1. Chapter 4
Early Societies in South Asia
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2. Harappan society and its neighbors,
ca. 2000 B.C.E.
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3. Foundations of Harappan Society
 The Indus River
 Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges
 Major society built by Dravidian peoples, 3000-2500
BCE
 Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early cultivation of
poultry
 Decline after 1900 BCE
 Major cities: Harrapa (Punjab region and Mohenjo-Daro
(mouth of Indus River)
 70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)
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4. Mohenjo-Daro Ruins
 Population c. 40,000
 Regional center
 Layout, architecture suggests public purpose
 Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage
 Standardized weights evident throughout region
 Specialized labor
 Trade
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5. Harapan Society and Culture
 Evidence of social stratification
 Dwelling size, decoration
 Harappan Civilization: matriarchal?
 Influence on later Indian culture
 Goddesses of fertility
 Possible east/west distinctions
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6. Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization
 Reasons for disappearance unclear
 Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil
 Earthquakes?
 Flooding?
 Evidence of unburied dead
 Disappearance by 1500 BCE
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7. The Aryan “Invasion”
 Aryans, lighter-skinned invaders from the north
 Dravidians, darker-skinned sedentary inhabitants of
Harappa
 Color Bias
 Socio-Economic Implications
 Difficulty of theory: no evidence of large-scale military
conquest
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8. The Early Aryans
 Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle
 Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries
later
 Religious and Literary works: The Vedas
 Sanskrit: sacred tongue
 Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi,
Urdu, Bengali
 Four Vedas, most important Rig Veda
 1,028 hymms to gods
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9. The Vedic Age
 Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous dasas
(“enemies,” “subjects”)
 Aryans fighting Dravidians
 Also Aryans fighting each other
 Chiefdoms: Rajas
 Early concentration in Punjab, migrations further south
 Development of iron metallurgy
 Increasing reliance on agriculture
 Tribal connections evolve into political structures
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10. Varna: The Caste System
 Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians
 Brahmin, Priest
 Kshatriya, Warrior
 Vaishya, Merchant
 Sudra, Commoner
 Harijan: “Untouchables; Pariahs”
 Jati subsystem of castes
 Related to urbanization, increasing social and
economic complexity
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11. Brahmins from Bengal
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12. Patriarchy in Ancient Indian Society
 “rule of the father”
 Enforced in the The Lawbook of Manu
 Overwhelmed Harappan matriarchy?
 Caste, Jati, inheritance through male line
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13. Sati (“Suttee”)
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14. Aryan Religion
 Major deity of Rig Veda: Indra, war god
 Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods
 Role of Brahmins important
 C. 800 BCE some movement away from
sacrificial cults
 Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians
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15. Teachings of the Upanishads
 Texts that represent blending of Aryan and
Dravidian traditions
 Composed 800-400 BCE, some later collections
until 13th century CE
 Brahman: the Universal Soul
 Samsara: reincarnation
 Karma: accounting for incarnations
 Moksha: mystical ecstacy
 Relationship to system of Varna
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