60 1.17d 2.40 0.84c 2.60 0.97d
95: 5 2.90 0.74cd 2.80 1.03bc 2.70 1.16d
90:10 3.10 0.74cd 3.60 1.51bc 3.30 1.16d
85:15 3.10 0.99cd 3.70 1.34b 3.60 1.58d
80: 20 3.90 0.88c 3.90 0.74b 3.70 0.82cd
75: 25 4.00 1.94c 5.60 1.71a 4.80 1.40bc
70: 30 5.40 2.22b 6.10 1.66a 5.30 1.42b
65: 35 7.00 1.83a 6.50 1.84a 7.00 1.63a

Wasiu et al. 2010. Submitted to Int. J. Food Sci. Tech

Sensory evaluation of amala made from different
ratios of yam flour and Distiller’s Spent Grain (DSG)

Product Taste Hand feel Colour Odour Overall
acceptability

100:0 3.30 2.90 2.70 3.10 3.40
95:5 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.20 3.50
90:10 4.10 4.30 3.50 4.20 4.50
85:15 3.70 3.40 3.40 4.10 3.90
80:20 3.90 4.90 4.00 4.30 4.40
75:25 4.40 5.00 4.80 4.90 5.30
70:30 4.90 6.00 4.90 5.80 4.90
65:35 6.00 6.70 5.20 6.30 6.60
Mean 4.19 4.55 3.96 4.49 4.56


Beyond the laboratory and capacity building

At least 13 Training of Trainers
Workshops

A total of 10 IT and NYSC trained

13 fabricators trained in Cameroon



b c
a
b

Total Number of farmers trained in Mozambique =2,032; Female=1380; Male =652

Photos: a-c follow up training conducted nurses from Lioma health clinic,
community health workers trained in Ruace, CLUSA extension staff respectively.

Beyond the laboratory: linking with the private sector

• A total of 24 companies in Nigeria were sampled and
grouped into 2 sectors namely: food and feed.

• A structured questionnaire was used to gather
information on raw materials and products produced,
product quality control/assurance, required raw quality
characteristics, among others.


Beyond the  53% of the surveyed companies were in the
laboratory: linking food sector and 47% in feed sector
with the private
sector
 The main raw material is soy grain and the
main secondary products are soy oil and
soy cake.

 Most of the companies listed unavailability
of soybean as a major constraint to utilizing
soybean.


Desired grain • Seed color
quality • Moisture content
characteristics • Physical appearance
• Dry matter content
• Uniform grain size
• Low impurity
• Low antinutritional factors (trypsin
inhibiter)
• Protein especially amino acids
• High oil content


Partners • Universities: Iowa State University,
Institution
Ohio State University, University of
Texas-School of Public Health,
University of Wisconsin
• National universities
• NARS, NGOs, CBOs, private sector
• HarvestPlus Consortium
• BioCassava Consortium

What we plan to do in the near future

• Food safety

• Continue with food/diet quality assessment

• On farm nutrient retention studies

• Bioavailability studies and efficacy trial

• Private sector partnership-quality
requirements and uptake of technologies

• Processing equipments


Acknowledgement

Crop Utilization Staff

A. Menkir
R. Asiedu
C. Fatokun
T. Hailu
A. Dixon
P. Kulakow
M. Gedil
L. Sanni
B. James
M. Ayodele
R. Okechukwu
G. Tarawali

THANK YOU


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