Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production

1. Cole Crops and Other Brassicas:
ATTRA Organic Production
A Publication of ATTRA - National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service • 1-800-346-9140 • www.attra.ncat.org
By Martin Guerena Cole crops and other brassicas are grown throughout the U.S. These crops are an excellent choice for
NCAT Agriculture many organic farmers because of the variety of crops in this family, their nutritional qualities, health
Specialist benefits, compatibility in planting rotations, and pest-suppressive qualities. This publication covers
©NCAT 2006 soils, fertility, planting, irrigation, pest management, harvesting and marketing.
Contents to 65°F. (Maynard and Hochmuth, 1997)
Introduction ..................... 1
An important fact to keep in mind is that
these plants are closely related and share
Organic Production ....... 2
similar climatic requirements as well as pests
Soil and Fertility.............. 3
and diseases. However, though similar, they
Planting and
Transplanting................... 3
are not identical. There may be larger dif-
Irrigation ............................ 4
ferences between varieties of broccoli than
between broccoli and cauliflower. Many
Organic Integrated Pest
Management ................... 5 varieties from each group have been devel-
Diseases ........................... 11 oped so that they vary in pest susceptibil-
Physiological
ity, temperature tolerances, shape, color, and
Disorders ......................... 13 length of growing season. Check with other
Weeds ............................... 14 farmers in your area or your Extension agent
Harvesting ...................... 14 to see which varieties are adapted to your
Postharvest ..................... 15
Cauliflower. Photo courtesy of USDA. local conditions.
Economics and The genus and species Brassica oleracea was
Marketing ....................... 16
Introduction developed in western and central Europe
B
References ...................... 18
rassicaceae (the mustard family, pre- from wild species found in the Mediterranean
viously Cruciferae or the crucifers) region. (Nieuwhof, 1969) Brassica rapa, a
include many food, forage, ornamen- similar species developed in Asia, consists of
tal, and weed plants. The brassicas are clas- turnips, Chinese cabbage, bok choi, rapini,
sified as “cool season,” meaning that they are canola, and the mustards. Other plants in
relatively resistant to frost and light freezes. Brassicaceae from other genera are: radishes
Throughout the U.S. they are grown in the (Raphanus), watercress (Nasturtium), and
spring or fall, so that development takes place horseradish (Armoracia). Nutritionally, bras-
when temperatures are cool. The northern sicas are high in carotenoids, vitamins C and
Midwest, Pacific Northwest, and New Eng- A, calcium, iron, magnesium, and dietary
land produce brassicas in the summer, while fiber. Broccoli and broccoli-seed sprouts
winter production takes place in the South- in particular contain high levels of antioxi-
west and other Sunbelt states. California dant sulphoraphanes, which are anticarci-
ATTRA — National Sustainable
is able to produce brassicas year-round nogenic compounds. The sulphoraphanes
Agriculture Information Service
is managed by the National Cen- because of the moderating effect of the cold are also thought to protect eyes from the
ter for Appropriate Technology damage caused by UV light that can lead to
(NCAT) and is funded under a Pacific current.
grant from the United States
macular degeneration (Xiangqun and
Department of Agriculture’s Cole crops are a group in Brassicaceae that Talalay, 2004) and to prevent high blood
Rural Business-Cooperative Ser-
vice. Visit the NCAT Web site
includes varieties of the species Brassica pressure, heart disease, and stroke. (Lingyun
(www.ncat.org/agri. oleracea such as broccoli, cabbage, cauli- et al., 2004) Glucosinolates, chemical pre-
html) for more informa-
tion on our sustainable flower, and Brussels sprouts. Optimal grow- cursors to sulphoraphines, form isothio-
agriculture projects. ���� ing temperatures for most cole crops are 60 cyanates in the soil. Isothiocyanates are

2. Table 1: Brassicaceae Food Crops biologically active compounds that are of
considerable interest to farmers because of
Common Scientific Name Plant Part Eaten
Name their ability to suppress some insects, dis-
eases, nematodes, and weeds in a process
Horseradish Armoracia rustica Root, leaf, sprouted seed
known as biofumigation.
Upland cress Barbarea verna Leaf
Ornamental crops in the mustard family
Mustards Brassica juncea Leaf, stems and seeds
make up about 50 genera, including Ara-
Rutabaga Brassica napus var. napobrassica Root, leaf bis, Erysimum (Cheiranthus), Hesperis, Iberis,
Rape Brassica napus var. napus Leaf, flower stalk Lobularia, Lunaria, and Matthiola. (Watson
Kale and collards Brassica oleracea var. acephala Leaf and Dallwitz, 1992) The number of crops
Chinese kale or Brassica oleracea var. in this family, their nutritional qualities,
Leaf, flower stalk
Chinese broccoli alboglabra health benefits, compatibility in planting
Cauliflower Brassica oleracea var. botrytis Immature flower stalk rotations, and pest suppressive qualities
Cabbage Brassica oleracea var. capitata Leaf make these crops an excellent choice for
Portuguese Leaf and many organic farmers.
Brassica oleracea var. costata
cabbage inflorescence
Table 1 includes the scientific and common
Brassica oleracea var.
Brussels sprouts Axillary bud names of members of the mustard family and
gemmifera
lists the plant part eaten.
Brassica oleracea var.
Kohlrabi Enlarged stem
gongylodes
Broccoli Brassica oleracea var. italica Immature flower stalk Organic Production
Savoy cabbage Brassica oleracea var. sabauda Leaf Organic production of brassica crops, or any
Bok choi, Pak choi Brassica rapa var. chinensis Leaf commodity, relies on management techniques
Mizuma Brassica rapa var. japonica Leaf that replenish and maintain long-term soil
Kotasuma Brassica rapa var komatsuma Leaf fertility by optimizing the soil’s biological
Rosette pak choi Brassica rapa var. narinosa Leaf activity. This is achieved through crop rota-
Choi sum, Mock tion, cover cropping, composting, and by
Brassica rapa var. parachinensis Leaf
pak choi using organically accepted fertilizer products
Chinese that feed the soil while providing plants with
Brassica rapa var. pekinensis Leaf
cabbage, nappa nutrients. Besides producing high quality
Turnip Brassica rapa var. rapa Enlarged root, leaf crops, a healthy, well-balanced soil can help
Rapine, Leaf and young flower plants develop natural resistance to insect
Brassica rapa var. ruvo
Broccoli-raap stalk pests and diseases. When pest controls are
Arugula Eruca vesicaria Leaf needed, organic farmers manage insects,
Garden cress Lepidium sativum Leaf diseases, weeds, and other pests with cul-
Watercress Nasturtium officinale Leaf tural, mechanical, biological, and—as a last
Raphanus sativus Radicula resort—organically accepted biorational and
Radish Root
group chemical controls.
Daikon Raphanus sativus Daikon group Root
In 2002, the USDA implemented the National
Leaf and young flower
White mustard Sinapis alba
stalk
Organic Standards regulating organic produc-
Wasabi Wasabia japonica Rhizome, shoots
tion nationwide. All farmers and ranchers
adapted from: Maynard and Hochmuth, 1997 and Larkcom, 1991.
wishing to market their products as organic
must be certified. An exception to this
requirement is made for farmers who sell less
than $5,000 annually. For more information
on organic crop production and organic farm
certification, see ATTRA’s Organic Crop Pro-
duction Overview and Organic Farm Certifica-
tion and the National Organic Program.
Page 2 ATTRA Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production

3. Soil and Fertility succeeding crops may also need a nitrogen
boost. Organic sources of supplemental
The brassicas are heavy feeders that can grow
nitrogen include guano, pelleted compost,
on a variety of soils as long as the soils pro-
fish emulsion, blood meal, feather meal, cot-
vide adequate nutrients and moisture and are
tonseed meal, alfalfa meal, and kelp, and
well drained. The soil is where plant health
they should be applied as soon as the plants
begins and ends. A healthy soil will have a
are strong enough (usually about 6 inches
greater capacity to moderate the uptake of
tall) to withstand the side-dressing operation.
fertilizers and will allow a more balanced
The mineralization of nitrogen and its avail-
uptake of nutrients, creating a healthy plant
ability to plants varies greatly, depending on
that is less attractive to pests and more resis-
the nitrogen source, the temperature, humid-
tant to pest damage.
ity, texture of the material, and microbial
Soil components—minerals, air, water, and activity. In a transitional or newly certified
organic matter—vary widely depending on operation, growers should keep records of
geography and climate. The challenge on the materials they used and how the crops
farmland is to maintain healthy soils with responded to them. Once growers learn how
adequate levels of organic matter. Healthy each material reacts to specific conditions,
S
soils will demonstrate the following charac- and as the soil’s organic matter builds, fer- ustainable
teristics: good tilth, good habitat for numer- tility management usually improves. soil manage-
ous and diverse microorganisms, absorption ment main-
Composted manure and cover crop residues
and retention of water, the ability to buffer
usually provide enough phosphorus for bras- tains soil health
salts and pH, an “earthy smell,” resistance
sicas. If additional phosphorus is needed, and productivity by
to erosion by either wind or water, and pro-
rock phosphate may be an option. taking care of and
duction of healthy crops.
Potassium (potash) requirements for cole increasing the soil’s
Organic matter is the soil component pri-
crops are high. Composted manures, com- organic matter.
marily responsible for these traits. Organic
posted straw and hay (especially animal bed-
matter is broken down by soil organisms,
ding), granite dust, material derived from
creating humus. Humus in turn provides
langbeinite, kelp meal, and wood ash (if not
nutrients to crop plants. Sustainable soil
contaminated with colored paper, plastic, or
management maintains soil health and pro-
other synthetic substances) are acceptable
ductivity by taking care of and increasing
sources of potash.
the soil’s organic matter. Cultural practices,
such as the application of manures and com- The macronutrients calcium and micronutri-
post, using cover crops, and rotating crops ents boron, manganese, molybdenum, and
are methods to achieve this. Healthy soil iron are important for cole crop develop-
can be considered a living organism that ment. Biologically active soils with adequate
must be nurtured in order to sustain its life organic matter usually supply enough of these
and productivity. nutrients. Compost and seaweed products
are sources of supplemental micronutrients.
Throughout their life cycles, brassica crops
For more information on soils and fertiliz-
require particular nutrients in varying quan-
ers see the ATTRA publications Sustainable
tities to support optimal growth and repro-
Soil Management, Alternative Soil Amend-
duction. Nitrogen is the nutritional element
ments, and Sources of Organic Fertilizers
that most cultivated crops need in the great-
and Amendments.
est amounts. Plants use it to form proteins,
chlorophyll, protoplasm, and enzymes. In
cole crops, it’s most important for overall Planting and Transplanting
growth, and adequate amounts are neces- Most brassicas are direct-seeded into pre-
sary for best yields. Usually the initial nitro- pared seedbeds. The optimal time to plant
gen available from green manure or com- is when soil temperatures are between
post is enough, but as the plant develops it 65 and 75°F, though some varieties can
may need supplemental nitrogen, and germinate in soils with temperatures as low
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 3

4. as 45°F and as high as 85°F. (Lorenz and hardened two weeks before planting in the field.
Maynard, 1980) The seedbed should be Transplants should also be well irrigated
pre-irrigated or solarized to reduce potential prior to planting, so that the plants can sur-
weed problems. Seeding machines such as vive until they are irrigated in the field. Also,
the ICS vegetable precision planter, Earthway transplanting should be done during cool
planter, Planet Junior, and Stanhay planters weather and with minimal root disturbance to
are suitable for both small and larger scale reduce transplant shock. Transplant shock is
operations and can place seed at any desired the stress every transplant experiences while
space. If the bed is seeded too closely, thin- adjusting to its new environment.
ning is necessary to achieve proper spacing. In California most cole crops are grown on
Good quality seed with a high germination raised beds, making cultivation and irrigation
percentage is important when establishing a easier. Broccoli and cabbage are planted in
direct-seeded stand. 2 rows per 40-inch bed. Broccoli is spaced
Some crops that have high seed costs, at 8 inches and cabbage at 12 inches apart
long growing seasons, and special growing within the row. Cauliflower is usually grown
requirements, such as cauliflower and Brus- on a single, narrower row (36 to 38 inches),
sels sprouts, are usually transplanted from off center along one side. As irrigation water
greenhouses to the field. Crops like cabbage evaporates, salts accumulate on the ridge of
and broccoli can either be direct-seeded or the mounded row. The seedlings are planted
transplanted, depending on conditions such below the ridge to avoid salt accumulation
as season and costs. Direct-seeding broc- in the root zone. Depending on the variety,
coli during mid-summer for a fall crop is less cauliflower can also be grown on 2 rows per
expensive than using transplants. During late 40-inch bed, 12 to 14 inches apart.
winter, using transplanted broccoli may open
a marketing window for spring production Irrigation
that could be economically advantageous. Soil texture, environmental conditions, and
Transplanting can overcome some problems, crop age are factors to consider when irri-
such as soil crusting and high or low soil gating any crop. Cole crops are generally
temperatures, that can cause uneven seed- shallow-rooted, with roots ranging from 18
ling emergence. Factors like these should be to 24 inches long. Some exceptions to this
taken into consideration when choosing the are mustard, rutabaga, and turnips, whose
type of plant establishment. roots range from 36 to 48 inches. (Doneen
and MacGillivray, 1943) Chinese cabbage
Growing transplants requires great expe-
and pak choi have shallow root systems that
rience and skill. Transplants can be
respond well to light, frequent irrigations.
purchased commercially and must be certi-
(Larkcom, 1991) Essentially, the art of
fied organic if they are used in a certified
irrigation is applying the right amount of
organic operation. For more information on
transplant production, see the ATTRA pub-
lication Plug and Transplant Production for
Organic Systems.
Advantages in using transplants are uni-
form stand and quality, efficient use of
seed, season extension, reduced weeding
costs, reduced irrigation, shortened crop-
ping period in the field, and less exposure
to pests. Transplants should be free of pests,
weather hardened, and not be long or leggy.
Hardening is the process of gradually accli-
mating young greenhouse plants to the Linear or lateral move irrigation system in broccoli.
outside environment. Most transplants are NCAT photo by Martin Guerena.
Page 4 ATTRA Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production

5. water to the plants so that they produce an healthy plants that are more productive and
economically viable crop. Too much water resistant to pests.
is wasteful and can cause problems with dis-
Larry Phelan and his colleagues from Ohio
eases and weeds. Too little water causes
State University found that fewer corn borer
plants to slow their development, eventually eggs were laid on corn grown in organic
causing stress, pest susceptibility, and lower soil. The researchers took soil from an
yields. So, how much is enough? organic farm and from a conventional farm
A rule of thumb is that vegetables will need and repeated the experiment in a green-
about 1 inch of water per week from rain house. They treated each soil with organic
or supplemental irrigation in order to grow or chemical fertilizers to determine whether
vigorously. In arid regions about 2 inches the results were due to short-term nutrient
are required. (Lorenz and Maynard, 1980) uptake. Again, corn grown in organic soil
had fewer eggs on it, regardless of the fertil-
Sprinkler irrigation should be used for ger- izer that was applied. Modern agricultural
minating seeds and establishing transplants. methods are not conducive to maintaining
Once the plants are established, furrow or ecological equilibrium because of constant
T
drip irrigation is recommended. tilling and synthetic inputs to the soil. Dur- he biological
ing their evolution, plants obtained nutrients
and cultural
Organic Integrated solely from the soil food web. According to
Phelan, it is the slow release of nitrogen in insect con-
Pest Management
this system that ultimately causes the corn trols for cole crops
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a broad borer to lay fewer eggs. The plants in the involve understand-
ecological approach to pest management conventional system were nutritionally out-of-
using a variety of pest control techniques ing the ecology of
balance, receiving too much nitrogen. The
that target the entire pest complex of a crop agricultural
extra nitrogen formed free amino acids that
ecosystem. Integrated management of pests were not tied up in proteins, stimulating the systems.
ensures high-quality agricultural production insects to feed and deposit eggs.
in a sustainable, environmentally safe, and
economically sound manner. (Bajwa and Another plant protection phenomena attrib-
Kogan, 2002.) uted to soil microbial activity is induced and
acquired systemic resistance, in which the
Soil health is based on soil biology, which plant’s immune system is stimulated to resist
is responsible for the cycling of nutrients. pest attack. In one study, the soil fungus
The complex interactions of this biological Trichoderma hamatum induced systemic
community are known as the soil food web. resistance in cucumber against Phytophthora
The soil ecosystem is composed of bacteria, crown rot and leaf blight. (Khan et al., 2004)
fungi, protozoa, nematodes, algae, arthro- The concept of healthy soils being respon-
pods (insects and mites), and large soil- sible for plant health has long been known
dwelling mammals like moles, ground squir- to organic farmers, and scientists are just
rels, and gophers. The photosynthesizers starting to document it.
or primary producers in this system use the
sun’s energy to convert atmospheric carbon IPM is based on the following components:
into sugars. Other organisms feed off these pest identification, monitoring, mechani-
primary producers. Dead organisms and cal and physical controls, cultural con-
their byproducts decompose, becoming the trols, biological controls, and chemical
soil’s organic matter that stores nutrients controls. For a detailed description of inte-
and energy. Plants use these nutrients, pre- grated pest management concepts, see the
venting them from accumulating in soil and ATTRA publication Biointensive Integrated
Pest Management.
water. The life cycle of all these organisms
improves the condition of soils by enhancing The biological and cultural insect controls
structure, water-infiltration and water-hold- for cole crops involve understanding the ecol-
ing capacity, and aeration. This results in ogy of agricultural systems. We invite pest
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 5

6. problems by planting large expanses of a plantings. These include aphid and syr-
single, susceptible crop. When there is a phid flies, lacewings, and the predaceous
diverse farmscape involving many types of midge (all of which produce larvae that
plants and animals, the likelihood of severe consume aphids), minute pirate bugs, big-
insect pest outbreaks diminishes consider- eyed bugs, lady beetles (the adults and lar-
ably. That is why farmers must create pro- vae of which both consume aphids), soldier
duction methods that complement natural beetles, and parasitic wasps like Diaeretiella
systems. The use of beneficial insect habitats rapae. In some humid areas there are out-
along crop field borders increases the pres- breaks of naturally existing fungi that cause
ence of beneficial insects. (Grez and Prado, epidemics among aphid colonies. The insect-
2000; White et al., 1995; Bugg, 1993) consuming fungus Beauveria bassiana, which
These habitats provide shelter, food (pollen is sold commercially as a bioinsecticide, is
and nectar), and act as refuges that attract not effective on cabbage aphid due to a fatty-
pests’ natural enemies to fields. When pur- acid secretion produced by the aphid that is
chased beneficial insects are released, these likely involved in resistance to the fungus.
field-edge habitats will encourage the benefi- (Szafranek et al., 2001)
cials to remain and continue their life cycle
there, helping to reduce pest populations. Cultural controls that reduce aphid popu-
Some pests may also inhabit the field-edge lations include the use of sprinkler irriga-
habitats; therefore, these habitats should be tion, where water at high pressure dislodges
monitored along with the crop. For addi- the insects from plants. This practice may
tional information, request ATTRA’s Farm- work when plants are young and cupping
scaping to Enhance Biological Control. or when inflorescence development has not
yet occurred. Broccoli and cabbage plants
Aphids interplanted in clover used as a living mulch
showed a reduction in aphids, compared to
The cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae, is plants in clean cultivated fields. (Costello and
a major pest of cole crops worldwide. It is Altieri, 1994; Theunissen et al., 1995) In
small (1/8 inch long), dark green, and exudes the broccoli trial, the clover mulches had
a gray, waxy secretion. to be mowed early in the cropping cycle to
What it lacks in size it give the broccoli plants a growth advantage.
makes up in numbers, Mowing of the cover crop may be limited by
reaching adulthood in lack of labor and/or equipment. The cabbage
8 to 12 days and pro- trial was not mowed and produced smaller
ducing 5 to 6 nymphs but more marketable heads than the clean
asexually per day for monocrop. Other interplanting strategies to
30 days. (Hines and combat cabbage aphid include the use of
Hutchison, 2002) mustard or collards as trap crops and the
Aphids pierce plants use of different varieties of the same crop
and suck their juices, in sequential plantings. Cabbage aphids
distorting leaves exhibit a preference for certain species and
Cabbage aphid. and growing points. will also discriminate among varieties and
Photo by Jack Kelly Clark. Large colonies infest plants of varying age. (Altieri and Schmidt,
Courtesy of UC Statewide IPM Program. leaves, heads, and 1987; Kloen and Altieri; 1990)
flower stalks, mak-
ing products unmar- Nitrogen management can have an effect on
ketable. Other aphids such as the green aphid infestations. Studies in Great Britain
peach aphid and turnip aphid will feed on showed that Brussels sprouts treated with
brassicas, but they usually do not cause high nitrogen (3.2 mg/g plant fresh wt.) grew
economic damage. more rapidly than those with low nitrogen
(0.64 mg/g plant fresh wt.), but the improved
Cabbage aphids have many natural enemies growth with high nitrogen was offset by the
that can be attracted to fields with habitat increased population of aphids. (Koritas and
Page 6 ATTRA Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production

7. Garsed, 1984) However, too little nitrogen that causes paralysis of a caterpillar’s diges-
can also cause stress in plants and make tive tract. A caterpillar may continue to live
them susceptible to insect attack. for some hours after ingestion, but will not
Organically accepted insecticides include continue to feed.
insecticidal soap, neem, rotenone, and pyre- Bt strains are available in a number of
thrum. The waxy leaf cuticle of brassicas commercial products, under various trade
and the white, waxy secretions of the cabbage names. The following products have been
aphid tend to repel water-based insecticides, approved for organic production by the
so a spreader-sticker is recommended. Many Organic Materials Review Institute (OMRI):
growers use soap to overcome this problem. Prolong, from Cillus Technology Inc.; Britz
Water hardness will reduce the efficacy of
BT Dust, from Britz Fertilizers Inc.; DiPel™
insecticidal soap, because calcium, iron, and
and Xantari™, from Valent Biosciences;
magnesium will precipitate the fatty acids and
Agree™, Deliver™, and Javelin™, from
make the soap much less effective against the
insects. The best way to determine how well Certis USA.
your water will work is to use the soap-jar Bt degrades rapidly in sunlight and requires
test. Let a jar full of spray solution sit for careful timing or repeated applications. Bt
20 minutes, then look for precipitates in the must be ingested in sufficient amounts by
soap-water solution. the caterpillar to be effective. Consequently,
growers must understand the feeding habits
Caterpillar pests of the pests, so that proper formulations are
The cabbage looper (Trichoplusia ni), dia- used and timing of applications is optimal.
mondback moth (Plutella xylostella), and Caterpillars in their early stages of devel-
imported cabbage worm (Pieris rapae) are opment (first and second instars) are more
the major caterpillar pests of cole crops. susceptible to this toxin. Older and bigger
Other caterpillar pests can be regional or worms are harder to kill.
seasonal problems, like armyworms, cut-
worms, cabbage webworms, corn earworms, Entrust™ from Dow Agrosciences is derived
cross striped cabbageworms, gulf white cab- from the soil organism, Saccharopolyspora
bageworms, and southern cabbageworms. spinosa. It is OMRI-approved and registered
for control of armyworm, corn earworm, dia-
Caterpillars have many natural enemies that mondback moth, imported cabbageworm,
help keep their populations down. Preda- and loopers on cole crops.
tors such as ground beetles, spiders, damsel
bugs, minute pirate bugs, assassin bugs, big- Organically Accepted
eyed bugs, and lacewing larvae attack cater- Materials to Combat Commercial Products
pillars. The parasitic wasps Trichogramma Caterpillars
spp., Copidosoma spp., Apanteles spp., Dia- Biopesticides
degma spp., and Hyposoter spp. sting and Agree, Deliver, Javelin, Dipel,
parasitize eggs and larvae. Some of these Bacillus thuringiensis
Xantari, Prolong, Britz BT Dust
organisms are available commercially, or Spinosad Entrust
they may occur naturally in the environment.
Viruses Spod-X, Gemstar
For information on suppliers of beneficial
insects, contact your local Extension office Beauveria bassiana Mycotrol, Naturalis, Botanigard
or visit the Suppliers of Beneficial Organisms Botanical Insecticides
in North America Web site: www.cdpr.ca.gov/ Neem Neemix, Argoneem, Azadirect
docs/ipminov/ben_supp/ben_sup2.htm. Pyrethrin Pyganic
Biopesticides or microbial controls consist Pyrethrin + Diatomaceous Earth Diatect V
of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), insect-consum- Repellents
ing fungi, and viruses. Bt is a naturally Garlic Cropguard, Garlic Barrier
occurring bacterium that produces a toxin
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 7

8. Diamondback moth larva.
Cabbage looper. Cabbage looper moth. Department of Entomology,
Photo by W. L. Sterling. Photo by W.L. Sterling. Texas A&M University.
Department of Entomology, Department of Entomology,
Texas A&M University. Texas A & M University.
Diamondback pupae and adult.
Photo by Chris Campbell.
Courtesy of VegEdge,
University of Minnesota.
Imported cabbageworm. Imported cabbageworm moths.
Photo by Jack Kelly Clark. Courtesy of VegEdge, University of Minnesota.
Courtesy of UC Statewide IPM Program.
Page 8 ATTRA Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production

9. Spod-X LC™ and Gemstar LC™ from Certis Cabbage maggot
USA are nuclear polyhedrosis virus prod- The cabbage maggot or cabbage fly (Delia
ucts available commercially and are OMRI- redicum) will lay eggs in clusters near the
approved for the control of armyworm and stems of many cole crops or in the debris
corn earworm, respectively, on cabbage, of a previous cole crop. Once hatched, the
cauliflower, and broccoli. Other naturally larvae bury themselves and start consum-
occurring granulosis viruses and nuclear ing feeder roots, eventually burrowing into
polyhedrosis viruses sometimes occur in the tap root. This provides entry sites for
pathogens like clubroot (Plasmodiaphora
high-density caterpillar populations.
brassicae). Maggots feed for three to five
Beauveria bassiana, the insect-eating fun- weeks, then pupate in the roots or in the
gus, will infect caterpillars if humidity and surrounding soil. (Anon., 2003a) In
temperature are adequate. Commercial Chinese cabbage, eggs laid on the surface
of a maturing head hatch maggots that bur-
products include Naturalis L™, Mycotrol™, row into the head, making it unmarketable.
and Botanigard™. Cabbage flies will have three to four genera-
Botanical insecticides include neem prod- tions per year starting in the spring through
ucts (Agroneem™ and Neemix™) that act as the early autumn. (Anon., 1998)
repellents, antifeedants, and insect growth A study in Denmark demonstrated the sus-
regulators. Pyrethrin and rotenone-based ceptibility of cabbage maggot and pupae to
products are broad spectrum and will Sternernema nematodes. (Neilsen, 2003)
kill beneficial insects as well as pests, so These insect-eating nematodes are avail-
monitoring is important. Beneficial insect able commercially through companies such
populations must also be considered when as Biocontrol network (www.biconet.com),
a pest population is present. Many times Arbico (www.arbico-organics.com), and Grow-
quest (www.growquest.com).
the beneficial population may be keeping the
pest under the economic threshold, which is Compost and straw
the level below economic injury to the crop. mulches signifi-
An application of a broad spectrum insecti- cantly reduce the
cide may damage both the pest and benefi- population of root
cial insect populations, and other minor pests maggots infest-
may become a big problem. This is known ing broccoli. The
as a secondary pest outbreak. mulch acts as a
Other management practices to reduce cat- barrier, preventing
erpillar infestation include using floating row the flies from lay-
covers over a young crop to exclude egg-lay- ing eggs directly
ing females, nocturnal overhead sprinkler in the soil. It also
Cabbage maggot.
irrigation, pheromone misters or emitters serves as a habitat Photo by Jack Kelly Clark.
to disrupt mating, and pepper, garlic, and for ground beetle Courtesy of UC Statewide IPM Program.
herbal repellents. and rove beetle
that parasitize and
Some of the control methods mentioned for
cabbage looper, diamondback moth, and prey on the cabbage maggot. (Prasad and
imported cabbage worm may work on army- Henderson, 2002) Other predators include
worms, cutworms, cabbage webworm, corn spiders, harvestmen or daddy longlegs,
earworm, cross striped cabbageworm, gulf and ants.
white cabbageworm, and southern cabbage- Floating row covers will prevent cab-
worm. If the problem is severe, contact your bage flies from depositing eggs during the
local farm advisor or the ATTRA project. critical period after plant emergence or
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 9

10. transplanting and will also reduce egg-laying Flea beetle
on mature Chinese cabbage. Intercropping The following infor-
clovers or other legumes or letting non-bras- mation is sum-
sica weeds fill in the spaces between crop marized from the
rows, will keep root flies from finding open ATTRA publica-
ground near a brassica stem. An experiment tion Flea Beetle:
in England demonstrated that carboxylic Organic Control
acids (oxalic acid found in rhubarb, acetic Options. For more
acid, or vinegar) are potent inhibitors of egg detailed informa- Flea beetle. Courtesy of
Extension Entomology,
laying by the cabbage fly. (Jones and Finch, tion on flea beetle, Texas A&M University.
1989) Thus, a solution of crushed rhubarb request the publi-
leaves or a vinegar solution sprayed periodi- cation by calling
cally around cole crop plants may deter the ATTRA or download it at: http://attra.ncat.
cabbage maggot. org/attra-pub/PDF/ fleabeetle.pdf.
Organic Control Options for Flea Beetles
Cultural Controls
• Living mulches or polycultures
• Trap Crops
 Chinese Southern Giant Mustard (Brassica juncea var. crispifolia) – plant every 55 yards between rows of
broccoli, cabbage or cauliflower, or as a border around a field. Chinese-type cabbages may be more attrac-
tive to flea beetle than Giant Mustard.
 Radishes – interplant Chinese Daikon and Snow Belle at 6 to 12 inch intervals along cole crops.
• Rowcovers such as Reemay™ can be used to cover seedlings and provide a barrier to adult beetles. It is advis-
able to get the row cover in place at or before emergence for maximum protection.
• White and yellow sticky traps placed every 15 to 30 feet of row. Encircling the field with continuous sticky tape
is also a common method.
• Destroy overwintering adults in plant debris by destroying refuge sites. Plowing or rototilling grassy and sola-
naceous (Potato family) weeds adjacent to a field.
Biological Controls
• Microcotonus vittage Muesebeck, a native braconid wasp, parasitizes and kills the adult flea beetle.
• Commercial formulations of insect-eating nematodes are effective agents for controlling flea beetles. Applied
to the soil, the nematodes attack the beetle’s larval stage, reducing root feeding and helping to prevent emer-
gence of the next cycle of adults.
Chemical Controls
• Botanical insecticides such as neem, rotenone, pyrethrin, sabadilla, and formulations of these in some combi-
nation.
• Combinations of rotenone and insecticidal soap are very effective.
• Garlic, onion, and mint extracts have been used as flea beetle repellants.
• Diatomaceous earth reduces flea-beetle populations and is sometimes recommended.
• The kaolin-clay-based product Surround™ may provide some protection against flea beetle.
from Kuepper, 2003.
Page 10 ATTRA Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production

11. Symptoms of flea-beetle feeding are small, Clubroot
rounded, irregular holes. Heavy feed-
Clubroot is caused by the fungus Plasmo-
ing makes leaves look as if they have been
peppered with fine shot. Further damage diophora brassicae. It infects cole crops
may be done by the larvae, which feed on through the root hairs or through wounds
plant roots. on larger roots. As the fungus spreads it dis-
torts and disfigures
the roots, causing
Diseases them to swell and
Diseases in plants occur when a pathogen crack, allowing sec-
is present, the host is susceptible, and the ondary organisms
environment is favorable for the disease to to invade and aid
develop. Altering any one of these three in decay. The dis- Clubroot.
factors may prevent the disease from occur- ease is favored by Photo by
ring. Organisms responsible for plant Jack Kelly Clark.
diseases include fungi, bacteria, nema- acid soils; there- Courtesy of UC
todes, and viruses. If these organisms are fore, liming is rec- Statewide IPM
present, then manipulation of the environ- ommended if the Program.
ment and the host, to make it less susceptible, soil pH is lower
helps to more sustainably manage diseases than 7.2. (Anon.,
on cole crops. 2003b)
Other methods to
Once again, soil health and management
control clubroot
are the key for successful control of plant include rotating out
disease. A soil with adequate organic matter of cole crops for a couple of years, having
can house uncountable numbers of organisms good drainage, and controlling brassica-
such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes, protozoa, type weeds. Cole crops vary in their sus-
arthropods, and earthworms that deter harm- ceptibility to clubroot, with cabbage, Chinese
ful fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and arthro- cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and some tur-
pods from attacking plants. These bene- nips being very susceptible. Broccoli, cau-
ficial organisms also help create a healthy liflower, collards, kale, kohlrabi, and some
plant that is able to resist pest attack. For radishes have medium susceptibility. Gar-
more information, see the ATTRA publica- den cress, mustard, and some turnips and
tion Sustainable Management of Soil-Borne
radishes are resistant. (Averre, 2000)
Plant Diseases.
The leaf surface can also host beneficial Black leg
organisms that compete with pathogens for The fungus Phoma
space. A disease spore landing on a leaf lingam causes black
has to find a suitable niche in order for it to leg of cole crops.
germinate, penetrate, and infect the plant. The fungus causes
The more beneficial organisms there are on yellow to tan spots
Black leg.
the leaf, the harder it is for the disease spore with black specks Photo by Jack Kelly
to find its niche. Applying compost teas adds to form on leaves, Clark.
beneficial microorganisms to the leaf, mak- and stem cankers Courtesy of UC
form usually below Statewide
ing it more difficult for diseases to establish IPM Program.
the soil line. The
themselves. For more information on foliar
fungus interferes
disease controls, see the ATTRA publica- with water conduc-
tions Notes on Compost Teas, Use of Baking tion in tissues, wilt-
Soda as a Fungicide, Organic Alternatives for ing and debilitating
Late Blight Control on Potatoes, and Powdery plants. Seedlings
Mildew Control on Cucurbits. can be killed, and
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 11

12. surviving plants may be stunted. The disease Black rot
can come in with the seed or be present on Black rot is caused by the bacterium Xan-
cole crop debris or brassica-type weeds. thomonas campestris. This bacterium favors
Controls include the use of clean, certified humid, rainy conditions, and is dispersed
or hot-water treated seed, good soil drain- by the splashing of droplets of water. Xan-
age, rotation with non-brassica type crops, thomonas enters the plant at leaf margins
control of brassica-type weeds, deep incor- or through wounds. Leaf margins develop
yellowish patches that turn brown with black
poration of cole crop residues, and planting
veins. The infection works its way down the
resistant varieties. To avoid blackleg, it is
leaves, leaving a “V” pattern in its wake. The
best to avoid planting near other cole crops
or near fields that harbored cole crops dur-
ing the past season.
Fusarium yellows
Fusarium yellows are caused by the soil-
borne fungus Fusarium oxysporum f. con-
glutinans. Symptoms are yellowing leaves,
usually more pronounced on one side of the
plant, the loss of lower leaves, curvature of
petioles and midribs, and wilting. The ideal
temperature range for the development of this
disease is 75 to 85°F., with 60°F. being the
lower limit (Anon., 1987), so it is observed
from mid-spring through summer and is not Black rot. Courtesy of Meg McGrath, Cornell
University.
a problem in early plantings. The fungus
is persistent in the soil and has many plant
hosts, so resistant varieties, good drainage, pathogen may eventually invade the vascu-
and soil-building practices such as cover lar system, spreading throughout the plant.
Controls include rotation, weed control, thor-
crops and compost are recommended.
ough debris incorporation, the use of clean
seed, and application of approved copper
Sclerotinia white rot products. Compost tea was successfully
The fungi Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and used in a study in the Willamette Valley of
Sclerotinia minor both can cause this rot Oregon to suppress carrot bacterial leaf
favored by cool, wet conditions. The fungi blight, Xanthomonas campestris pv. carotae.
have many hosts, including many commer- (Reinten and Salter, 2002)
cial crops and cover crops that fit in a rota-
tion with cole crops, though grasses are Downy mildew
not affected. Good drainage and irrigation Downy mildew is a disease caused by the
practices that reduce humidity in fields can fungus Peronospora parasitica. Infection
reduce the disease. Deep plowing is often and development are favored by cool, wet
weather, and the fungus attacks cole crops
recommended, but the results are tempo-
at all stages of growth. Once Peronospora
rary and very disruptive to soil microorgan-
invades a plant, it consumes the contents of
isms. Biological controls include the fungus the plant’s cells and then sporulates, send-
Coniothyrium minitans, which attacks scle- ing sporangia out to form cottony white
rotia. Coniothyrium is available commer- masses, usually under leaves. The tops of
cially in the product Contans™, from Sylvian leaves develop purplish spots that later turn
Bioproducts, Inc. yellow or brown. These spots correspond
Page 12 ATTRA Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production

13. spots on several leaves, and Brussels sprout
buds will have several layers infected. It dis-
colors broccoli and cauliflower heads, and
Chinese cabbages are more susceptible than
other cole crops.
Management practices include using clean,
certified seed, rotating with non-host crops,
deeply incorporating plant debris, avoiding
overhead irrigation, and promoting air cir-
culation in the canopy.
Downy mildew.
Courtesy of Wyatt Brown, PhD, Cal Poly St. Univ., SLO. Physiological Disorders
Tipburn is the browning of internal leaf edges
to the sporulating areas on the undersur-
or tips within the heads of cabbage, Brus-
faces of the leaves. Infected young seedlings
may die, while cauliflower curd, broccoli sels sprouts, and cauliflower. These brown
florets, radish roots, and cabbage heads may spots tend to break down during storage or
all become unmarketable. Management transport, allowing secondary organisms to
includes promoting good drainage, increas- decay the product. The problem is related to
ing spacing for better aeration, controlling rapid growth caused by excessive nitrogen,
brassica-type weeds, using resistant variet- high temperature, water stress, and calcium
ies, rotating with non-cole crops, incorpo- deficiency. Calcium can be present in the soil
rating plant debris, and avoiding the use of but its translocation to the plant is limited,
overhead irrigation. and it may not be available to accommodate
rapid growth. Supplemental nitrogen appli-
Alternaria leaf spot cations should be timed to avoid rapid growth
This disease is caused by the fungi Alter- in the later stages of plant development.
naria brassicae and/or A. brassicola. Small Riceyness of cauliflower causes the curds to
dark spots initially form on leaves, but later become uneven and fuzzy, reducing market-
develop into tan spots with target-like con- ability. Warm temperatures (> 68º F) dur-
centric rings. When dried, these spots fall ing curd development are the cause of this
from the leaves, resulting in a “shot-hole” disorder. Some newer hybrids can develop
effect. Prolonged periods of high humidity, heads at 68 to 80ºF. (Dianello, 2003)
cool temperature, and rain favor its devel-
opment. Infected cabbage heads will have Hollow stem in broccoli and other cole crops
is caused by rapid growth, usually due to
excessive nitrogen levels and high temper-
atures. The plant stem experiences rapid
growth, and the core or pith cracks, leaving
the stem hollow. Another factor that contrib-
utes to this disorder is plant spacing. The
closer the plant spacing, the less likely this
phenomenon will occur.
Buttoning of broccoli and cauliflower occurs
when immature plants are exposed to con-
sistently low temperatures for a prolonged
period. This stimulates the young plants to
Alternaria leaf spot. produce reproductive structures —the flower
Photo by Jack Kelly Clark.
buds and curd—and small, loose heads
Courtesy of UC Statewide IPM Program.
are formed.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 13

14. Bolting is caused by many factors and undisturbed. Cultivation implements will cut,
depends on the crop and the varieties grown. bury, or turn over most young weeds, leav-
Stress caused by too much or too little water, ing the crop undisturbed and with reduced
transplant shock, day lengths of more than competition. In California, it usually takes
12 hours, and low temperatures during
two cultivations before a young cole crop
the early stages of development are all
contributing factors. starts to out-compete weeds. Hand hoeing
may be necessary after the first cultivation
to reduce weeds in the plant line. If the
Weeds crop is direct-seeded, weeding and thinning
There are many weeds in Brassicaceae that
take place after the first cultivation. For more
are troublesome in cole crop plantings,
because they compete for water, nutrients, information on weed control, check ATTRA’s
and light, and they harbor insect and dis- publications Principles of Sustainable Weed
eases that can affect the crop. Table 2 lists Management for Croplands, Alternative
many of these weeds and includes both their Control of Johnsongrass, Thistle Con-
common and scientific names. trol Alternatives, and Field Bindweed
Weed control in organic systems, especially Control Alternatives.
in vegetable production, relies heavily on
crop rotations, cover crops, and cultiva- Harvesting
tion. Of these, cultivation is the most criti- Cabbages are harvested when the heads are
cal to reduce weeds in an established cole
firm and solid. Sizes may vary, but firmness
crop stand. For cultivation to be success-
ful, a straight, well-made bed, as well as is the determining factor. If solid heads are
straight seeding or transplant lines, is nec- left too long in the field to size up, they may
essary in order for cultivating implements to crack or split. Cabbages should be sorted,
remove most weeds while leaving the crop packed, and stored according to size.
Table 2: Brassicaceae Weeds
Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name
alpine pennycress Thlaspi montanum golden draba Draba aurea
field pennycress Thlaspi arvense tansy mustard Descurainia pinata
desert princesplume Stanleya pinnata flixweed Descurainia sophia
London rocket Sisymbrium irio blue mustard Chorispora tenella
tumble mustard Sisymbrium altissimum hoary cress Cardaria draba
wild mustard Raphanus sativus heartleaf bittercress Cardamine cordifolia
roundtip twinpod Physaria vitulifera shepherd’s purse Capsella bursa-pastoris
front range twinpod Physaria bellii smallseed falseflax Camellina microcarpa
foothill bladderpod Lesquerella ludoviciana birdsrape mustard or Brassica rapa
wild turnip
clasping pepperweed Lepidium perfoliatum black mustard Brassica nigra
perennial pepperweed Lepidium latifolium wild mustard Brassica kaber
field pepperweed Lepidium campestre wintercress Barbarea orthoceras
dyer’s woad Isatis tinctoria yellow alyssum Alyssum alyssoides
Pursh’s wallflower Erysimum capitatum purshii garlic mustard Alliaria petiolata
sanddune wallflower Erysimum capitatum
capitatum
Anon., 2003, and Whitson et al. (eds.), 1992
Page 14 ATTRA Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production

15. Cauliflower heads with white firm curds 6 and should be left to wilt slightly to avoid
to 8 inches in diameter are what consumers breaking before packing.
prefer. Blanching or tying the outer leaves
is done with certain varieties when the heads Postharvest
are about 3 to 4 inches in diameter, to keep Once a cole crop is harvested it contin-
sunlight from yellowing the curds. Curds ues its biological processes until it deteri-
should be handled carefully since they bruise orates to an unsaleable product. The key
easily and will develop discolored patches to successful postharvest handling is to
on these bruises. The surrounding trimmed delay these processes in order to get the
leaves should be kept on the head for product to the consumer in the best condition
handling purposes to protect the curd. Some possible. Temperature is the most impor-
operations field-wrap the trimmed curds in tant factor affecting harvested produce. It
cellophane or plastic bags before cooling and directly affects the rates of all vital pro-
storing them in refrigeration. cesses: respiration, ripening, moisture loss,
and the development and spread of decay-
Broccoli is harvested when most heads are ing organisms. The higher the temperature,
tight, 5 to 7 inches in diameter, and of a blue-
T
the faster these processes occur. Therefore, emperature
green color. They are cut with a 6-inch stem. proper temperature management is important
If left in the field, heads tend to loosen and throughout the supply chain, from harvesting is the most
expand, reducing quality. Fields should be to consumption. The sooner the field heat is important
harvested every three days, due to the rapid removed from the product, the longer it will factor affecting
growth of this crop. Once the head is har- last, giving the producer more time to sell harvested produce.
vested, side shoots may develop from lateral the product.
axils on the stem, producing smaller inflo-
rescences that may also be marketed. Cooling methods vary according to the com-
modity; the most common are cold rooms,
Brussels sprouts produce many small buds in forced air cooling, hydrocooling, and icing.
leaf axils along the entire stem. The lowest Cold rooms involve placing the product in
sprouts on the stem are picked first, along containers in a cold room. The less field
with the leaves, and harvest progresses heat accumulated in the product, the quicker
upward as the other sprouts mature. Sprouts this system will cool the product. Forced air
may crack if left on the stem too long. cooling is done in a cold room and requires
Kale and collards are harvested leaves with containers with vents so that the cold air can
petioles and are usually bunched together flow through. The containers are stacked
with a wire tie. Bunches are typically about in rows placed on either side of a fan, leav-
8 to 14 inches long. ing an aisle between the rows. The aisle
and the open end are covered with a tarp
Kohlrabi should be harvested when the to create a tunnel. The fan draws air from
swollen stem is 2 to 3 inches in diameter. outside the tunnel through the openings in
There are green and purple varieties. If left in the containers, forcing cold air around the
the field for too long the swollen stem warm product.
becomes woody.
Hydrocooling uses cold water to rapidly cool
Chinese cabbage heads should feel solid and commodities. Containers must be waterproof
not collapse when pressed firmly with both and allow water to enter to pass over prod-
hands. The wrapper leaves surrounding the uct. Cartons or lugs are either submerged
cabbage should be stripped to leave only a in cold water or showered from above with
couple to cover the firm head. recirculated cold water.
Pak choi can be harvested a few leaves at Icing consists of placing ice on the product
a time, cutting the outer leaves when they in the container. This is usually done with
reach a desired size, or by harvesting the broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and turnips. All
whole head. Some varieties are very brittle brassica crops last the longest when stored at
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 15

16. 32ºF, just above the freezing point. (Harden- California. The organic cauliflower bud-
burg et al., 1986) See ATTRA’s publication get was prepared by Rutgers Cooperative
Postharvest Handling of Fruits and Vegetables Extension in cooperation with the Northeast
for more information. Farm Management Committee in 1996. The
organic broccoli budget was developed by the
Economics and Marketing University of California Cooperative Exten-
The economics of growing cole crops vary sion in 2004.
enormously from crop to crop and in dif-
ferent regions. The following budgets were These budgets are intended as references in
developed for growing organic cauliflower order for farmers to develop their own bud-
in the Northeast and organic broccoli in gets based on local conditions.
Costs of Production for Cauliflower, Per Acre
Organic Production Practices
Northeastern United States, 1996
ITEM UNIT PRICE QUANTITY TOTAL
Variable Costs
Soil Amendments
Compost w/gypsum ton $35.40 6 $212.40
Pest Management
Approved organic pesticides acre $150.00 1 $150.00
Transplants
Cauliflower thousand $19.30 13 $250.90
Labor
Operator hr $14.48 8.33 $120.62
Regular Hired hr $10.13 36.6 $370.76
Seasonal Hired hr $7.24 76 $550.24
Irrigation
Overhead Irrigation acre $192.00 1 $192.00
Machinery Repair and Fuel
Machinery Repair acre $38.28 1 $38.28
Marketing Costs
Packing Crates crate $1.50 800 $1200.00
Sub-Total $3085.20
Interest on Operating Capital acre 10% 1 $56.84
Total Variable Costs acre 1 $3142.04
Fixed Costs
Machinery and equipment acre $212.59 1 $212.59
Land acre $100.00 1 $100.00
Total Fixed Costs acre 1 $312.59
Total Fixed and Variable Costs acre 1 $3454.63
Management Fees acre 7% 1 $150.82
Total Costs acre 1 $3605.45
from: Brumfield and Brennan, 2004
Page 16 ATTRA Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production

17. Cost of Production per acre for Organic Broccoli on the Central Coast of California, 2004
Operation Operation Labor Fuel & Material Custom Total
Time Hr/Ac Costs Repairs Costs Rent Costs/Ac
Fertilizer 119 199
Land prep: sub, disc, roll, chisel, 1.49 25 55 0 0 79
landplane
Cover Crop 0.24 3 6 11 0 20
Land prep: roll, list, fert, and 0.58 10 14 262 0 286
shape beds
Plant 0.28 7 6 442 0 445
Insectary plants 0.07 1 1 1 0 3
Irrigate up to 3X 0.75 9 0 40 0 49
Fertilize (bloodmeal) 0.2 3 2 225 0 231
Weed: Cultivate/Furrow 3X 0.44 7 8 0 0 16
Insect: Worm (Entrust) 0 0 0 7 16 23
Weed: Hand Hoe 21.5 254 0 0 0 254
Irrigate 8X 6.5 77 0 360 0 436
Pest Management Consultant 0 0 0 0 30 30
Pickup truck 1.43 24 15 0 0 39
Total Cultural Cost 33.48 420 107 1466 46 2039
Total Harvest Costs 0 0 0 0 4290 4290
Total Operating Costs/Acre 423 110 1491 4336 6438
Total Cash Overhead Costs 1024
Total Cash Costs/Acre 7462
from Tourte et al., 2004
Large and some medium producers market Green Markets for Farm Products, and Organic
their products to wholesalers, brokers, and Marketing Resources.
terminal markets. These marketing options
are not advantageous for some medium and Summary
smaller growers, because of low returns, The number of crops in the brassica fam-
uncertainty of prices, risk of rejection, and ily, their nutritional qualities, health bene-
strict packing standards. fits, compatibility in planting rotations, and
pest suppressive qualities make these crops
Alternative markets exist for smaller produc- an excellent choice for any organic farmers.
ers, such as marketing directly to consum- They grow in all regions in different sea-
ers through farmers’ markets, community- sons and add diversity to a farmer’s income
supported agriculture (CSA), and roadside and products.
stands. Direct sales to restaurants and small,
independent grocers are other choices. For Acknowledgment
more information on alternative market- The author wishes to thank Wyatt Brown,
ing, see the following ATTRA publications: PhD, of the Horticulture and Crop Sciences
Selling to Restaurants, CSA Community Sup- Department at Cal Poly San Luis Obispo,
ported Agriculture, Direct Marketing, Evalu- for his thoughtful and thorough review of
ating a Rural Enterprise, Farmers’ Markets, this publication.
www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 17

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aphid Brevicoryne brassicae. Annals of Applied on growth and sporulation of the Paecilomy-
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www.attra.ncat.org ATTRA Page 19

20. Cole Crops and Other Brassicas: Organic Production
By Martin Guerena
NCAT Agriculture Specialist
©NCAT 2006
Paul Driscoll, Editor
Cynthia Arnold, Production
This publication is available on the Web at:
www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/cole.html
and
www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/cole.pdf
IP275
Slot 275
Version 022806
Page 20 ATTRA