Il s'agit d'un article de Walter Bockting, publié en 2008 dans Focus, une publication du AIDS Health Project, affilié à l'University of California, San Francisco.

1. v23 n2 Spring 2008
FOCUS
A Guide to Research and Counseling
Transgender Identity and HIV: venience samples.1 This meta-analysis
also indicated that HIV infection rates are
Resilience in the Face of Stigma higher among African American transgen-
der women (56 percent) than among Latina
Walter O. Bockting, PhD, LP or White transgender women (17 percent
and 16 percent, respectively). Common
risk behaviors among transgender women
Transgender people—people whose gen- included unprotected receptive anal inter-
der identity or expression differs from course (44 percent), having multiple sex-
their birth sex—have existed throughout ual partners (32 percent), sex work (42 per-
history and across cultures. In modern cent), casual sex (48 percent), and the use
times, however, this natural gender diver- of injection drugs (12 percent), hormones
sity has been reduced to the binary classi- (27 percent), and silicone (25 percent).1
fications of men (who should be masculine) Few studies have examined HIV risk
and women (who should be feminine). behavior in transgender men, but the HIV
While everyone suffers when gender prevalence for this subgroup appears rela-
is reduced to only two confining catego- tively low (2 percent).1 One exception is the
ries, transgender people experience mul- minority of transgender men who have sex
tiple forms of oppression for transgress- with men (17 percent), for whom behaviors
ing gender norms. This article explores key that can transmit HIV are prevalent and
aspects of this oppression—including invis- include unprotected anal and vaginal inter-
ibility, economic hardship, stigma, and iso- course (45 percent), substance use immedi-
lation—that make transgender people espe- ately before or during sex (27 percent) and
cially vulnerable to HIV infection and trans- multiple partners (71 percent). 2
mission. It also explores the need for HIV
prevention and service efforts that address Oppression, Economics, and HIV Risk
transgender people’s HIV risks in the con- Societal oppression of gender noncon-
text of their overall health and lives. formity makes transgender people espe-
cially vulnerable to HIV infection and
Vulnerability to HIV Infection transmission.1 This oppression reduces
One example of transgender people’s transgender people’s visibility and creates
invisibility is that, until recently, the Cen- economic hardship, which can lead to HIV
ters for Disease Control and Prevention risk.1
(CDC) did not include “transgender” as a Many transgender youth flounder aca-
category for the collection of surveillance demically or drop out of school because
data. The lack of such data is a serious they lack role models and support for their
barrier to assessing the prevalence of HIV developing gender identity. 3 This in turn
in this population. affects their future job prospects. Outright
There is mounting evidence, however, employment discrimination is common.1
that HIV prevalence is high among cer- Thus, many transgender people fear apply-
tain subgroups, particularly transgender ing for work as openly transgender people,
women—as high as 28 percent, accord- while others are afraid to undertake a gen-
ing to a recent meta-analysis of stud- der role transition because it might jeopar-
ies conducted with mostly inner-city con- dize their employment.
Spring 2008 FOCUS 1

2. Editorial: It’s Not a Silent “T” people literally do not count. Yet.
As with so much of the journey
Michelle Cataldo, LCSW, Clinical Editor toward cultural competence, per-
haps achieving transgender sensi-
tivity means making both the obvi-
Recently I attended a confer- sage without doing so, and because ous structural changes that welcome
ence featuring a compelling, articu- they felt that protection for gay, les- everyone we serve and the more
late panel that was slated to speak bian, and bisexual Americans was subtle and individual adjustments. It
on working with “LGBT” clients. better than protection for none of seems to me that Bockting and Oper-
As each panelist began, he or she the LGBT community. ario each emphasize slightly differ-
noted that the talk would cover les- Transgender invisibility and ent approaches to facilitating sexual
bian and gay issues, and that while exclusion also happens during minority health. Bockting under-
bisexual and transgender people health and mental health service scores the undeniable empowerment
face some similar challenges in provision, and I’m not always the that strong identification with the
receiving care, the talk would not first to notice the subtle and bla- transgender community brings many
address their specific concerns. tant ways this occurs. Last year our people. Operario reminds us that
I’m not sure if the panelists agency, whose direct-service clients we’ll miss the boat with many sexual
decided to frame the panel as are predominantly gay men, created minority clients if we deny the com-
“LGBT,” or if the conference organiz- its first gender-neutral bathroom. plexity of their identities, or assume
ers did, but it wasn’t the first time This simple change helped open that they feel an affiliation with one
that transgender issues have got- my eyes. Now I notice whether the “category” or another. These views
ten lost in the mix of a nominally building I’m in offers such facilities. are not mutually exclusive—nor are
inclusive group. I believe that there In this issue, Don Operario dis- they relevant only to work with sex-
are many goals toward which les- cusses the importance of gender- ual minority clients. Affiliations can
bian, gay, bisexual, and transgender neutral bathrooms, inclusive intake be empowering—and if forced on
people (and other sexual minorities) forms, and other measures in mak- clients, stifling.
can, and should, work together, and ing services friendlier to clients who But transgender people are not
other times when our needs may don’t fit into our preexisting boxes only clients. As more transgender
not overlap. But too often transgen- of gender and sexuality. Of course, researchers and service providers
der concerns are lost—as if putting it is not only LGBT service provid- come to the forefront, all kinds of
the “T” in “LGBT” were enough. We ers who must respond better to the services will become more inclu-
saw this division play out politically needs of transgender consumers. As sive and appropriate. When those
when sponsors of the Employment Walter Bockting notes in his article, designing and delivering services
Non-Discrimination Act jettisoned in the Centers for Disease Control understand both group needs and
transgender rights because they and Prevention’s national HIV sur- individual concerns, our services
feared they could not achieve pas- veillance data reports, transgender become far more client-centered.
References As a result, many transgender people sexual behavior. Each of these factors can
1. Herbst JH, Jacobs struggle to make a living. Some, after hav- influence HIV risk.
ED, Finlayson TJ, et
ing been very successful in their careers, Transgender children and youth whose
al. Estimating HIV
prevalence and risk lose their jobs after coming out. Unemploy- outward appearance, mannerisms, and
behaviors of trans- ment of transgender people is estimated interests conflict with traditional gender
gender persons in
at 23 percent.1 A scarcity of employment roles experience overt stigma from an early
the United States: A
systematic review. options increases the likelihood that some age. Other people recognize this difference
AIDS and Behavior. transgender people will engage in sex work. even before the children are old enough to
2008; 12(1): 1–17.
Sex work and lack of employment are both understand what their transgender identi-
2. Bockting WO. Gen- associated with HIV infection among trans- ties mean. These children are often subject
der identity and HIV
risk: Report from an gender people.1,4 to ridicule, and as a result, many develop
Internet-based study psychological resilience at an early age. Nev-
of the U.S. transgender Developmental Issues ertheless, they often internalize the stigma
population. Presenta-
tion at the Univer- Stigma and invisibility can negatively and develop feelings of shame.
sity Consortium for influence psychosexual development and Transgender young people whose out-
Sexuality Research and mental health, lead to loneliness and isola- ward appearance, mannerisms, and interests
Training Inaugural
Conference, Blooming- tion, and prompt transgender people to val- conform more closely to traditional gen-
ton, Ind., April 2007. idate their gender identities through risky der roles are able to “pass” as belonging to
2 FOCUS Spring 2008

3. the gender they were assigned at birth and results in mood swings that can lead to
often keep their transgender feelings secret risky sexual behaviors. Some transgender
to avoid social stigma. Because these chil- women who are the insertive partners dur-
3. Mallon GP, ed. dren do not visibly challenge societal gen- ing sex may not use condoms because femi-
Social Services der expectations, they typically do not come nizing hormones already make maintaining
with Transgender
Youth. Binghamton, out as transgender until much later in life, an erection difficult. Illicit silicone injections
N.Y.: Harrington often midlife or later. Yet the secret is isolat- at “pump parties” achieve quick results, yet
Park Press, 1999. ing, and gender-conforming children do not often lead to serious medical consequences
4. Operario D, Soma T, escape internalized stigma. and sometimes death.7 In contrast, when
Underhill K. Sex work
and HIV status among
While gender-nonconforming children are qualified medical providers administer treat-
transgender women: targets of overt stigma, they also benefit ment, hormones and surgery are safe and
Systematic review and from the consistency between their internal highly effective.8 Unfortunately, with nota-
meta-analysis. Journal
of Acquired Immune
and social identities. They receive accurate ble exceptions in Minnesota and California,
Deficiency Syndromes. social mirroring, while the gender-conform- most health insurance policies in the United
2008; 48(1): 97–103. ing child does not. For gender-conforming States exclude transgender-specific medical
5. Bockting WO, Cole- children, the mirroring of the “false self” care from coverage.
man E. Developmental
can result in an identity split. These two dif-
stages of the trans-
gender coming-out ferent developmental paths affect not only Isolation and Loneliness
process: Toward an the management of transgender feelings and The social stigma associated with gen-
integrated identity.
identity, but also personality development, der nonconformity leaves many transgender
In Ettner R, Monstrey
S, Eyler E, eds. Prin- attachment style, and overall mental health.5 individuals isolated and lonely. Isolation can
ciples of Transgender occur before a person comes out as trans-
Medicine and Sur- The Quest to Affirm Gender Identity gender, or after gender-role transition—
gery. New York: The
Haworth Press, 2007. Developing a sense of attractiveness and when a person tries to “pass” and limits
6. Kammerer N, Mason sexual competence is a key aspect of sexual association with other transgender people or
T, Connors M, et al. development. For many transgender individ- when he or she experiences overt stigma.
Transgenders, HIV/ uals, discomfort with gender roles or with Shame associated with gender noncon-
AIDS, and substance
abuse: From risk group their primary and secondary sex character- formity can lead some people to feel unlov-
to group prevention. istics complicates this task.5 This discom- able or to feel insecure about their abilities
In Bockting WO, Kirk fort causes some to delay sexual experimen- to establish and maintain intimate relation-
S, eds. Transgender
and HIV: Risks, Pre- tation, while others attempt to affirm their ships. Many men involved sexually or roman-
vention, and Care. gender identity through sexual activity. For tically with transgender women are hesitant
Binghamton, N.Y.: The example, for a transgender woman, attention to publicly acknowledge these relationships
Haworth Press, 2001.
from a male partner may serve as a strong or introduce these partners to their families.
7. Restrepo CS,
Martinez-Jimenez
validation of her femininity.6 This desire Living as “a man without a penis” may cause
S, Carillo J, et al. for validation may either undermine sexual some transgender men to feel insecure about
Illicit cosmetic sili- negotiation or result in compulsive sexual dating and relationships.
cone injections carry
lethal consequences.
behavior, or both. Together with economic Many people struggle with how and
Presentation from the hardship, it can increase the likelihood that when to disclose their transgender iden-
Annual Meeting of the some transgender people will engage in sex tity and anatomy to potential partners.
Radiological Society of
North America, Chi-
work, which often leads to substance abuse. Fear of rejection and a perceived shortage
cago, November 2006. Moreover, “the stroll” itself has long been of accepting partners impede sexual nego-
8. Gijs L, Brewaeys A. one of the few places where transgender tiation. Some people may not want to risk
Surgical treatment of people, particularly transgender women of rejection twice, first by revealing a trans-
gender dysphoria in
color, could find validation through a sense gender identity and then by insisting on
adults and adolescents:
Recent developments, of community with others like themselves. safer sex. Often, early in the coming-out
effectiveness, and chal- Fortunately, a surge in transgender commu- process, transgender individuals may use
lenges. Annual Review
nity organizing facilitated by the internet alcohol and drugs to cope with isolation
of Sex Research.
2007; 28: 178–224. has resulted in a growing number of alterna- and loneliness, thus lowering inhibitions
9. Bockting WO, Cole- tive ways to affirm identity and obtain peer and increasing risk. However, support from
man E, Benner A. support without resorting to sex work. peers, community, and family can help
Stigma, mental health, The quest to affirm gender identity leads transgender individuals conquer these chal-
and resilience among
the U.S. transgender some individuals to use hormones or sili- lenges and find love and acceptance.5
population. Presenta- cone to feminize or masculinize their bod-
tion from the First ies, often without adequate medical super- Supporting Transgender Mental Health
World Congress for
Sexual Health, Sydney, vision. In addition to the risks associated Many transgender people are vulnera-
Australia, April 2007. with sharing needles, erratic hormone use ble to anxiety, depression, and substance
Spring 2008 FOCUS 3

4. abuse, all of which are associated with HIV vice providers have developed sex-positive
risk behavior.1 In an online study of trans- and transgender-affirmative approaches
gender adults in the United States, 35 per- to HIV prevention, such as the All Gender
cent of participants reported anxiety and Health Seminars of the University of Minne-
44 percent reported depression.9 Trans- sota.11 This intervention combines education
gender women, who may suffer greater with entertainment, confronts internalized
levels of overt stigma than do transgen- transphobia, and promotes sexual self-effi-
der men, reported significantly higher lev- cacy, dating, and relationship skills—thus
els of depression (37 percent for transgen- emphasizing the full humanity of partici-
der men versus 49 percent for transgender pants and their relationship to their part-
women). Prevalence of anxiety did not dif- ners and community, and not just their indi-
fer by gender. Participants who were resil- vidual HIV risk behavior.
ient—that is, who reported good mental The diversity of the transgender popula-
health despite experiencing high levels of tion makes creating relevant and effective
stigma—reported more support from family interventions a continuing challenge to HIV
and peers and greater pride in transgender service providers. Gender identity (trans-
identity than did participants who were not gender woman versus transgender man),
as resilient.10 sexual orientation, stage of coming out, eco-
Psychotherapy can facilitate transgender nomic status, and substance use behaviors
mental health and HIV risk reduction, but all shape the context of risk. Yet prevention
the transgender community has a complex services must bring this diverse population
relationship with the field of psychotherapy. together to affirm transgender identity, build
Transgender people must undergo evalua- community, and foster empowerment.
tion by a mental health professional in order The key to promoting transgender HIV
to gain access to feminizing or masculiniz- prevention and sexual health is a greater
10. Bockting WO,
ing hormone therapy and transgender sur- understanding of transgender sexuality as
Huang CY, Ding H, et gery. This requirement can set up an adver- distinct from male and female sexuality—
al. Are transgender sarial dynamic between client and provider. as well as homosexual or heterosexual sex-
persons at higher risk
for HIV than other
Some argue that the mental health diagno- ual scripts. Transgender sexuality must
sexual minorities? A sis of Gender Identity Disorder perpetuates be explored and valued in its own right in
comparison of HIV stigma, yet this diagnosis is often a prereq- order to assist transgender people and their
prevalence and risks.
International Journal
uisite for access to transgender-specific care. sexual partners in reducing risk and experi-
of Transgenderism. In fact, treatment of anxiety, depression, encing sexuality as a positive force in their
2005; 8(2/3): 123–131. and other mental health concerns in the con- lives.
11. Bockting WO, Rob- text of a transgender-affirmative therapeutic
inson BE, Forberg JB, et Conclusion
relationship allows for successful resolution
al. Evaluation of a sex-
ual health approach of developmental tasks, acceptance of trans- Greater visibility and affirmation of trans-
to reducing HIV/STD gender identity, and a different personal gender identity are critical to promoting
risk in the transgender
relationship to sex and HIV risk.4 transgender health and HIV prevention. Over
community. AIDS Care.
2005; 17(3): 289–303. the past 15 years, transgender people have
Lessons for HIV Prevention come out, challenged gender norms, cre-
Authors For many years, the invisibility of trans- ated community, and established coalitions
Walter O. Bockting, gender people translated into an invisibil- with the gay, lesbian, and bisexual commu-
PhD, LP, is Associ-
ate Professor in the ity of the extent to which HIV and AIDS has nities. Many mental health and HIV service
Department of Fam- affected them.6 Transgender people with HIV providers have responded to these changes,
ily Medicine and disappeared into other epidemiological cat- creating environments that are increas-
Community Health
at the University of egories of risk. For example, transgender ingly responsive to transgender individuals’
Minnesota Medical women who had sex with men were catego- unique identities, needs, and strengths.
School. He coordi- rized as men who have sex with men. Yet But individual change is not enough.
nates the Program in
Human Sexuality’s the same people were excluded from ser- Many of the factors that create HIV risk
Transgender Health vices for men who have sex with men—and for transgender individuals are societal.
Services there. He is no other appropriate services were avail- In order for transgender people to become
the president-elect
of the World Profes- able. Similarly, the unique risks of transgen- less vulnerable to HIV, structural barriers
sional Association for der men who have sex with men (such as the must be addressed through public aware-
Transgender Health, possibility of vaginal intercourse) were not ness, improved access to competent health
www.wpath.org. To
contact him, e-mail addressed by prevention messages. care, and equal education and employment
bockt001@umn.edu. In response to this invisibility, some ser- opportunities. n
4 FOCUS Spring 2008

5. Outside the Box: HIV Prevention transgender women exists. Individual trans-
gender women may or may not, for exam-
with Hard-to-Categorize People ple, wish to undergo sex reassignment sur-
gery, show overtly feminine characteristics,
Don Operario, PhD or be sexually attracted to men. Amidst this
diversity, an unfortunate commonality is
social discrimination and victimization that
Conducting HIV risk assessment is often can lead to HIV risk.2
a matter of ticking off boxes. Participants Transgender women are under-
complete surveys describing their sex- researched relative to their potential for
ual practices, demo- HIV infection. Often,
graphic characteris- HIV prevention pro-
tics, and identities— grams do not address
usually by selecting
Transgender clients transgender individu-
one option from a pre- als at all. No known
specified list. Identi-
often experience randomized controlled
fying “high-risk” indi- trials have tested
viduals allows for use
environmental and the efficacy of health
of group-based coun- promotion interven-
seling protocols and
interpersonal barriers tions for transgender
for efficient target- women. Prevention
ing of public health
to care. Everything services must there-
resources.1 But pro- fore be informed by
viding HIV preven-
from an agency’s intake guidelines developed
tion services to peo- for other groups, such
ple whose behaviors
forms to its bathrooms as gay men or non-
or identities cannot transgender women,
easily be categorized
communicates its which are often inap-
remains a challenge. propriate given the
This article explores
openness to serving unique societal experi-
some of the issues ences shared by many
HIV prevention ser-
transgender people. transgender women.
vices must consider in Transgender peo-
order to serve these ple who do receive
hard-to-categorize individuals adequately. services often experience environmental
and interpersonal barriers to quality care.3
Hard-to-Categorize People From intake forms to bathrooms, the envi-
Many people at risk for HIV undermine ronment of a service agency either dimin-
the conventional social categories of female/ ishes or promotes transgender comfort. Ser-
male and heterosexual/bisexual/homo- vice providers’ adherence to an inflexible
sexual. Transgender women and their male notion of gender also contributes to sub-
partners, as well as non-gay-identified men standard service delivery. For example, pro-
who have sex with men (MSM)offer three viders might assume transgender women
clear examples of hard-to-categorize people. are sexually attracted to men or desire sex
HIV prevention interventions rarely serve reassignment surgery, beliefs that reflect
these groups adequately. These individuals the providers’ confusion of gender iden-
reveal some of the limitations and fallacies tity, sexual orientation, and anatomy. When
of group-based approaches to HIV risk iden- counseling transgender women, a more
tification and intervention. Whereas group- fluid approach is preferable.
based research is essential for clarifying the Male Partners of Transgender Women.
characteristics of people who are similarly Men who have sex with transgender women
situated (based on their gender presenta- also defy easy categorization and pose
tion or sexual behavior, for example), find- intriguing questions about sexuality, sex-
ings from these studies do not often yield ual behavior, and gendered attractions. Lit-
client-centered guidelines to help these peo- tle research has been done with this pop-
ple avoid HIV. ulation, so HIV prevalence in this group
Transgender Women. No simple profile of is unknown. However, these men engage
Spring 2008 FOCUS 5

6. in both unprotected insertive and recep- tity, and include activities to support their
tive anal intercourse with their transgender “coming out.”
women partners and unprotected insertive Men who have sex with men who do not
vaginal intercourse with post-operative embrace a gay identity may be viewed as “in
transgender women.4 They also report a denial,” or worse. A few years ago, sensation-
range of unprotected sexual behaviors with alized media coverage of African American
biological female and male partners. One MSM who have steady female partners and
study of men who have sex with transgen- who might be at risk for HIV sparked con-
der women found that troversy.7 Depictions of
these men’s sexual these men are mostly
orientation identities One study of men negative: they are por-
References did not align with par- trayed as vectors of dis-
1. Lyles CM, Kay LS, ticular sexual behav- who have sex with ease transmission, dis-
Crepaz N, et al. Best- iors.5 Another showed honest partners, and
evidence interven-
tions: Findings from a that they were equally transgender women closeted homosexuals.
systematic review of likely to identify as Such portrayals influence
HIV behavioral inter-
ventions for U.S. popu-
heterosexual, homo- found that they were some service provid-
lations at high risk, sexual, and bisexual ers and ultimately taint
2000–2004. American and that a notable equally likely to services to clients. For
Journal of Public number chose not to example, heterosexual-
Health. 2007; 97(1):
133–143. identify with any sex- identify as heterosexual, identified African Ameri-
2. Nemoto T, Oper-
ual orientation cat- can MSM have described
ario D, Keatley J, et egory.4 Transgender homosexual, and poor quality HIV coun-
al. Social context of women indicate that seling, often delivered by
HIV risk behaviours
among male-to-female
these men use con- bisexual—and many unsympathetic gay-iden-
transgenders of colour. doms inconsistently, tified men or heterosex-
AIDS Care. 2004; 16(6): especially if they did not identify with ual women, that is dis-
724–735.
are non paying part- paraging of their need to
3. Lombardi E. Enhanc-
ing transgender health
ners.2 Accounts from any sexual orientation maintain a heterosexual
care. American Journal the men themselves identity.8 In response,
of Public Health. 2001; showed different moti- category. some of these men may
91(6): 869–872.
vations for using con- opt out of HIV prevention
4. Operario D, Burton doms with biological or other health promo-
J, Underhill K, et al.
Men who have sex with females (for example, to prevent pregnancy) tion services because of anxiety about being
transgender women: versus transgender women and biological confronted with this discrepancy between
Challenges to category- men (for example, to prevent HIV with part- their sexual behavior and sexual orientation
based prevention. AIDS
and Behavior. 2008; ners of unknown status).4 identities.
12(1): 18–26. Non-Gay-Identified Men Who Have Sex
5. Bockting WO, Miner with Men. The “MSM” acronym describing Building Effective Interventions
M, Rosser BR. Latino men who have sex with men was adopted by How do we work with people whose
men’s sexual behav-
ior with transgender
researchers as a more inclusive approach to identities and behaviors defy tradi-
persons. Archives of HIV prevention, because it refers to a spe- tional standards of HIV prevention?
Sexual Behavior. 2007; cific behavior rather than a subjective iden- Investigate Needs: Research on hard-to-
36: 778–786.
tity.6 But the majority of studies of MSM in
6. Young RM, Meyer IH.
the United States include mostly homosex-
The trouble with “MSM”
and “WSW”: Erasure ual or gay-identified men; few non-gay-iden-
of the sexual-minority
person in public health
tified MSM are represented in HIV prevention Comments and Submissions
research. Perhaps these men are overlooked
discourse. American
Journal of Public by researchers, or perhaps their absence We invite readers to send letters re-
Health. 2005; 95(7): reflects the difficulty in recruiting them to sponding to articles published in FOCUS
1144–1149.
participate. or dealing with current AIDS research and
7. Malebranche DJ. Consequently, many evidence-based HIV counseling issues. We also encourage read-
Black men who have
sex with men and the interventions for MSM do not reflect an ers to submit article proposals. Send cor-
HIV epidemic: Next understanding of how to engage non-gay- respondence to rob.marks@ucsf.edu or to
steps for public health. identified MSM in services. Interventions are Editor, FOCUS, UCSF AIDS Health Project,
American Journal of
Public Health. 2003; sometimes based on the assumption that Box 0884, San Francisco, CA 94143-0884.
93(6): 862–865. participants have a fixed homosexual iden-
6 FOCUS Spring 2008

7. categorize individuals must be a priority. fixed and static categories for gender and
Using different methodologies—qualita- sexuality might deter individuals who do
tive interviews, cross-sectional and longitu- not adhere to these notions. Group-based
dinal surveys, and randomized controlled workshops might be inappropriate for non-
intervention trials—is helpful. This diver- gay-identified MSM, who might not per-
sity of approaches yields clues about how ceive themselves as belonging to a commu-
to best reach these individuals and engage nity of men with similar patterns of sex-
them in services, the prevalence and con- ual behavior. HIV prevention counseling
texts of risk they experience, and the pro- with these men may be most effective when
grams that can effectively reduce their HIV counselors focus on specific sexual behav-
transmission. There is a tension between the iors (such as insertive or receptive inter-
need for more research about HIV risk and course) men may engage in with any part-
prevention for hard-to-categorize individu- ners and on the context of high-risk sex-
8. Operario D, Smith als versus the tendency to construct sweep- ual episodes (such as sex while intoxicated)
CD, Kegeles SM. Social
and psychological con-
ing generalizations about ways of deliver- rather than on sexual identities themselves.
text for HIV risk among ing HIV services to these people. Although
non-gay-identified Afri- it may be necessary to first understand indi- Conclusions
can American MSM. To
appear in AIDS Educa-
viduals according to crude subgroup clas- By articulating their own identities and
tion and Prevention. In sifications, findings must ultimately point expressing sexual behaviors on their own
press. the way to client-centered approaches that terms, the people discussed in this article
9. Schiller NG, Crys- respect individuality and non conformity. destabilize basic assumptions about gen-
tal S, Lewellen D.
Structural Interventions: Structural inter- der dichotomy and the correspondence
Risky business: The
cultural construction ventions that acknowledge gender diver- between sexual behavior and sexual orien-
of AIDS risk groups. sity and clients’ previous gender history, tation. They also question the legitimacy of
Social Science and
such as inclusive language on service intake working models of HIV prevention, which
Medicine. 1994; 38(10):
1337–1346. forms and gender-neutral bathrooms, reflect often assume neat, bounded categories of
a consideration of and respect for transgen- sexuality and gender.9
Authors der clients. Hiring staff members who mir- This analysis does not call for an end to
Don Operario PhD, is ror client populations can facilitate access category-based approaches to HIV risk iden-
Associate Professor of and trust. Training staff members to take tification, prevention, and counseling. Risk
Medical Sciences at the
Alpert Medical School, a holistic perspective on the lives of MSM group categories simplify a complex social
Brown University. He is clients, and transgender women and their world and might be personally meaningful
also Adjunct Professor partners, is also essential. Service orga- for some individuals. Rather, this analysis of
in the Department of
Social Policy and Social nizations must examine their own staff hard-to-categorize individuals reminds us of
Work at the University and programmatic assumptions about the the often faulty assumptions that social cat-
of Oxford. To contact fixed nature of gender and sexuality. egories are based on, and stresses that when
him, e-mail don.
operario@ Acknowledge the Fluidity of Identities: As we tick boxes to categorize clients, we should
socres.ox.ac.uk. noted, intervention practices that assume do so lightly and be prepared to erase. n
Related Resources Melendez RM, Pinto R. ‘It’s really a
hard life’: Love, gender and HIV risk
among male-to-female transgender
persons. Culture, Health and
Publications Sexuality. 2007; 9(3): 233– 245. Reports
Garofalo R, Deleon J, Osmer E, et on findings from in-depth interviews
al. Overlooked, misunderstood and with 20 transgender women attending
at-risk: Exploring the lives and HIV a community clinic. Emphasizes that
risk of ethnic minority male-to- stigma and discrimination create a
female transgender youth. Journal of heightened need for love and acceptance
Adolescent Health. 2006; 38(3): 230–236. among these transgender women. This
Describes the life challenges and HIV-risk in turn leads to HIV risk, because these
behaviors of young transgender women of women are willing to engage in unsafe
color using a convenience sample of 51 youth sexual behaviors with partners who meet
aged 16 to 25 years old. Among other risks, these needs. Offers a model illustrating
nearly half the subjects reported unprotected how stigma and discrimination generate
receptive anal sex in the past year. HIV risk.
Spring 2008 FOCUS 7

8. Mottet L, Tanis J. Opening the Door to of California, San Francisco (UCSF).
the Inclusion of Transgender People: Contributions include professional training,
The Nine Keys to Making Lesbian, capacity building, and research development
Gay, Bisexual and Transgender to improve the access that transgender
FOCUS
Organizations Fully Transgender- people in California have to culturally
Inclusive. New York: National Gay competent HIV prevention services.
and Lesbian Task Force Policy
Institute and the National Center for FTM International: http://www.
Transgender Equality, 2008. Suggests ftmi.org/. Includes links to health
Executive Editor; Director,
ways that organizations can integrate information, personal stories, and
AIDS Health Project transgender-sensitive perspectives. Gives publications about transgender men
James W. Dilley, MD direction on how to create a welcoming as well as community resources for
Editor environment, deal with prejudices, transgender men and their families.
Robert Marks
Clinical Editor
acknowledge past mistakes, have more
Michelle Cataldo, LCSW transgender-inclusive programming, and HIV InSite: HIV Transmission
Founding Editor use fair employment practices. and Prevention in Transgender
Michael Helquist People: http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/
Medical Advisors Nemoto T, Sausa LA, Operario D, InSite?page=kbr-07-04-16. University
Stephen Follansbee, MD
George Harrison, MD Keatley J. Need for HIV/AIDS education of California, San Francisco web site
Design and intervention for MTF transgenders: with links to HIV-specific resources,
Saul Rosenfield Responding to the challenge. Journal provider and community education sites,
Lisa Roth
of Homosexuality. 2006; 51(1): 183–202. conference web sites, and publications.
Production
Carrel Crawford Uses qualitative and quantitative
Lisa Roth measures to identify HIV-related needs World Professional Association for
Lawrence Sanfilippo
of 48 transgender women focus group Transgender Health: http://www.
Circulation
Stephen Scott participants. Participants reported high wpath.org/. A professional organization
levels of HIV-related risk behaviors, devoted to the understanding and
FOCUS is a free, quarterly, inadequate HIV transmission knowledge, treatment of gender identity disorders
digital-only publication of a lack of sexuality education and health and includes medical, legal, mental
the AIDS Health Project,
affiliated with the University services, and persistent discrimination health, and other professionals. n
of California, San Francisco. against MTFs of color in health services.
It is published and distrib-
uted with the support of
the Office of AIDS of the Sausa LA, Keatley J, Operario D.
California Department of
Public Health and of the
Perceived risks and benefits of sex Next Issue
California Department work among transgender women of
of Mental Health. color in San Francisco. Archives of Before the advent of effective HIV
To register to receive Sexual Behavior. 2007; 36(6): 768–777. antiviral therapies, cognitive impair-
FOCUS free, via e-mail, Seeks to explain the social context and ments were among the most devastat-
go to http://ucsf-ahp.org/
epubs_registration.php determinants of sex work and related ing complications of HIV disease. In
To access issues of FOCUS health risks among 48 transgender women our Summer issue, Tom Marcotte,
from 1991–present online, go of color participants. Examines why and PhD, Associate Professor of Psy-
to http://www.ucsf-ahp.org/
HTML2/archivesearch.html how participants became involved in sex chiatry at the University of Cali-
For other information, or to
work, risks associated with sex work, and fornia, San Diego, offers an update
receive printed back issues of participant motivation to remain in sex on the role that cognitive impair-
FOCUS, call 415-502-7270, work. Advocates for structural and social ment plays in HIV disease today.
or e-mail
stephen.scott@ucsf.edu. network-based interventions to minimize Also in the Summer issue of FOCUS,
Printed on recycled paper. the vulnerability of transgender women of Lawrence McGlynn, MD, Clinical
©2008 UC Regents: color to social and public health harms. Assistant Professor of Psychiatry and
All rights reserved. Behavioral Sciences at the Stanford
ISSN 1047-0719 Web Sites University School of Medicine, and
Center of Excellence for Transgender Maggie Chartier, MPH, MS, Director
HIV Prevention: http://www.ucsf.edu/ of Research for the Stanford–Santa
paetc/about/COE_transHIVprev.html. Clara County Methamphetamine Task
A collaboration between the Pacific AIDS Force discuss medical assessment
Education and Training Center (PAETC) and treatment options for patients
and the Center for AIDS Prevention with HIV-related cognitive disorders.
Studies (CAPS), both part of the University
8 FOCUS Spring 2008