1. The brain and spinal cord are covered and protected by the bones of the skull, specifically the cranium , and the vertebral column . Protection of the Central Nervous System 1. Axial Skeleton Vertebral Column The brain and spinal cord are surrounded and protected by three different sets of tissue. Cranium

2. Protection of the Central Nervous System The brain has hollow, fluid-filled cavities called ventricles . Inside the ventricles is a structure called the choroid plexus (see Neuroglia ; slide 5; ependymal cells) that makes a clear, colorless fluid called cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) . CSF circulates within and around the brain and spinal cord to help cushion it from injury. 2. Ventricles and cerebrospinal fluid

3. CSF is constantly being absorbed and replenished. A “perfect” balance is maintained between absorption and replenishment. A disruption or blockage in the system can cause a build up of CSF, which can cause enlargement of the ventricles, called hydrocephalus, or cause a collection of fluid in the spinal cord, called syringomyelia. Protection of the Central Nervous System

4. Protection of the Central Nervous System 3. The Meningies The brain and spinal cord are covered and protected by three layers of tough, connective tissue called meninges . From the outermost layer inward they are: the dura mater , arachnoid mater , and pia mater . White matter Gray matter

5. The dura mater is a strong, thick membrane that closely lines the inside of the skull. It has two layers, the periosteal and meningeal dura , which are mostly fused, but do separate to form venous sinuses. Protection of the Central Nervous System 3. The Meningies White matter Gray matter

6. The dura creates little folds or compartments. There are two special dural folds, the falx and the tentorium . The falx separates the right and left hemispheres of the brain and the tentorium separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum . Protection of the Central Nervous System White matter Gray matter

7. The arachnoid mater is a thin, web-like membrane that covers the entire brain. The arachnoid is made of elastic tissue . The space between the dura and arachnoid membranes is called the subdural space . Protection of the Central Nervous System 3. The Meningies White matter Gray matter

8. The pia mater hugs the surface of the brain following its folds and grooves. The pia mater has many blood vessels that reach deep into the brain. Protection of the Central Nervous System 3. The Meningies White matter Gray matter

9. The space between the arachnoid and pia is called the subarachnoid space . It is here where the cerebrospinal fluid bathes and cushions the brain . Protection of the Central Nervous System White matter Gray matter

10. Blood is carried to the brain by two paired arteries, the internal carotid arteries and the vertebral arteries . The internal carotid arteries supply most of the cerebrum . The vertebral arteries supply the cerebellum , brainstem , and the underside of the cerebrum . After passing through the skull, the right and left vertebral arteries join together to form the basilar artery. Arterial Blood Supply of the Brain

11. The basilar artery and the internal carotid arteries “communicate” with each other at the base of the brain called the Circle of Willis. The communication between the internal carotid and vertebral-basilar systems is an important safety feature of the brain. If one of the major vessels becomes blocked, it is possible for collateral blood flow to come across the Circle of Willis and prevent brain damage.

12. The venous circulation of the brain is very different than the rest of the body. Usually arteries and veins run together as they supply and drain specific areas of the body. In the brain, the major vein collectors are integrated into the dura to form venous sinuses - not to be confused with the air sinuses in the face and nasal region. Venous Blood Drainage of the Brain

13. The venous sinuses collect the blood from the brain and pass it to the internal jugular veins. The superior and inferior sagittal sinuses drain the cerebrum, the cavernous sinuses drains the anterior skull base. All sinuses eventually drain to the sigmoid sinuses, which exit the skull and form the jugular veins. These two jugular veins are essentially the only drainage of the brain.

14. The Blood Brain Barrier is a physiological mechanism that alters the permeability of brain capillaries so that some substances are prevented from entering brain tissue, while other substances are allowed to enter freely. The Blood Brain Barrier

15. A key aspect of the blood-brain barrier are the thin, flat cells known as endothelial cells which form the walls of capillaries. In most parts of the body, the endothelial cells in the capillaries overlap at what are called junctions . These junctions are leaky enough to let a lot of different materials move through the wall of the blood vessel into the tissue and back again.

16. However, in the brain there's a different arrangement. The endothelial cells meet at what are called tight junctions . These tight junctions block the passage of most things except for small, hydrophobic molecules like O 2 , CO 2 , & hormones. Cells of the barrier also actively transport metabolic products such as glucose molecules.

17. In addition to tight junctions , the "end feet" of astrocytes (see Neuroglia; slide 3; Astrocytes) surround the outside of capillary endothelial cells . The reason for this endothelial-glial connection is unclear, but may reflect an influence of astrocytes on the formation and maintenance of the blood-brain barrier. Astrocyte Capillary “ End Foot” of Astrocyte