1. HETEROPOLYSACCHARIDES—A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW
Dr.Anil Batta
Professor, Dep’t of biochemistry
GGS Medical College, Faridkot.
.Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides,
oligosaccharides & polysaccharides depending on number of monosaccharides.
Sugar alcohols, acids & amino sugars are important derivatives of
monosaccharides. Polysaccharides are both homopolysaccharides and
hetropolysaccharides depending on combination of monosaccharides taking part
e.g. starch, glycogen & cellulose are homopolysaccharides while
heteroplysaccharides have both different units attached by α & β glycosidic unit.
GAGs are linear polymers of repeating disaccharide units as [acidic sugar-amino
sugar]n, amino sugar (usually sulfated) This may be either D-glucosamine or D-
galactosamine. The acidic sugar is either D-glucuronic acid or L-iduronic acid.
Amino group is usually acetylated or may also be sulfated on C-4 or 6 or on non-
acetylated nitrogen. The acidic sugar is either D-glucuronic acid or its C-5
epimer, L-iduronic acid. They bind large amounts of water, thereby producing the
gel-like matrix that forms the basis of the body’s ground substance. The viscous,
lubricating properties of mucous secretions are also caused by the presence of
GAGs which led to the original naming of these as mucopolysaccharides. As
essential components of cell surfaces, GAGs play an important role in mediating
cell-cell signaling & adhesion. There are 6 major classes of GAGs, including
chondroitin 4- & 6-sulfates, keratan sulfate, dermatan sulfate, heparin, heparan
sulfate & hyaluronic acid.
All of the GAGs, except hyaluronic acid, are found covalently attached to protein,
forming proteoglycan monomers, which consist of a core protein to which the
linear GAG chains are covalently attached.

2. The proteoglycan monomers associate with a molecule of hyaluronic acid to form
proteoglycan aggregates.
GAGs are synthesized in the ER & Golgi. The polysaccharide chains are
elongated by sequential addition of alternating acidic & amino sugars, donated by
their UDP-derivatives. The last step in synthesis is the sulfation of some of the
amino sugars. The source of the sulfate is 3’-phosphoadenosyl-5`-
phosphosulfate.
GAGs are degraded by lysosomal hydrolases. They are first broken down to
oligosaccharides, which are degraded sequentially from the non-reducing end of
each chain.
A deficiency of one of the hydrolases results in a mucopolysaccharidoses. These
are hereditary disorders in which GAGs accumulate in tissues, causing symptoms
such as skeletal & extracellular matrix deformities, & mental retardation. Being
negatively charged GAG chains are extended in solution and repel each other and
when brought together, they "slip" past each other. This produces the "slippery”
consistency of mucous secretions and synovial fluid. This property contributes to
the resilience of synovial fluid and the vitreous humor of the eye.
Examples of GAGs are:
1. Chondroitin sulfates
2. Keratan sulfates
3. Hyaluronic acid
4. Heparin
5. Heparan Sulphate
6. Dermatan Sulfate
Mucopolysaccharidoses are a group of metabolic disorders caused by the absence or
malfunctioning of lysosomal enzymes needed to break down molecules
called glycosaminoglycans - long chains of sugar carbohydrates in each of our cells that

3. help build bone, cartilage, tendon, cornea, skin &connective tissue.
Glycosaminoglycans (formerly called mucopolysaccharides) are also found in the fluid
that lubricates our joints.
People with a mucopolysaccharidoses disease either do not produce enough of one of
the 11 enzymes required to break down these sugar chains into simpler molecules, or
they produce enzymes that do not work properly. Over time, these glycosaminoglycans
collect in the cells, blood and connective tissues. The result is permanent, progressive
cellular damage which affects appearance, physical abilities, organ and system
functioning, and, in most cases, mental development. The mucopolysaccharidoses are
part of the lysosomal storage disease family, a group of more than 40 genetic disorders
that result when a specific organelle in our bodies' cells – the lysosome – malfunctions.
The lysosome is commonly referred to as the cell’s recycling center because it
processes unwanted material into substances that the cell can utilize. Lysosomes break
down this unwanted matter via enzymes, highly specialized proteins essential for
survival. Lysosomal disorders like mucopolysaccharidoses are triggered when a
particular enzyme exists in too small an amount or is missing altogether.
Features
The mucopolysaccharidoses share many clinical features but have varying degrees of
severity. These features may not be apparent at birth but progress as storage of
glycosaminoglycans affects bone, skeletal structure, connective tissues, and organs.
Neurological complications may include damage to neurons (which send and receive
signals throughout the body) as well as pain and impaired motor function. This results
from compression of nerves or nerve roots in the spinal cord or in the peripheral
nervous system, the part of the nervous system that connects the brain and spinal
cord to such as the eyes and to other organs, muscles, and tissues throughout the
body.
Depending on the mucopolysaccharidoses subtype, affected individuals may have
normal intellect or have cognitive impairments, may experience developmental delay, or
may have severe behavioral problems. Many individuals have hearing loss, either
conductive (in which pressure behind the ear drum causes fluid from the lining of the

4. middle ear to build up and eventually congeal), neurosensitive (in which tiny hair cells in
the inner ear are damaged), or both. Communicating hydrocephalus — in which the
normal reabsorption of cerebrospinal fluid is blocked and causes increased pressure
inside the head — is common in some of the mucopolysaccharidoses. Surgically
inserting a shunt into the brain can drain fluid. The eye's cornea often becomes cloudy
from intracellular storage and glaucoma and degeneration of the retina also may affect
the patient's vision.
Physical symptoms generally include coarse or rough facial features (including a flat
nasal bridge, thick lips, and enlarged mouth and tongue), short stature with
disproportionately short trunk (dwarfism), dysplasia (abnormal bone size and/or shape)
and other skeletal irregularities, thickened skin, enlarged organs such as liver
(hepatomegaly) or spleen (splenomegaly), hernias, and excessive body hair growth.
Short and often claw-like hands, progressive joint stiffness, and carpel tunnel syndrome
can restrict hand mobility and function. Recurring respiratory infections are common, as
are obstructive airway disease and obstructive sleep apnoea. Many affected individuals
also have heart disease, often involving enlarged or diseased heart valves.
Types
Seven distinct clinical types and numerous subtypes of the mucopolysaccharidoses
have been identified. Although each mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) differs clinically,
most patients generally experience a period of normal development followed by a
decline in physical and/or mental function. (Note: MPS-V and MPS-VIII are no longer in
use as designations for any disease.)
Various prevalent and deadly MPS are mentioned for future expansion: ----
MPS I is divided into three subtypes based on severity of symptoms. All three types
result from an absence of, or insufficient levels of, the enzyme α-L-idurinidase. Children
born to an MPS I parent carry the defective gene. MPS I H (also called Hurler syndrome
or α-L-iduronidase deficiency), is the most severe of the MPS I subtypes.
Developmental delay is evident by the end of the first year, and patients usually stop
developing between ages 2 and 4. This is followed by progressive mental decline and

5. loss of physical skills. Distinct facial features (including flat face, depressed nasal
bridge, and bulging forehead) become more evident in the second year. By age 2, the
ribs have widened and are oar-shaped. The liver, spleen & heart are often enlarged.
Children with Hurler syndrome often dies before age 10 from obstructive airway
disease, respiratory infections, and cardiac complications.
MPS IS, Scheie, is the mildest form of MPS I. Symptoms generally begin to appear after
age 5, with diagnosis most commonly made after age 10. Children with Scheie
syndrome have normal intelligence or may have mild learning disabilities; some may
have psychiatric problems.
MPS I H-S, Hurler Scheie syndrome, is less severe than Hurler syndrome alone.
Symptoms generally begin between ages 3 and 8. Children may have moderate mental
retardation and learning difficulties.
MPS II
MPS II, Hunter Syndrome or iduronate sulfatase deficiency, is caused by lack of the
enzyme iduronate sulfatase. Hunter syndrome is only one of the
mucopolysaccharidoses in which the mother alone can pass the defective gene to a
son.
MPS III
MPS III, Sanfilippo Syndrome, is marked by severe neurological symptoms. These
include progressive dementia, aggressive behavior, hyperactivity, seizures,
some deafness and loss of vision, and an inability to sleep for more than a few hours at
a time. Thickened skin and mild changes in facial features, bone, and skeletal structures
become noticeable with age. Growth in height usually stops by age 10. There are four
distinct types of Sanfilippo syndrome, each caused by alteration of a different enzyme
needed to completely break down the heparan sulphate sugar chain. Sanfilippo A is the
most severe of the MPS III disorders and is caused by the missing or altered enzyme
heparan N-sulfatase. Children with Sanfilippo A have the shortest survival rate among
those with the MPS III disorders.

6. MPS IV
MPS IV, Morquio Syndrome, is estimated to occur in 1 in 700,000 births. Its two
subtypes result from the missing or deficient enzymes galactose 6-sulfate sulfatase
(Type A) or beta-galactosidase (Type B) needed to break down the keratan sulfate
sugar chain. Onset is between ages 1 and 3. Intelligence is normal
unless hydrocephalous develops and is not treated.
Physical growth slows generally around the age of 18 months, and stops completely
by the age of 8. The bones that stabilize the connection between the head and neck
can be malformed (odontoid hypoplasia); in these cases, a surgical procedure called
spinal cervical bone fusion can be lifesaving. Restricted breathing, joint stiffness,
and heart disease are also common. Children with the more severe form of Morquio
syndrome may not live beyond their twenties or thirties.
MPS VI
Children with MPS VI, Maroteaux-Lamy syndrome, usually have normal intellectual
development but share many of the physical symptoms found in Hurler syndrome
This is caused by the deficient enzyme N-acetylgalactosamine 4-sulfatase.
Neurological complications include clouded corneas, deafness, thickening of the
dura and pain caused by compressed or traumatized nerves and nerve roots.
Children also develop a protruding abdomen and forward-curving spine. Skeletal
changes (particularly in the pelvic region) are progressive and limit movement. Many
children also have umbilical or inguinal hernias. Nearly all children have some form
of heart disease, usually involving valve dysfunction.
An enzyme replacement therapy was tested on patients with MPS VI and was
successful in that it improved growth and joint movement.
MPS VII
MPS VII, Sly Syndrome, one of the least common forms of the
mucopolysaccharidoses, is estimated to occur in less than one in 250,000 births.
The disorder is caused by deficiency of the enzyme beta-glucuronidase. In its rarest

7. form, Sly syndrome causes children to be born with hydrops fetalis, in which
extreme amounts of fluid are retained in the body.
MPS IX
The disorder results from hyaluronidase deficiency. Symptoms included nodular
soft-tissue masses located around joints, with episodes of painful swelling of the
masses and pain that ended spontaneously within 3 days.
Diagnosis
Diagnosis often can be made through clinical examination and urine tests (excess
mucopolysaccharides are excreted in the urine). Enzyme assays (testing a variety of
cells or body fluids in culture for enzyme deficiency) are also used to provide
definitive diagnosis of one of the mucopolysaccharidoses. Prenatal diagnosis
using amniocentesis and chorionic villus inheritance can verify if a fetus either
carries a copy of the defective gene or is affected with the disorder.
Treatment
Currently there is no cure for these disorders. Medical care is directed at treating
systemic conditions and improving the person's quality of life. Physical therapy and
daily exercise may delay joint problems and improve the ability to move.
Surgery to remove tonsils and adenoids may improve breathing among affected
individuals with obstructive airway disorders and sleep apnoea. Some patients may
require surgical insertion of an endotrachial tube to aid breathing. Surgery can also
correct hernias help drain excessive cerebrospinal fluid from the brain, and corneal
transplants may improve vision among patients with significant corneal clouding.
Enzyme Replacement Therapy (ERT) is currently in use or is being tested. Enzyme
replacement therapy has proven useful in reducing non-neurological symptoms and
pain. Bone marrow replacement Therapy (BMT) and umbilical cord blood
transfusion (UCBT) have had limited success in treating the
mucopolysaccharidoses. Abnormal physical characteristics, except for those
affecting the skeleton and eyes, may be improved, but neurologic outcomes have

8. varied. BMT and UCBT are high-risk procedures and are usually performed only
after family members receive extensive evaluation and counseling.